EI inverse Functions Exponential Functions ED Logarithmic Fun Summary Exercises on Inverse, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions Evaluating Logarithms and the Change-of-Base Theorem Chapter 4 Quiz EET Exponential and Logarithmic Equations Applications and Models of Exponential Growth and Decay Summary Exercises on Functions: Domains and Defining Equations T2006, tanh’ temperature was within .8°F oft highest evel in 12,000 years. This temperature increase is causing ocean levels to rise as ice fields in Greenland and elsewhere melt at an alarming rate, A major culprit in the global warring trend is atmospheric car- bon dioxide, According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), future amounts of atmospheric carbon dioxide will increase exponentially if current trends of burning fossil fuels and deforestation continue. In Example 11 of Section 4.2 and other examples and exercises, in this chapter, we leam about exponential growth 401402 CHAPTERS Inverse, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions 4,] [Inverse Functions Inverse Operations * One-to-One Functions + Inverse Functions « Equations of Inverses = ‘An Application of Inverse Functions to Cryptography In this chapter we study two important types of functions, exponential and logarith- ‘ic, These functions are related in a special way: They are inverses of one another. Inverse Operations Addition and subwaction are inverse operations: starting with a number x, adding 5, and subtracting 5 gives x back as the result. Similarly, some functions are inverses of each other. For example, the functions defined by fi)= 8 and gi) = 3 are inverses of each other with respect to function composition. ‘This means that iffa value of x such as x = 12 is chosen, then A012) = 8+ 12 = 96. Calculating ¢(96) gives Thus, g( (12) = 12, Also, f(g(12)) = shown that 2. For these functions fand g, it can be Ae) =x and gfe) = for any value of x One-to-One Functions Suppose we define the function F = {(-2,2),(-1,0, 0,0), 0,3, AS Domain Range ‘We can form another set of ordered pairs from F by interchanging the x- and values of each pair in F. We call this set G, so i » m FF G ={2,—2)(1,=1), (00,8, 46,2} Hy ‘To show that these two sets are related, G is called the inverse of F. For a function f to have an inverse, f must be a one-to-one function. In a one-to-one Rast function, each x-value corresponds to only one y-value, and each y-value cor- ‘responds to only one x-value. Figure ‘The function shown in Figure 1 is not one-to-one because the y-value 7 cor- responds to nwo x-values, 2 and 3, That is the ordered pairs (2,7) and (3,7) both poe ye belong to the function. The function in Figure 2 is one-to-one. 1 CNR Nao F ‘A function fis a one-to-one function if, for elements a and b in the domain off, iow a#b implies fle) #f).4 Inverse Functions 403, Using the concept of the contrapositive from the study of logic, the last line in the preceding box is equivalent to fla) = f(b) implies a =b, We use this statement to decide whether a function fis one-to-one in the next example. (SESE DECIDING WHETHER FUNCTIONS ARE ONE-TO-ONE Decide whether each function is one-to-one. (a) fl) = 4x +12) fa) = V25— Solution (@) We must show that f(a) = f(b) leads to the result a fla) = f(b) da +12 = 4b +12 fly = ae + 12 4a = =4b Subtract 12. Seetion 1.1) Divide by ~4, By the definition, f(x) = ~4x + 12is one-to-one. (b) If we choose a = 3 and b = —3, then 3 # 3, but {0) = VB—F = VB=9 = Vib = 4 and £03) = V25— C3 = VI5=9 = 4, Here, even though 3 # ~3, (3) = ft-3) = ‘one-to-one function, . By the definition, fis not a [NOW TRY EXERCISES 9 AND 11. As shown in Example 1(b), a way to show that a function is not one-to-one is to produce @ pair of different numbers that lead to the same function value. ‘There is also a useful graphical test, the horizontal line test, that tells whether ‘or not a function is one-to-one, SU ers If any horizontal line intersects the graph of a function in no more than one point, then the function is one-to-one, Figure 3 > Note In Example 1(b), the graph of the function is a semicircle, as shown in Figure 3. Because there is at least one horizontal line that intersects the graph in more than one point, this function is not one-to-one,404 CHAPTER Inverse, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions (SESE usin THe HORIZONTAL LINE Test Determine whether each graph is the graph of a one-to-one function. (@) x ) , Yo taser N\ LINE Aoe Solution (a) Each point where the horizontal line intersects the graph has the same value of y but a different value of x. Since more than one (here three) different values of x lead to the same value of y, the function is not one-to-one. (b) Since every horizontal line will intersect the graph at exactly one point, this function is one-to-one, [NOW TRY EXERCISES 3 AND 7. Notice that the function graphed in Example 2(b) decreases on its entire domain. In general, a function that is either increasing or decreasing on its ‘entire domain, such as fx) = —x, fix) =, and g(x) = Vx, must be one- to-one. In summary, there are four ways to decide whether a function is one-to-one. Par eol yarn a aug A FUNCTION IS ONE-TO-ONE 1. Show that f(a) = f(b) implies a = b, This means that f is one-to-one. (Example 1(@)) 2. In a one-to-one function every y-value corresponds to no more than one xvalue, To show that a function is not one-to-one, find at least two -z-values that produce the same y-value. (Example 1(b)) 3. Sketch the graph and use the horizontal line test. (Example 2) 4, Ifthe function either increases or decreases on its entire domain, then itis ‘one-to-one, A sketch is helpful here, too. (Example 2(b)) Inverse Functions As mentioned earlier, certain pairs of one-to-one funetions “undo” one another. For example, if flo) 8e+5 and (x) =A 85 - then f(10)=8-10+5=85 and (85) =4.1 Inverse Functions 405 Starting with 10, we “applied” function f and then “applied” function g to the result, which returned the number 10, See Figure 4, : Lees a Figure As further examples, check that £G) and 809) = 3, f(-s)=-35 and 82) and In particular, for this pair of functions, Age) =2 anda f(2) In fact, for any value of x, Se@) =x and (fia) = or (fes)=x and (ge f)(x) =x. Because of this property, g is called the inverse of f Ea eo Let be a one-to-one function. Then g isthe inverse function of fit (feg)(x) =x for every x in the domain of g, and (g°f)() =x for every xin the domain of f. The condition that f is one-to-one in the definition of inverse function is important; otherwise, g will not define a function. (EROS DECIDING WHETHER TWO FUNCTIONS ARE INVERSES Let functions f and g be defined by f(x) = x° — 1 and g(x) = Wax + 1, respec- tively. Is g the inverse function of f? Solution As shown in Figure 5, the horizontal line test applied to the graph indicates that fis one-to-one, so the function does have an inverse. Since it is one- to-one, we now find (f° g) (x) and (g ° f)(x). (Fe a) (2) = fll) = (We FTP ~ 1 xti-1 =e Figures406 CHAPTERS Inverse, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions 2000 28 “aor | 40 “202 |e af 2 2004 7 2005 2 Source ios Environmental Protection Agency (g°f)@) = sf) = VED FT frye ev - bee =Ve Since (f° g)(x) = x and (g ° f)(x) +s function g is the inverse of function f. [Now TRY ExeRCISE 41. A special notation is used for inverse functions: If g is the inverse of a function f, then g is writen as f~' (read “f-inverse”). In Example 3, for fay=—1, PQ) = VET > Caution Do not confuse the —1 in f~! with a negative exponent. The symbol f-"(x) does not represent 7}; it represents the inverse function of f. By the definition of inverse function, the domain of fis the range of f-', ‘and the range of fis the domain of f-'. See Figure 6 Doin off if Range otf Range off 4 7 JPomain off Figures [SEITEN FNOING inverses OF ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTIONS Find the inverse of each function that is one-to-one. (@) F=((-2,0,(1,0),0,1),0,2).2.2) (b) G = (3, 1).(0,2), (2,3), 4,0} (©) If the Air Quality Index (AQN, an indicator of air quality, is between 101 and 150 on a particular day, then that day is classified as unhealthy for sen- sitive groups. The table in the margin shows the number of days in Illinois that were unhealthy for sensitive groups for selected years. Let be the fune~ tion defined in the table, with the years forming the domain and the num- bers of unhealthy days forming the range. Solution (@) Bach s-value in F comesponds to just one y-value, However, the y-value 2 corresponds to two x-values, 1 and 2. Also, the j-value 1 corresponds to both —2 and 0. Because some y-values correspond to more than one value, F is not one-to-one and does not have an inverse.4.1 Inverse Functions 407 (b) Every x-value in G corresponds to only one y-value, and every y-value cor- responds to only one x-value, so G is a one-to-one function. The inverse function is found by interchanging the x- and y-values in each ordered pait. = {(1,3).(2,0),G,2),(04)} Notice how the domain and range of G becomes the range and domain, respectively, of G (©) Each -value in / corresponds to only one y-value and each y-value corre- sponds to only one x-value, so fis a one-to-one function. The inverse fune- tion is found by interchanging the x- and y-values in the table. F7'G) = ((25, 2000), (40, 2001), (34, 2002), (19, 2003), (7, 2004), (32, 2005)) NOW TRY EXERCISES 35, 5, AND 5. Equations of Inverses By definition, the inverse of a one-to-one function is found by interchanging the x- and y-values of each of its ordered pairs. The ‘equation of the inverse of a function defined by y = f(x) is found in the same way. FINDING THE EQUATION OF THE INVERSE OF y = f(x) For a one-to-one function f defined by an equation y = (x) find the defining ‘equation of the inverse as follows. (You may need to replace f(x) with y frst.) Step 1 Interchange x and y. Step 2 Solve for y. Step 3 Replace y with f-"(x). DREISER "Nos equations oF inverses Decide whether each equation defines a one-to-one function. If so, find the ‘equation of the inverse, (@) fa) = 2x +5 (b) y=? +2 © fl) = @ = 2" Solution (a) The graph of y = 2x + 5 is a nonhorizontal line, so by the horizontal line test, f is a one-to-one function. To find the equation of the inverse, follow the steps in the preceding box, first replacing f(x) with y. y=utS yap 2y +5. Imerchange x andy (Step 1) dyax-5 Solve for y. (Step 2) (Section 1.1), x-5 3 J_ Replace y with". Step 3)408 CHAPTER4 Inverse, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions Thus, f-'@) = 454 = dx - fis a linear function. In the function defined by y = 2x + 5, the value of y is found by starting with a value of x, multi- plying by 2, and adding 5. The first form forthe equation of the inverse has us subtract and then divide by 2. This shows how an inverse is used 10 “undo” what a function does to the variable x. (b) The equation y = x? + 2 has a parabola opening up as its graph, so some horizontal lines will intersect the graph at two points. For example, both x= 3 and. x= —3 correspond to y = 11. Because of the x°-term, there are ‘many pairs of x-values that correspond to the same y-value, This means that the function defined by y = 2° + 2 is not one-to-one and does not have an inverse. If we did not notice this, then following the steps for finding the equa- tion of an inverse leads to +2 yP+ 2 Imerchange «and y x-2=¥% — Solvetory. tVE= ‘The last step shows that there are two y-values for each choice of x greater than 2, so the given function is not one-to-one and cannot have an inverse. ‘Siuare root property (Section 1.4) (©) Refer to Sections 2,6 and 2.7 to see that translations of the graph of the cubing function are one-to-one. FO) =~ 2P y= (r= 2 Replace x) with » = (y— 2) Incerchange x and y Wa = Wy = 2 Take the cube root on each side, (Section 1.6) Veny-2 Vet2—y Solve for y FG) = Wa +2 Replace y with fix) NOW TaV EXERCISES 550), 51) AND 1 One way to graph the inverse of a function f whose equation is known is to find some ordered pairs that are on the graph off, interchange x and y to get or- dered pairs that are on the graph of f~, plot those points, and sketch the graph off“ through the points. A simpler way is to select points on the graph of f and use symmetry to find corresponding points on the graph of f~! For example, suppose the point (a,b) shown in Figure 7 is on the graph of a one-to-one function f. Then the point (b,a) is on the graph of f~?, The line seg- ‘ment connecting (a,b) and (b, 4) is perpendicular to, and cut in half by, the line y = x. The points (a,b) and (b,) are “mirror images” of each other with respect to y =x. Thus, we can find the graph of f' from the graph of f by locating the mirror image of each point in f with respect to the line y = x.=0 Piayertsx20 Figure 10 4.1 Inverse Functions 409 (SESQUEEE cearrinc tHe inverse In each set of axes in Figure 8, the graph of a one-to-one function fis shown in blue. Graph fin red Solution In Figure 8 the graphs of two functions f are shown in blue. Their inverses are shown in red. In each case, the graph of f~' is a reflection of the staph of f with respect to the line y = x. Figure 6 [NOW TRY EXERCISES 71 AND 75. 4] DSI NING THE inverse oF AFUNCTION WITHA RESTRICTED DOMAIN Let fix) = Vie ¥ 5. Find f(y), Solution First, notice that the domain of fis restricted to the interval [~5,) Function fis one-to-one because itis increasing on its entire domain and, thus, has an inverse function. Now we find the equation of the inverse. fo) =VE¥3, VFS Vrs Interchange « and » = (Vy + 5F ‘Square both sides, (ection 1.6) 7 xE-5 x25 yesiy ye-s yer-s Solve for. ‘However, we cannot define f~'(x) as x° — 5. The domain of f is [—5,), and its range is [0,). The range of fis the domain of f-', so f~! must be defined as Pa=sF-5, x20, ‘As a check, the range of f~!, [-5,2), is the domain of f. Graphs of fand f~ are shown in Figures 9 and 10. The line y = xis included on the graphs to show that the graphs of fand fare mirror images with respect to this line. NOW TRY EXERCISE 69. |410 CHAPTER + =2 x y 7" | a0 Despite the fc tht y= 2 rot one-to-ne he caeulator, ‘will drow iver," = 92 Figure 11 Inverse, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions (5) Some graphing calculators have the capability of “drawing” the reflection of a graph across the line y = x. This feature does not require that the function be one-to-one, however, so the resulting figure may not be the graph of a func- tion. See Figure 11. Again, it is necessary to understand the mathematics to interpret results correctly. = IMPORTANT FACTS ABOUT INVERSES 1. If fis one-to-one, then f~* exists. 2. The domain of fis the range of f~', and the range of fis the domain of fo 3. Ifthe point (a,6) lies on the graph of f, then (b,a) lies on the graph of f~', so the graphs of f and f~' are reflections of each other across the line 4, To find the equation for f~', replace f(x) with y, interchange x and y, and solve for y. This gives f~"(x). ‘An Application of Inverse Functions to Cryptography A ‘one-to-one function and its inverse can be used to make information secure. The function is used to encode « message, and its inverse i used to decode the coded message. In practice, complicated functions are used. We illustrate the process With the simple function defined by f(x) = 3x + 1. Each letter of the alphabet is assigned numerical value according to its postion in the alphabet, as follows, Al H 8 O11 v2 B2 1 9 P 6 W2 c3 10 QT x D4 KU RI Y 25 BES LR $s 9 Z 2% F6 MiB T 2 G7 NM U2 [SESEINTIEEEY usin Functions To ENCODE AND DECODE ‘A MESSAGE Use the one-to-one function defined by f(x) = 3x + 1 and the preceding numer- ical values to encode and decode the message BE VERY CAREFUL. Solution The message BE VERY CAREFUL would be encoded as 7 16 67 16 55 76 10 4 55 16 19 64 37 because B corresponds to 2 and fC) = 32) +17, E corresponds to 5 and F05) = 5) + 1 = 16, and so on. Using the inverse f~'(x) = 4x — 3 to decode yields “ya L'=FO41 Inverse Functions 411. 3] wneey] which corresponds to B, fe e £0) = 406-45, 8 3 3 BYRAI7S | which corresponds to E, and so on. The table feature of a graphing calculator can be very useful in this procedure. Figure 12 shows how decoding can be Figure 12 accomplished for the words BE VERY. [NOW TRY EXERCISE 91. {| Exercises Concept Check In Exercises 1 and 2, answer the question and then explanation. 4 The table shows the number of regs tered passenger cars in the United States for the years 2000-2004. If this corre- spondence is considered to be #function 2000, 133,621 that pairs each year with the number of registered passenger cars, is it one-o- _200! 2102 ‘one? If not, explain wi. 2002 135,921 20083 135,670 2004 136.481 Sowee: US, Census Buea 2. The table shows te numberof uncooled ig | Number a i) hazardous waste sites that require further investigation to determine whether remedies New Jersey 108 ‘are needed under the Superfund program. ——————} ‘The seven states listed are ranked in the top __Pennsylvani a ten inthe United States. Calif 94 If this correspondence is considered to |= 1} ‘be a function that pairs each state with its _New York eS ‘number of uncontrolled waste sites, is it Fronga Bi ‘one-to-one? If not, explain why. a Winois 40 Wisconsin 40 ‘Source: U.S. Environmental roestion Agony. Decide whether each function as defined or graphed is one-to-one, See Examples 1 and 2. Oe412 CHAPTER Inverse, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions 6 , 9. y= 2-8 10, y= 4x +20 Vee y=-VIO—-F y= 2-1 M4. y= 3-6 4 Bye y= w. 8. Explain why a constant function, such as flx) = 3, defined over the set of real num- bers, eannot be one-to-one. Concept Cheek Answer each of the following. 19, Fora function to have an inverse, it must be 20, If two functions f and g are inverses, then (f° g)(2) = . and 21. ‘The domain of fis equal to the ____of f~,and the range of fis equal to the of f! 22, If the point (a,b) lies on the graph of f, and f has an inverse, then the point lies on the graph of f~! 23, True o false: 1/02) = x, then f~"Q) = VE. 24, Ifa function fhas an inverse, then the graph of f~! may be obtained by reflecting the graph of f across the line with equation 2S, If a function fhas an inverse and f(—3) = 6, then f *(6) 5. IF f(-4) = 16 and f(4) = 16, then f —__ have an inverse because 26 AED S16 ah FO ~ 18 Be Fara 27. Explain why a polynomial function of even degree cannot have an inverse. 8. Explain why a polynomial function of odd degree may not be one-to-one. Concept Check In Exercises 29-34, an everyday activity is described. Keeping in mind that an inverse operation “undoes” what an operation does, describe each inverse activity. 29, tying your shoelaces 30, starting a car 31, entering @ oom 32, climbing the stairs 33, screwing in lightbulb 34, filing a cup Decide whether the given functions are inverses. See Example 4. x | e@ a] -2 1} -1 o| o =| 4 -s| 2 31. F= (23.85.45) 2 = (5.2)4.1 Inverse Functions 413, In Exercises 38-40, determine whether each pair of functions as graphed are inverses of each other See Example 6. 3B oy In Exercises 41-50, use the definition of inverses to determine whether f and g are inverses. See Example 3 AL fears bx 2 — SAMI, gee tr-3 _ 2 #8. fs) = —3x + 12, snag 44, f(a) = —4e +2, seo=-t =3 443 46.50), * @® fo) = 49, fls) = 2 + 3,domain[0,2:); g(x) = VE~ 3, domain (3,29) 50. fls) = VE FE, domain (8,09); g(x) = 2? ~ 8, domain 0,22) Ifthe finction is oneso-one, find its terse. See Exaple 4 51. (-3,6),2, 046.89) 2. {-n,60.0(+3)} 53. {(1, —3), (2, -7), (4, —3), (5, —5)} ‘54, {(6, -8), (3, —4), (0, -8), (5, -4)} or each incon as defined tht is one-to-one, (a write an equation forthe mere function in the form y =f"), (b) graph f and f~" on the same axes, and (¢) give the domain and the range of f and {”'. Ifthe function is not one-to-one, say so. See Examples S and 7. 55, ya 3x4 56. y= 40-5 57. fi) = Ar +3 58. fl)= 6-8 SRSLY 60. fo) = 8-2 61 yo? Cyan @y-4 1 6 yet ©. f6) 66. #6) = 5 stl 42 67. 4a) == 08. fo 222 69, 0) = VEFx, x= -6 70. fs) = -VP= 16, x= 4414 CHAPTERS Inverse, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions Graph the inverse of each one-to-one function. See Example 6. Rm» nm Concept Check The graph ofa function fis shown inthe figure. Use the graph to find each value. mre) 78. £7'Q) 9.0) 80. f-\(-2) aL 3) 8. F-"-4) Concept Check Answer each ofthe following. 83. Suppose f(x) is the number of cars that can be built for x dollars, What does F-*(1000) represent? 84. Suppose /(r is the volume (in cubic inches) of a sphere of radius r inches, What does f-"(5) represent? 85, Ifa line has slope a, what is the slope ofits reflection across the line y = x? 86, For a one-to-one function f find f~1(f(2)), where f(2) = 3,4.2 Exponential Functions 415 ES Use a graphing calculator to graph each function defined as follows, using the given viewing window. Use the graph to decide which functions are one-to-one, Ifa function is ‘one-to-one, give the equation ofits inverse 87. fls) = 6x 4+ 1 — 6; 88. f(x) [3,2] by [~10, 10] 89. fo) = 3; [8.8] byl = 525 [-3,3] by [-8, 8] 8] 90. f(x) = 5s [-1.8] by [-6.6] Use the alphaber coding assignment given for Example 8 for Exercises 91-94 91, The function defined by lx) = 3x ~ 2 was used to encode a message as 37°25 19 61 13 34 22 1 SS I S2 52 25 64 13 10. Find the inverse funtion and determine the message 92, The funtion defined by f(s) = 2x ~ 9 was used to encode a message as “5.9559 27 15 -1 2 19 31-3 27 41 Find the inverse funtion and determine the message 93, Encode the message SEND HELP, using the one-to-one function defined by f(x) = 2° — 1. Give the inverse function that the decoder would need when the mes- sage is received 94, Encode the message SAILOR BEWARE, using the one-o-one function defined by FG) = (x + 1). Give the inverse function that the decoder would need when the message is received. [B)9s. Why isa one-one function essential inthis encodingdecoding process? eo as Exponents and Properties = Exponential Functions » Exponential Equations » Compound Interest » The Number e and Continuous Compounding » Exponential Models and Curve Fitting "where ris a ra- Exponents and Properties Recall the definition of tional number: if r= %, then for appropriate values of m and n, am = (Wa)". ection R7) For example, 16 = (Wie) =2 = 11 boat “ae Ves Me ONS ae In this section we extend the definition of ato include all real (not just rational) values of the exponent r. For example, 2Y° might be evaluated by ‘approximating the exponent V3 with the rational numbers 1.7, 1.73, 1.732, and 80 on. Since these decimals approach the value of V3 more and more closely, ar416 CHAPTER Inverse, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions it seems reasonable that 2Y9 should be approximated more and more closely by the numbers 2!7, 2, 2", and so on. (Recall, for example, that 27 210 = (%93)"") In fact, this is exactly how 2°5is defined (in a more advanced course). To show that this assumption is reasonable, Figure 13 gives graphs of the function flx) = 2* with three different domains. fee) = 2%; fix) =: Jos) = 2%; integers as domain Selected rational numbers real numbers ‘as domain ‘8 domain Figure 13 Using this interpretation of real exponents, all rules and theorems for expo- nents are valid for all real number exponents, not just rational ones. In addition to the rules for exponents presented earlier, we use several new properties in this chapter. For example, if y = 2", then each real value of x leads to exactly one value of y, and therefore, y = 2 defines a function. Furthermore, it 2, then a4, and if xm 4, then yer peg 1), (1) am tee ow (2>(). When a > 1, increasing the exponent on “a” leads toa larger numnber, but when 0 0, a % 1, the following statements are true. (@) a* is a unique real number for all real numbers x. (b) a! = aif and only if b = c. (© a> Land m a", Properties (a) and (b) require a > 0 so that a* is always defined. For example, (—6)" is not a real number if x = }. This means that a* will always be positive, since a must be positive. In property (a), a cannot equal 1 because = 1 for every real number value of x, 30 each value of x leads to the same real number, 1.422 Exponential Functions 417 For property (b) to hold, « must not equal 1 since, for example, 1 though 4 5. even DEES ©vA.uarine AN exeoNENTIAL EXPRESSION Iff(x) = 25 find each of the following, (a) f-D (b) £03) © 43) (d) (4.92) Solution DAL = B= TE Replace i= (b) #2) = 2 © (3) = 29 = (25)"" = 32!" = VB = VIED =4V2. (ection a7) @ f4.92) 192 = 30.2738447 Use acaleulator, Exponential Functions — Wecan now define a function fx) = a" whose domain is the set of all real numbers. EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION Ifa >Oanda # 1, then fo) =a defines the exponential function with base a. |» Note Wedo not allow 1 as the base for an exponential function. If a = 1, the function becomes the constant function defined by f(x) = 1, which is not | an exponential function. Figure 13 showed the graph of f(x) = 2* with three different domains. We repeat the final graph (with real ‘numbers as domain) here. The y-intercept is y = 2° = 1. Since 2* > 0 for all x and 2* —> 0 as x—» ~%, the x-axis, is @ horizontal asymptote. As the graph suggests, the domain of the function is (—2,e) and the range is (0,2). ‘The function is increasing on its entire domain, and therefore is one-to-one. Our observations from Figure 13, lead to the following generalizations about the graphs of exponential functions.418 CHAPTERS Inverse, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions N fx) = "| Range: (0,2) For fla) = 2' yfxd= hart fa=aha>1 x fix) aid a4 of} 4 1 | 3 >| 4 a1 3 © f(x) =a", a> 1, is increasing and continuous on its entire domain, (-@, 2) © The x-axis is a horizontal asymptote as x —> —2, © The graph passes through the points (~1,4), (0,1), and (1,a). For fix) = (4)" zo vet “This isthe general havior seen ‘on calculator graph for any base a0cacl. Figure 15 + f(t) = 4,0 1. For larger values ofa, the graphs rise more steeply, but the general shape is similar to the graph in Figure 14, When 0 I the foetin is nereas ‘When O 1, then f is an increasing function; if 0), and the range is (0,%). (©) The graph of f(x) = 2" + 3 is that of f(x) = 2" translated 3 units up. See Figure 20. The domain is (—,), and the range is (3,°). Figure 18 Figure 19 Figure 20 [NOW TRY EXERCISES 25, 27, AND 29. Exponential Equations Property (b) given earlier in this section is used to solve exponential equations, which are equations with vatiables as exponents. USING A PROPERTY OF EXPONENTS TO SOLVE AN EQUATION sone(4) =a Solution Write each side of the equation using a common base. Definition of negative exponent (Section R.6) (= « Gection R3) Write 81 asa power of 3, Section R.2) Set exponents equal (Property (b) Multiply by ~ 1, Seetion 1.1) The solution set of the original equation is {—4}. [NoWTRY BxERCSESI. <]42 Exponential Functions 421. [ESZIVEEEM) USING A PROPERTY OF EXPONENTS TO SOLVE AN EQUATION Solve 2°" = 8° Solution Write each side of the equation tm gt ng a common base, 2M me (ZY Write asa power of2. page gyn X44 = 3x— 18 Secexponents equal (Propeny (b). -2x= 22 Subsrat Weand 4. (Seeion 1.1) seu Divide by —2. (Check by substituting 1 for x in the original equation. The solution set is {11}. TRY EXERCISE 59. Later in this chapter, we describe a general method for solving exponential equations where the approach used in Examples 4 and 5 is not possible. For in- stance, the above method could not be used to solve an equation like 7" = 12, since itis not easy to express both sides as exponential expressions with the same base. USING A PROPERTY OF EXPONENTS TO SOLVE ‘AN EQUATION Solve b*? = 81. Solution Begin by writing 6” as (6)! (YB) = 81 Racial notation fore Seon R2) Yb= £3 Tike foun roots on boinsides, Geefon 18) = £27 Cobo oth sides Check both solutions in the original equation. Both check, so the solution set is 427,27}. [NowRy exeRcis 7. 4] Compound Interest The formula for compound interest (interest paid on both principal and interest) is an important application of exponential func- tions. Recall the formula for simple interest, 1= Prt, where P is principal (amount deposited), r is annual rate of interest expressed as a decimal, and ris, time in years thatthe principal earns interest. Suppose ¢ = 1 yr. Then at the end of the year the amount has grown to P+ Pr= P+, the original principal plus interest. If this balance eams interest atthe same in- terest rate for another yea, the balance atthe end of that year will be (PC + 2) + [PO + Ar = [PL + IG +) Fei0e =P +422 CHAPTER4 Inverse, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions ‘After the third year, this will grow to [PL +) + [PO + r= [PO + AG +) Factor = PU + Continuing in this way produces a formula for interest compounded annually. A=PL+rl ‘The following general formula for compound interest can be derived in the same way as the formula given above, ce cer RNa e Ik P dollars are depo: an account paying an annual rate of interest r compounded (paid) m times per year, then after 1 years the account will contain A dollars, where In the formula for compound interest, A is som value and P the present value. 4 is also called the compound amount and is the balance afte interest has been earned. [ERSUIUIIEE usin He compoUNd inTEREST FORMULA Suppose $1000 is deposited in an account paying 4% interest per year com- pounded quarterly (four times per year). (@) Find the amount in the account after 10 yr with no withdrawals. (b) How much interest is eamed over the 10-yr petiod? Solution ® a=2(1+2) Compoun ners formula oa a 1000(1 +2)" Ler tomes 06 = Aande— 0 A = 1000(1 + .01)" A= 1488.86 Round to the nearest cent ‘Thus, $1488.86 is in the account after 10 yr (b) The interest earned for that period is $1488.86 — $1000 = $488.86. INOW TRY EXERCISE 71(a). 4]4.2 Exponential Functions 423 (SESE F1NoING present vatue Becky Anderson must pay a lump sum of $6000 in 5 ye. (a) What amount deposited today at 3.1% compounded annually will grow to $6000 in 5 yr? (b) If only $5000 is available to deposit now, what annual interest rate is neces- sary for the money to increase to $6000 in 5 yr? Solution An a(14 2)" comantincris se exon = o(1 + 24) Let = 6000,r= 481.0 = Ian 5 6000 = P(1.031)* ‘Simplify 6000 . P= ap Divide by (1.031) o solve for P, (Section 1.1) P= 5150.60 Use a cleat. If Becky leaves $5150.60 for 5 yr in an account paying 3.1% compounded annually, she will have $6000 when she needs it. We say that $5150.60 is the present value of $6000 if interest of 3.1% is compounded annually for S yr. © A= (1 + zy {6000 = SO00(1 + r)* Leta = 6000, P = 6 grate Divide by 5000. ‘Take the fifth root on both sides. Subtract | r= 0371 Use a calculator. ‘An interest rate of 3.714% will produce enough interest to increase the $5000 +0 $6000 by the end of 5 yr. [NOW TRY EXERCISES 73 AND 77. 4] The Number e and Continuous Compounding The more often interest is compounded within a given time period, the more interest will be earned. Surprisingly, however, there is a limit on the amount of interest, no matter how often it is compounded.424 CHAPTERS Inverse, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions 10,000 1,000,000 2.59374 270481 271692 271815 271828 ‘Suppose that $1 is invested at 100% interest per year, compounded m times per year. Then the interest rate (in decimal form) is 1.00 and the interest rate per period is }. According to the formula (with P = 1), the compound amount at the end of 1 yr will be a=(1 +2) © A calculator gives the results in the margin for various values of n, The table suggests that as n increases, the value of (1 + 4)" gets closer and closer to some fixed number. This is indeed the case. This fixed number is called e, (Note that in mathematics, eis a real number and not a variable.) Res Figure 21 shows the functions defined by y = Because 2 < e < 3, the graph of y = ¢' lies “between” the other two graphs. ‘As mentioned above, the amount of interest earned increases with the fre- quency of compounding, but the value of the expression (1 + 4)" approaches € as n gets larger. Consequently, the formula for compound interest approaches a limit as well, called the compound amount from continuous compounding. ene z cs If P dollars are deposited at arate of interest r compounded continuously for +t years, the compound amount in dotlars on deposi A= Pe, [SESUIIEEIS sowinc A continuous comPOUNDING PROBLEM ‘Suppose $5000 is deposited in an account paying 3% interest compounded con- tinuously for 5 yr. Find the total amount on deposit atthe end of 5 yr. Solution A= Pe" Continuous compounding formula = 50006 Let P = S000, = 5, and r =.03, = 5000" = 5809.17 Use acateulaor ‘or $5809.17. Check that daily compounding would have produced a compound amount about 3¢ less. [NOW TAY EXERCISE 73/5,Y LOOKING AHEAD TO CALCULUS Tncalelus, the derivative allows us 19 determine the slope of tangent line the graph ofa funtion, For the fine tion fl) ~ othe derivative isthe unetion fits: fe) = & Therefore, incaleulus the exponential funtion wih hase es much esier 1 work ‘with thn exponential fuetions having ter bates, 4.2 Exponential Functions 425 ‘COMPARING INTEREST EARNED AS COMPOUNDING IS MORE FREQUENT In Example 7, we found that $1000 invested at 4% compounded quarterly for 10 yr grew to $1488.86. Compare this same investment compounded annually, semiannually, monthly, daily, and continuously, Solution Substituting into the compound interest formula and the formula for continuous compounding gives the following results for amounts of $1 and $1000. Annually +04)" = 1.48024 | $1480.24 seninamaty | (1+:S)"*~ nasss | sressss ee say = = | sas Continuously ew = raoiee | ‘$1491.82 ‘Compounding semiannually rather than annually increases the value of the account after 10 yr by $5.71. Quarterly compounding grows to $2.91 more than semiannual compounding after 10 yr. Daily compounding yields only $.96 more than monthly compounding. Each increase in the frequency of compounding earns less and less additional interest, until going from daily to continuous com- pounding increases the value by only $.03. [NOW TRY EXERCISE 79. Exponential Models and Curve Fitting The number e is important as the base of an exponential function in many practical applications. For ‘example, in situations involving growth or decay of a quantity, the amount. ‘or number present at time ¢ often can be closely modeled by a function defined by Joes ‘where yp is the amount or number present at time ¢ = Q and kis a constant, ‘The next example, which is related to the chapter opener, illustrates expo- nential growth.426 CHAPTER4 Inverse, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions 3 ERSZVEIEETY usin para To MODEL EXPONENTIAL GROWTH If current trends of burning fossil fuels and deforestation continue, then future amounts of atmospheric carbon dioxide in parts per million (ppm) will increase as shown in the table. 1990 353 200 |S 2075 390 2175 1090 2215 2000 ‘Source: Ixernstinal Pane on Cizate ‘Change (PCC), 190, (a) Make a scatter diagram of the data, Do the carbon dioxide levels appear to 2100 ‘grow exponentially? F (b) In Section 4.6, we show that a good model for the data is the function de~ fined by . y = 353s, ors[__"._._Jss00-—_ Use @ graph of this model to estimate when future levels of carbon dioxide 200 will double and triple over the preindustrial level of 280 ppm. Solution y= 353¢ MEST 1860) 2100 (a) We show a calculator graph for the data in Figure 22(a). The data appear to hhave the shape of the graph of an increasing exponential function. (b) A graph of y = 353¢°°*""-" in Figure 22(b) shows that it is very close to the data points. We graph y = 2 + 280 = 560 in Figure 23(a) and y 3 + 280 = 840 in Figure 23(b) on the same coordinate axes as the given sors] thom 1, 300 function, and use the calculator to find the intersection points. 300 a Forx= ty = 353 S085 1980) For x = fy = 3S3e 00608571-1950) 7 y= 560 igure 2 om i rors [eioeBaaAe tose J>s09 300 100 fa Figure 25 The graph of the function intersects the horizontal lines at approximately 2065.8 and 2132.5. According to this model, carbon dioxide levels will double by 2065 and triple by 2132. [NowTRy EXERCISE 8, |4.2 Exponential Functions 427 FEE | EL Graphing cateuators are capable of fiting exponential curves to seater diagrams like the one found in Example 11. Figure 24(a) shows how the 1 Bb TBee0, ‘TI-83/84 Plus displays another (different) equation for the atmospheric carbon dioxide example: ¥ = 0019 + 1.006" ‘a (Coefficients are rounded here.) Notice that this calculator form differs from the 2100 ‘model in Example 11. Figure 24(b) shows the data points and the graph of this exponential regression equation. = Further examples of exponential growth and decay are given in Section 4.6. isl 200 ~~ TERESI i cists is town te cy) 2 “ s Figure 4 x x x B21 43-201 5e4e3-De1 By using more and more terms, a more and more accurate approximation ‘may be obtained for e* FOR DISCUSSION OR WRITING 1, Use the terms shown here and replace x with 1 to approximate e! = e to three decimal places. Check your results with a calculator, 2. Use the terms shown here and replace x with —.05 to approximate e-* to four decimal places. Check your results with a calculator. Give the next term in the sum for e* Exercises 5s) sans) = (inca afte foloing a re iiraional, rund the answer to the nearest thousandth, See Example I 1.0) 210) 3-2) 49-9) 5.90) & 9) 2 a-2) 8 6(-3) 9%. 13) ws. «(3) 11 9234) 12, 10.68) Graph each fnction See Example 2, 13.409) 14 fi = rs. ay=(4) Ly 3) 2) 16. ~ (4) v7.40 = (3) 18.7 - (2) 19. ft) = 10" 20. fs) = 107 2 fo) = 2.) = 6" 23. ls) = 2" 24. fle)428 CHAPTER 4 Inverse, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions ‘Skeich the graph of flx) = 2. Then refer to it and use the techniques of Chapter 2 10 ‘graph each function as defined. See Example 3. 25. fla) <4 BM fay—2" 28. fy 2-4 29, f(a) <2 Wf) 2 + Rf) = 2 ‘Sketch the graph of fix) = (3)'. Then refer to it and use the techniques of Chapter 2 to graph each function as defined. See Example 3. \ +4 38 /0)= 3)" (yom 36. fo) = Gy" 37. fo) = (4) 38. fa) = (3) 39. f6) = (3) i 40. 70) = -(3) 41, Concept Check Fil in the bank: The graph off) = ais the sme a that of 33. fle) a) = (_) 42 Concept Check Fill in the blanks: If a> 1, then the graph of J) =a'___ from left to right. If 0 ae Write in exponential form, GY =a a wy Gection 3) Bax 3=x ‘The solution set is {32}.434 CHAPTERS Inverse, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions © loge V7 = x 49" ‘Write in exponential form. Write withthe same base ower rule for exponents Set exponents equal Divide by 2. ‘The solution sets (2). Now Logarithmic Functions We define the logarithmic function with base a as follows. LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION Ia >0,a% 1,andx > 0, then Fla) = loge defines the logarithmic function with base a. Exponential and logarithmic functions are inverses of each other. The ‘graph of y = 2 is shown in red in Figure 25(a). The graph of its inverse is found by reflecting the graph of y= 2* across the line y=.x. The graph of the inverse function, defined by y = log:.x, shown in blue, has the y-axis, as a vertical asymptote. Figure 25(b) shows a calculator graph of the two functions. y elog: x 0 = ‘The graph of y = logy xcan be cobtlnes by drawing the inverse ofy 22% ta) ® igure 25 ‘Since the domain of an exponential function is the set of all real numbers, the range of a logarithmic function also will be the set of all real numbers. In the ‘same way, both the range of an exponential function and the domain of a loga- rithmic function are the set of all positive real numbers, so logarithms can be found for positive numbers only.43 Logarithmic Functions 435 29,08) fa) = logy X,> Ll) = logy s,.@> 1 T lass v0 ‘This isthe general behavior seen ‘ona caeultr graph for any base wart Figure 26 log. x, a > 1, is increasing and continuous on its entire domain, '* The y-axis is a vertical asymptote as x —> 0 from the right, © The graph passes through the points (4,1), (1,0), and (a, 1). fs) i (for) = logy. 0 0 from the right. © The graph passes through the points (!,~1), (1,0), and (a, 1) FE. Calculator graphs of logarithmic functions do not, in general, give an accu- zate picture of the behavior of the graphs near the vertical asymptotes. While it ‘may seem as if the graph has an endpoint, this is not the case. The resolution of the calculator screen is not precise enough to indicate that the graph approaches the vertical asymptote as the value of x gets closer to it, Do not draw incorrect, conclusions just because the calculator does not show this behavior. = ‘The graphs in Figures 26 and 27 and the information with them suggest the following generalizations about the graphs of logarithmic functions of the form Sle) ="Tog, x.436 CHAPTER Inverse, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions TTS OKOM Reo eed 1. The points ($,—1), (1,0), and (a, 1) are on the graph. 2. If a> |, then f is an increasing function; if 0 Caution If you write a logarithmic function in exponential form, choosing y-values to calculate x-values, be careful to write the values in the ordered pairs in the correct order. ‘More general logarithmic functions can be obtained by forming the compo- sition of h(x) = log, x with a function defined by g(x) to get fla) = hg) = loga(g)).43 Logarithmic Functions 437 [SESZIMIIEENN crartinc rransLatep LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS Graph each function. Give the domain and range. (a) fla) = logtx ~ 1) (b) fle) = (logs) = 1 Solution (@) The graph of f(x) = logs(x ~ 1) is the graph of flx) = logs x translated [unit to the right. The vertical asymptote is x = 1. The domain of this func- tion is (1,~) since logarithms can be found only for positive numbers. To find some ordered pairs to plot, use the equivalent exponential form of the equation y = loga(x — 1). y = loga(x = 1) x-19? Write in exponential form edt Add | ‘We choose values for y and then calculate each of the corresponding x-values. ‘The range is (~, ce), See Figure 30. Pex) = hogy) Figure 30 Figure 31 (b) The function defined by f(x) = (logs.x)— 1 has the same graph as (x) = logs x translated 1 unit down. We find ordered pairs to plot by writ- ing y = (logs x) — 1 in exponential form, y= (logs x) — 1 ye Add \Write in exponential for, Again, choose y-values and calculate the corresponding x-valves. The graph is shown in Figure 31. The domain is (0, :), and the range is (~, ) )W TRY EXERCISES 33 AND 37. Properties of Logarithms Since a logarithmic statement can be wait- ten as an exponential statement, it is not surprising that the properties of loga- rithms are based on the properties of exponents. The properties of logarithms al- low us to change the form of logarithmic statements 50 that products can be converted to sums, quotients can be converted to differences, and powers can be converted to product.438 CHAPTER 4 Inverse, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions "¥ LOOKING AHEAD TO CALCULUS A technique called logarithiedifer- entation, which uses the propete of logarithms, can often be used t ier ntate complicate functions. PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMS Forx > 0, >0,a>0,a # 1, and any real number r Property Description Product Property The logarithm of the product of two og, xy = loge x + log. y numbers is equal to the sum of the logarithms of the numbers. Quotient Property ‘The logarithm of the quotient of z two numbers is equal to the differ- 1og. 5 = loge — logsy ence between the logarithms of the ‘numbers. Power Property ‘The logarithm of a number raised to a log." = rlog.x power is equal to the exponent multi- plied by the logarithm of the number. ‘Two additional properties of logarithms follow directly from the definition of log, x ince a! = 1 anda! = a. Jog,1=0 and log.a = Proof To prove the product property, let m = log, x and n = log, y. Recall that log.x=m means a" =x, log, y =n means Now consider the product xy. yoded Substitute. nea Prodt ele for exponents (Seetion R3) logsay =m Write in logarithmic Form log, xy = log. + log,y Substitute ‘The last statement is the result we wished to prove. The quotient and power properties are proved similarly, (See Exercises 97 and 98.) USING THE PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMS Rewrite each expression. Assume all variables represent positive réal numbers, with a # 1and b # 1, (a) log.(7 - 9) ) tows = (@) loge at (©) log, Vint © logs) (©) logs VB43 Logarithmic Functions 439 Solution (a) logs(7 + 9) = logs? + log,9 Product property 15 (©) logs = logy 15 — logs 7 Quotient propensy P yo! (©) logs = logs(8'") = = logs 8 Power propery @ Jo Fa Hoga + logan + log. g ~ (log, p? + log, iy log, m + logsn + log. ~ (2log,p + 4 log, 1) = log, m + logan + log, q ~ 2 log, p — 4 log, ¢ 2 (©) log./m = logy m’” = — Tog m ye ay - oy] = tow, (2 T= a" eet (f) log, 2 log, 2 v (Section R.7) 1 oh es = - Product and quotient = 7rllogex8 + logsy* — logy zm) Pret 1 = 78 log, x + 5 logy y — mlog,z) Power property 3, 5 nm Distributive property syle + Tomy —T los 2 Getion ta) [NOW TRY EXERCISES 59, 61, 65, AND 67. <€ USING THE PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMS ‘Write each expression as a single logarithm with coefficient I. Assume all vari- ables represent positive real numbers, with a # 1 and b = 1. (a) logs(e + 2) + logs x — logs 2 (©) 20g, m ~ 3 logs 1 3 > (©) logs m + logy 2n — logy min Solution (e+ 2) Product and quotient 2 properties (@) logs(y + 2) ~ logs.» ~ logs 2 = logs (b) 2 logs me — 3 logan = loge m* — log, n’ Power property = log, Quotient property440 CHAPTERS Inverse, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions I 3 (©) Joga m+ > log, 2n = Togs mn Joga m'® + logs(2n)"* — logs m?n Power property ang 228 osseous pt Rules for exponents: = logs Tar (ections R3 and R6) 4) 2 =- woa(28) Rules for exponents. = logy. s Definition of a NOW TRY EXERCISES 71, 75, AND 77. > Caution There is no property of logarithms to rewrite a logarithm of a | sum or difference. That is why, in Example 5(a), logs(x + 2) was not written, as Jogs x + logs 2, Remember, logs x + logs 2 = logs(x + 2). The distributive property does not apply in a situation like this because logs(x + y) is one term; “log” is a function name, not a factor. [ESSE usin THe properries OF LOGARITHMS WITH NUMERICAL VALUES Assume that logia 2 = 3010, Find each logarithm. (@) logi04 (©) logie 5S Solution (@) logio + = logis 2* = 2 logis 2 = 2(.3010) = 6020 () oie 5 = log 2 = ions 10 ~ logi2 = | ~ 3010 = 6990 NOW TRY EXERCISES 81 AND Compositions of the exponential and logarithmic functions can be used to state two more useful properties. If/(x) = a® and g(x) = log, x, then f(g) =a" — and —_g( f(x) = log,a’). Bin so) Ass)43 Logarithmic Functions 441 By the results ofthis theorem, TH = 10, Togs 5? and — logy? ‘The second statement in the theorem will be useful in Sections 4.5 and 4.6 when we solve other logarithmic and exponential equations EMIS jaan ‘making calculations easier has bee Tong, ongoing process. Machines built by Charles Babbage and Blaise Pascal, a system of “rods” used by John Napier, and slide rules were the forerunners of today’s calculators and computers. The invention of loga- rithms by John Napier in the sixteenth century was a great breakthrough in the search for easier calculation methods. ‘Since logarithms are exponents, their properties allowed users of tables ‘of common logarithms to multiply by adding, divide by subtracting, raise to powers by multiplying, and take roots by dividing, Although logarithms are no longer used for computations, they still play an important role in higher Napier’ Rods petaeradean Soure: BM Corporate Archives FOR DISCUSSION OR WRITING 1. To multiply 458.3 by 294.6 using logarithms, we add logie 458.3 and ogie 294.6, then find 10 raised to the sum. Perform this multiplication using the log key and the 10" key on your calculator.* Check your answer by multiplying directly with your calculator. 2. Try division, raising to a power, and taking a root by this method. Concept Check In Exercises } and 2, match the logarithm in Column I with its value in Column Il. Remember that log, x is the exponent to whick a must be raised in order to a (©) logy 1 C4 (©) logy 01 co ©) login’ BR -2 © lop, 2 (f) log, 27° Ra ia tis text te notation log sis used 19 mean loge. Tis is ako the meaning of the log key on csleuatrs,442 CHAPTER4 Inverse, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions {Ifthe statement is in exponential form, write it in an equivalent logarithmic form, If in logarithmic form, write in exponential form. See the table on page 432. 3.3°= 81 4 = 32 s.(2)°-2% 6 10+ = 0001 3) “3 7. lope36=2 8, logs 9. logys81=8 10. to (2111. Explain why logarithms of negative numbers are not defined, 12. Concept Check Why is log, | always equal to 0 for any valid base a? Solve each logarithmic equation. See Example 1 1 1 1 1B, x= loos de 14 x= oat 15, og b= 5 n 16, tox. 17. x= tog, VE 18, x= log) 10 2-30 area 2 x= 709 2, x= 3m" 2B. tog, 25 24, ogy = -2 28, logs = 3 26, logs = 27. x= logs VIB 5 28. x = logs WB 29. logyx =F 30. toga = 31. Compare the summary of characteristics ofthe graph of fs) = log, x with the similar summary about the graph of f(x) = a' in Section 4.2, Make a lst of charac- teristics that reinforce the idea that these are inverse functions. ‘32, Concept Check ‘The calculator graph of y = logs x shows the values ofthe ordered pair with x = 5. What does the value of y represent? y elogys ‘Sketch the graph of f(x) = logs x. Then refer to it and use the techniques of Chapter 2 10 ‘graph each function. Give the domain and range. See Example 3, 33. fle) = (loge) +3 34. flx) = Iogabe +3) 35s flx) = llogalx + 3)] ‘Sketch the graph of fz) = logia.x. Then refer to it and use the techniques of Chapter 2 10 graph each function. Give the domain and range. See Example 3, 36. fs) = (logins) = 237. fx) = Iogin(e = 2) 38. fla) = [logralx — 2)] Concept Check In Exercises 39-44, match the function with its graph from choices APF at the top of the nest page. 39. 0) = logs x 40, fs) = logs 2s 41, f0) = og, + 42, fl) = tops > 43. fla) = logsle— 1) 44. fl) = og.(-)‘43 Logarithmic Functions 443 oy i SE acacltetainnctt 48. fx) = logs x 46. f(x) = logiox 47, f(x) = logia(l = x) 48, fla) = login - 2) 49. fla) = Togse— 1) 50. fla) = Logix?) Connecting Graphs with Equations In Exercises 51-56, write an equation for the ‘graph given. Each isa logarithmic function f with base 2 or 3, translated andor reflected. FJAs mentioned earlier, we write log as an abbreviation for logis. Use the log key on ‘your graphing caleulator to graph each function. 57. fa) = rlogex 58. fle) = logo Use the properties of logarithms to rewrite each expression. Simplify the real f possible. Assume all variables represen positive real munibers. See Example 4 & 4p svi $9, logs 60, tog, 61, logs les a Bs ew eran) sa adim tan444 CHAPTER 4 Inverse, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions 6. lot 66,105, Note Base a,a > 1, logarithms of numbery between Oand 1 are always negative, as suggested by the graphs in Section 4.3. Applications and Modeling with Common Logarithms In chemistry, the pH ofa solution is defined as pH = ~Iog[H.0°}, where [H,O"] is the hydronium ion concentration in moles* per liter. The pH_ value is @ measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. Pure water has pH 7.0, substances with pH values greater than 7.0 are alkaline, and substances with pH values tess than 7.0 are acidic. Itis customary to round pH values to the nearest tenth, Aci “Alkaline "Rmole he amount of substance that contains the same aumber of molecules asthe numberof atoms Inexacly 12 grams of carbon 12448 CHAPTERS Inverse, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions Toa Sa C-4D9| 3. 602059991 aah PS SBeasare-c| ‘The screens show how a graphing calculator evaluates the pH and [H,0"|ia Example (@) Find the pH of a solution with [H,0"] = 2.5 x 10~*, (b) Find the hydronium ion concentration of a solution with pH = 7.1 Solution (@) pH = -tog{},0°] = HHog(2.5 x10") subst (log 2.5 + log 10) Product propery (Beetion 4:3) (3979 - 4) log 10* = 4 Geation 4:3) = 3979 +4 Diswibutive propery (ection R2) Substitute, Moiply by ~1. Section 1.1) 14,0") = 107" ‘Write in exponential form. (Section 43) [H,0*] ~ 7.9 x 107 Evaluate 10-7! with a calculator. [NOW TRY EXERCISES 29 AND 33. 4) > Note In the fourth line of the solution in Example 1(a), we use the equal- ity symbol, =, rather than the approximate equality symbol, ~, when replac: ing log 2.5 with 3979. This is often done for convenience, despite the fact that most logarithms used in applications are indeed approximations. USING pH IN AN APPLICATION Wetlands are classified as bogs, fens, marshes, and swamps. These classifications fare based on pH values. A pH value between 6.0 and 7.5, such as thet of ‘Summerby Swamp in Michigan's Hiawatha National Forest, indicates that the ‘wetland isa “rich fen.” When the pH is between 4.0 and 6.0, itis a “poor fen,” and if the pH falls to 3.0 or less, the wetland is a “bog.” (Source: R. Mohlenbrock, “Summerby Swamp, Michigan,” Natural History, March 1994.) ‘Suppose that the hydronium ion concentration of a sample of water from a wetland is 6.3 X 10°. How would this wetland be classified? Solution pH = —loglH,0*] Definition of pH 1og(6.3 x 10") Subsite (log 63 + log 10°) Product propenty = -10g63 = (-5) Distributive property: og 10" = log 63 +5 pH 42 Use a calelator, Since the pH is between 4.0 and 6.0, the wetland is a poor fen, [NOW Tay EXERCISES? <]"¥ LOOKING AHEAD TO CALCULUS. The natural logaithic function defined by fx) = nx and the reciprocal funtion defined by a) ship in calculus. The derivative ofthe raturllgavthmic funtion isthe re ‘ave an important relation: cipwcalfnction. Using Leibniz notation (named se one of the cevinventor of aes, thi fc is writen £ On) =f 444 Evaluating Logarithms and the Change-of:Base Theorem 449 (EESZEEN Measurine THE LouDNess OF SOUND ‘The loudness of sounds is measured in a unit called a decibel. To measure with this unit, we first assign an intensity of fy to a very faint sound, called the threshold sound. If a particular sound has intensity J, then the decibel rating of this louder sound is Find the decibel rating of a sound with intensity 10,000/y. Solution d= 10 log PMH 121) — so 000n, = 10 log 10,000 = 104) log 10,000 ~ log 10° = 4 Geetion 4.3) =40 ‘The sound has a decibel rating of 40. INOW TRY EXERCISE 45. Natural Logarithms In Section 4.2, we introduced the irrational num= ber e. In most practical applications of logarithms, ¢ is used as base. Logarithms with base e are called natural logarithms, since they occur in the life sciences, ‘and economics in natural situations that involve growth and decay. The base e logarithm of x is written In x (read “el-en x”). The expression In x represents the exponent to which e must be raised in order to obtain x. DU Taere For all positive numbers x, In x = log, A graph of the natural logarithmic function defined by f(x) = In x is given gare 3 in Figure 34, — Natural logarithms can be found using a calculator. (Consult your owner's Re manual.) As in the case of common logarithms, when used in applications natu- hn<25463 neooss;| logarithms are usually irrational numbers. Figure 35 shows how thee naturel hnc. ones 3 logarithms are evaluated with a graphing calculator. Figure 36 reinforces the fact 5 fr that In x is the exponent to which e must be raised in order to obtain x. = vans Applications and Modeling with Natural Logarithms EOE [SUEZ Mesurinc THE Ace oF rocks le~canc2s.69> Geologists sometimes measure the age of rocks by using “atomic clocks.” By Jercinc. 0945895 measuring the amounts of potassium 40 and argon 40 in a rock, the age f of the -58e-4! specimen in years is found with the formula In( + 8.33 = 0.26 x 197 M+ 82208) Figures in2450 CHAPTER4 Inverse, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions where A and K are the numbers of atoms of argon 40 and potassium 40, respec- lively, in the specimen, (a) How old is a rock in which A = 0 and K > 0? (b) ‘The ratio # for a sample of granite from New Hampshire is 212. How old is the sample? Solution (@) Ifa O and the equation becomes inf + 8.2(8)) _ ind 1 = (1.26 x 10°) (1.26 x 10°)(0) = 0. ‘The rock is new (0 yr old). () Since $= 212, we have In(1 + 8.33(212)) 1.26 x 10°) = 185 x 10°, n2 ‘The granite is about 1.85 billion yr ol. NOS AEYDERCISE >.<] [ESUUEEIY MODELING GLOBAL TEMPERATURE INCREASE Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere traps heat from the sun. The additional solar radiation trapped by carbon dioxide is called radiative forcing, It is measured in ‘watts per square meter (W/m). In 1896 the Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius modeled radiative forcing R caused by additional atmospheric carbon dioxide using the logarithmic equation em, ‘where Cp is the preindustrial amount of carbon dioxide, C is the current carbon ioxide level, and k is a constant. Arrhenius determined that 10 = k = 16 when 2Co, (Source: Clime, W., The Economics of Global Warming, Institute for International Economics, Washington, D.C., 1992.) (a) Let C = 2Cp, Is the relationship between R and k linear or logarithmic? (b) ‘The average global temperature increase T (in °F) is given by T(R) =1.03R. Write T as a function of k. Solution (a) If C= 2Cy, then & = 2, so R = kin 2 is a linear relation, because In 2 is a constant. ) T(R) = 1.03R T(k) = 1.03% In é Use the given expression for & [NOW TRY EXERCISE 57.‘444 Evaluating Logarithms and the Change-of-Base Theorem 451 Logarithms with Other Bases We can use a calculator to find the values of either natural logarithms (base e) or common logarithms (base 10). However, sometimes we must use logarithms with other bases. The following theorem can be used to convert logarithms from one base to another. LooKNG AHEAD TO caucus PRIVAT ao Inaleuls, natural logaritims are ‘more convenient work with han logarithms wit eke bases. The ‘change-of-base theorem enables ws to log. x conver any logarithmic function toa natural logarithmic fueton. For any positive real numbers x, a, and b, where a 1 and b # 1: logs.x log, a" Proof Let log, x. x (Change to exponential form. log, a = logy x Take base b logarithms on both sides. ylogya = logsx Power property (ection 4:3) logs x Toe Divide hot sides by logs Tog, a Joss x og, x = PE susie log, ory ee og. : Any positive number other than 1 can be used for base b in the change-of- base theorem, but usually the only practical bases are e and 10 since calculators sive logarithms only for these two bases. SE) With the change-of-base theorem, we can now graph the equation y = logs, for example, by directing the calculator to graph y = (23, or equiva ently. = Bf. [EESTI USING THe CHANGE-OF-BASE THEOREM Use the change-of-base theorem to find an approximation to four decimal places for each logarithm. (a) logs 17 (b) log, 1 ToaCI7I7TORSS, Solution hn. Daingsers (a) We will arbitrarily use natural logarithms. int7 _ 2.8332 togy 17 = RUT 4 SEE 17604 Toe eee shows tow be lore, we use common logarithms. tetefExamglecayeante ©) Here, Joga food esng common gn log. ttm and bow eet of log:.| = MEL = ~3:3219 Example 6(b) canbe found 2 sing natura Hogarth. The resus are the same as hose intaangi [NOW TRY EXERCISES 61 AND 63.452 CHAPTERS Inverse, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions 6 Frrcnce 19s0tes950 vets | Figure 37 2000 > Note In Example 6, logarithms evaluated in the intermediate steps, such as In 17 and In 5, were shown to four decimal places. However, the final answers were obtained without rounding these intermediate values, using | all the digits obtained with the calculator. In general, itis best fo wait until the final step to round off the answer; otherwise, a build-up of round-off errors may cause the final answer to have an incorrect final decimal | place digit. J [SSIES woveune oiversiry oF species ‘One measure of the diversity of the species in an ecological community is ‘modeled by the formula H = ~[P\ log: Pi + P2 logs Py + +++ + Py logs P,}, where P),P2,...,P, are the proportions of a sample that belong to each of » species found in the sample. (Source: Ludwig, J., and J. Reynolds, Statistical Ecology: A Primer on Methods and Computing, New York, Wiley, 1988. p. 92.) Find the measure of diversity in a community with two species where there are 90 of one species and 10 of the other. Solution Since there are 100 members in the community, P, Pr= 0p = -1,80 H = ~[.9 logs 9 + .1 logs 1] In Example 6(b), we found that log, ~ ~3.32, Now we find logs 9. log.9 log: .9 = =.152 ‘Therefore, H = ~[.9 logs .9 + «1 logs 1] = ~[.9(-.152) + .1(-3.32)] = 469. Verify that H ~ .971 if there are 60 of one species and 40 of the other. As the proportions of n species get closer to 4 each, the measure of diversity increases to a maximum of logs n. INOW TRY EXERCISE 53. EE tthe end of Section 4.2, we saw that graphing calculators are capable of fitting exponential curves to data that suggest such behavior. The same is true for logarithmic curves. For example, the table here shows the number of visitors to national parks, in millions, for selected years. 1950 | 1960 | 1970 | 1980 | 1990 | 2000 uw [2 [4 [ a7 [57 | 66 Source Statice! Abstract ofthe United States. Figure 37 shows how a calculator gives the best-fiting natural logarithmic curve for the data, as well as the data points and the graph of this curve.44 Evaluating Logarithms and the Change-of-Base Theorem 453, Concept Check Answer each ofthe following. 1, For the exponential function defined by () = a, where a > 1, isthe function in- creasing or is it decreasing over its entire domain? 2, For the logarithmic function defined by g(x) = log, x, where a > 1, is the function increasing or is it decreasing over its entire domain? 3. H/C) = 5*, what isthe rule for")? 4, What is the name given to the exponent to which 4 must be raised in order to obtain nt 5. A base logarithm is called a(n) ____ logarithm; a base 10 logarithm is called an) ____ logarithm. 6. How is log, 12 written in terms of natural logarithms? 7. Why is log: 0 undefined? 8. Between what two consecutive integers must logs 12 lie? 9. The graph of y = log x shows a point on the graph. Write the logarithmic equation associated with that point. 90308999) 10. The graph of y = Inx shows a point on the graph. Write the logarithmic equation as- sociated with that point. Use a calculator with logarithm keys to find an approximation to four decimal places for ‘each expression U1. log 53 12. log 87 13, log .0013 14. log 078 1S. 1n53 16. In 87 17. n.0013 18, In .078 19. log(3.1 x 10!) 20, log(8.6 x 10°) 21, log(S.0 x 10-4) 22, 1og(6.6 x 10°?) 23. In(6 xe) 584 24, In(9 x e) 25. log(387 x 23) 26, lon soe 127. Explain why the result in Exercise 25 is the same as log 387 + log 23. (228. Explain why the result in Exercise 26 isthe same as log 584 — log 296. For each substance, find the pH from the given hydronium ion concentration. See Example I(a). 29, grapefruit, 63 X 10 30, limes, 1.6 x 10°* 31. crackers,3.9 x 10°" 32, sodium hydroxide (Iye), 32 x 10-"454° CHAPTERS Inverse, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions Find the [H,0"] for each substance withthe given pH. See Example 1(b). 33, soda pop, 27 34, wine, 3.4 38, beer, 48 36, drinking water, 6.5, In Exercises 37-42, suppose that water from a wetland area is sampled and found t0 Ihave the given hydronium ion concentration. Determine whether the wetland is a rich fen, poor fen, or bog. See Example 2 37. 2.49 x 10 38. 622 x 10 39, 2.49 x 107 40. 3.14 107 41. 2.49 x 10° 42, 5.86 x 107 43, Use your ealeulator to find an approximation for each logarithm, (a) log 398.4 (by log 39.84 (©) log 3.984 (@) From your answers to parts (a)~(c), make a conjecture concerning the decimal values in the approximations of common logarithms of numbers greater than | that have the same digits (2144. Given that log 25 ~ 1.3979, log 250 ~ 2.3979, and log 2500 ~ 3.3979, make a ‘conjecture for an approximation of log 25,000. Then explain why this pattern ‘continues, Solve each application of logarithms. See Examples 3-5 and 7. 45, Decibel Levels Find the decibel ratings of sounds having the following intensities. (@) 100% (b) 100%. (©) 100,000%, (@) 1,000,000, (©) If the intensity of a sound is doubled, by how much is the decibel rating increased? 46, Decibel Levels Find the decibel ings of following sounds, having intensities ts given. Round each answer tothe nearest whole numb, (0) whisper, 15% (b) bsy se, 950,000 (©) hewn truck, 2 m away, 1200 000,000, (@) rock muse, $95,000 000 001, {6 jtnerat ako, 103,000,000, 000% 47. Karthquake Intensity "The agitde of an cathe, measured onthe Richer fees log, whee Fs he ampli eset ona aaron 1 kn fom the pier of i eatpake, and is tbe amplitde of an earthquake o certain smal) Ste Pind the Rite Seal aig for earths having he following amplitudes (a) 1000/, (b) 1,000,000/, (©) 100,000,000/, 4% Larthquake Intensity On Deceriber 2, 2004, te thir nrgestearnquake ever recorded stk in he Indian Ocean wih 3 maghitode of 9.1 on he Riche scale ‘The resulting tsunami Killed an esmated 228,900 people in several counties Expres thie ending in ters of arthquake Intensity On March 28, 2008, the seventh largest eartguake ever recorded suck in Norterm Suma, Indonesia, wih a magnitude of 86 00 the Riche seas Exrese hs reading in terms off 50. Earthquake Intensity Comparison Compare your answers to Exercises 48 and 49 How many times greater vas the fore ofthe 2008 earthquake than the 2005 earthquake? (Modeling) Vsiors to U.S. National Parks The abe a the top ofthe nex page tives he tuber f vistors Gin millions to US. National Pars for elected yeas From 1990-2008, Suppose presets the number of years singe 1900 thus, 980 8 represented by 90, 2000s rpresented bY 100 and son, 49, 51,444 Evaluating Logarithms and the Change-of-Base Theorem 455 1990 377 1995 a8 2000 661 2002, 5 2008 @8 2008; eas Source: Statistical Absract ofthe United States. ‘The logarithmic function defined by Jl) = 854+ 324 Ine is the best-fting logarithmic model for the data. Use this function to estimate the ‘number of visitors in the year 2009. What assumption must we make to estimate the ‘number of visitors in years beyond 2005? 52 (Modeling) Volunteerism among Volunteerism among College Freshman College Freshmen The growth in the percentage of college fresh- men who reported involvement in 80 volunteer work during their last ‘year of high school is shown in the bbar graph. Connecting the tops of 100 Percent the bars with a continuous curve 20) ‘would give a graph that indicates ° logarithmic growth, The function 1993 199619971998 199972 20012002 defined by Year Yl = 7461-4 386ing 1, SME Mier Eaton Rash nae, UCLA wheres epresents the numberof years since 1994 and f(t) isthe percent, approxi- mates the curve reasonably well (@) What does the function predict forthe percent of freshmen entering college in 2002 who performed volunter work during their ast year of high school? How does this compare tote actual percent of $2.62 [}t Explain why an exponential function would not provide a good model for these dita. 53. (Modeling) Diversity of Species The number of species in a sample is given by sin) =auo(1 +4) Here 1 isthe number of individuals inthe sample, and a is a constant that indicates the diversity of species in the community. If a = .36, find S(n) for each value ofr. (Hint: Sin) must be a whole number.) (ay 100 (b) 200 © 150 (@) 10 84, (Mordeling) Diversity uf Species tn Bxercise $3, find S(n) if @ changes to .88. Use the following values of » (a) 50 (b) 100 (©) 250 55, (Modeling) Diversity of Species Suppose a sample of a small community shows {wo species with 50 individuals each, Find the measure of diversity H.456 CHAPTERS Inverse, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions 56. ass. 8 oo. (Modeling) Diversity of Species A vingin forest in northwestern Pennsylvania has 4 species of large trees with the following proportions of each: hemlock, .521; ‘beech, .324; birch, 081; maple, .074. Find the measure of diversity H. . (Modeling) Global Temperature Increase In Example 5, we expressed the average global emperature increase T (in °F) as c TH) = L03kIn =. ‘where Cy is the preindustial amount of carbon dioxide, C is the current carbon dioxide level, and kis a constant, Atrhenius determined that 10 = k = 16 when C ‘was double the value Cy. Use TUK) to find the range of the rise in global temperature T (rounded to the nearest degree) that Arrhenius predicted. (Source: Clime, W., The Economics of Global Warming, Institue for International Economics, Washington, DC, 1992) (Modeling) Global Temperature Increase (Refer to Exercise 57.) According to the IPCC, if present trends continue, future increases in average global temperatures (in F) can be modeled by c TIC) = 6.489 In 555 wher Cis the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide (in ppm. C can be tmodeled by the function defined by C(x) = 353(1.006)"'"", where xis the year (Sources Inemational Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 1980) (a) Wite Tas function of = (0) Using graphing calculator, graph C{s) and T(x) onthe interval (1990, 2275] sing different coordinate snes, Describe the graph ofeach function How are C and Treated? (6 Approximate the slope ofthe graph of 7. What does this slope represent? (d) Use graphing to estimate x and C(x) when Tlx) = 10°F. ‘Age of Rocks Use the formula of Example 4 to estimate the age ofa rock sample having 4 = 103. (Modeling) Planes’ Distances from the Sun tnd Poids of Revi he wble 07 A. In9 + Inx B, In(6x) C, In6 + Inx D. In(9x’) 82 Concept Chack Wii flog quan os) = Is fr > 1 Atlee me Md pana 83, The function defined by 2) = In|x| plays a prominent role in calculus, Find its domain, range, andthe symmetries of its graph. ‘84. Consider the function defined by f(x) = logs] (a) Whats the domain ofthis function? 0) Use» eaphing cael to groph f)— losin he window [8.4] by =4,4] (© How might one easily misinterpret the domain of the function simply by ‘observing the caleulator graph? Use the properties of logarithms and the terminology of Chapter 2 to describe how the araph ofthe given function compares tothe graph of (2) = Inx 85. fla) = In etx 86. fle) = ne 87. fs) = ne #8, Explain the errr in he folowing “proof” that? < tek 3 ZY 0,y>0,a>0,anda ¥ 1, then x=y — ifandonlyif — log,x =log,y. [SESEIUIIEENE sowvinc an exPoNeNTIAL EQUATION Solve 7 = 12, Give the solution to the nearest thousandth, Solution The properties of exponents given in Section 4.2 cannot be used to solve this equation, so we apply the preceding property of logarithms. While any appropriate base b can be used, the best practical base is base 10 or base e. We choose base e (natural) logarithms here.45 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 459 Yeon r= In 7 In 12 Propey of tgarhms In 7 = In 12 Pover propery Geetion 43) a lnl2 nT X= 1277 Useacaleulator ley Divide by In. ve As sen inthe display atthe . ‘bottom of the screen, when ‘The solution set is {1.277}. rounded to thee decimal places, the solton agrees a ‘vith that found in Example NOW TRY EXERCISE 5. > Caution Be careful when evaluating a quotient like 4? in Example 1. Do not confuse this quotient with In 4?, which can be written as In 12 ~ In 7. We cannot change the quotient of two logarithms to a difference of logarithms. Ini2 12 aS sin In7 [SESZINIEER) Sowvinc an exponenriat EQUATION Solve 3%"! = .4*?, Give the solution to the nearest thousandth, Solution 32-1 = gut? In 3 = In a? Take natural logarithms on both sides, Qx-1)In3=(4+2)In.4 Power propery 2eln3 —In3 = xIn4 + 2In.4 _Disinbutive propery (Section R2) 2cIn3~ cln4=2inA + In3 Write thewims with xonone side AQ In3 = In.4)=2In4+ In3 Factor out», ection RA) 2in.4 + 1n3 2in3 — nd Divide by 2 In3 ~ In Power property Apply the exponents Produet propery (Quotient property (ection 4.3) x= -.236 "This seoen suppor he sola \ (Tiss pprosnate] sion found in Example 2 ‘The solution set is {~.236}. [Now Tay ExeRCisE >. <]460. CHAPTERS Inverse, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions [EESIIIIEE sowvinc base eexroneNtiat EQUATIONS Solve each equation. Give solutions to the nearest thousandth. (a) e* = 200 (b) et! se = 3 Solution (a) 200 1200 Take natura logarithms on bot sides In 200 Ine’ =. Section 4,3) (te Vin 300 Square oot propery Section 1.4) x= £2302 Useacalevtator. ‘The solution set is {2.302}. ) a 36 os = 0" Geetion R3) Divide by «2 = a" © Getion R3) In3——— Take natural logarithms on both sides. “2rIne=In3——_ Power ponerty 2x =1n3 new! xe —4in3 oitipy by ~§ 2 x= 549 ‘The solution set is {—.549}. [Now Ta exencists 15 AND 7. 4 Logarithmic Equations — The nest examples show various ways o solve logarithmic equations [GEEZ sowine 4 LocaniTHmic EQUATION Solve log(x + 6) — log(x + 2) = log x. Solution log(x + 6) ~ log(x + 2) = logx x46 log 5 = logx — Quovient prorery x+6 x2 +6 =e +2) Multiply by © ¥ 2, Gection 1.6) “x Property of logarithms4.5 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 461 E4652 42x Distributive propeny P+r-6—0 Stand form (Section 1.4) (&+3)@-2)=0 Foctor. Section R4) X= 3 of x= 2 —Zero-factor property (ection 1.4) ‘The proposed negative solution (x = ~3) is not in the domain of log x in the ‘original equation, so the only valid solution is the positive number 2, giving the solution set {2}. NOW TRY EXERCISE 47, > Caution Recall that the domain of y = log, x is (0,2). For this reason, it | is always necessary to check that proposed solutions of a logarithmic equa- tion result in logarithms of positive numbers in the original equation, SOLVING A LOGARITHMIC EQUATION Solve log(3x + 2) + log(x — 1) = 1. Give the exact value(s) ofthe solution(s). Solution The notation log x is an abbreviation for logiox, and I = logy 10. log(3x + 2) + loge — 1) = 1 log(3x + 2) + log(x — 1) = log 10 Substitute log((x + 2) - 1)] log 10 Product property @r+ 2-1) =10 Propeny of logarithms 3e—x-2=10 Malpy. (Section R3) ae-x-12~0 Subtract 10 = Visa eo LEVEE oc ctratic formula (ection 14) 6 ‘The number = is negative, so x ~ 1 is negative. Therefore, log(x — 1) is not defined and this proposed solution must be discarded, Since + > 1, both 3x + 2 and x1 are postive and the solution se ie {L315}, INOW TRY EXERCISE 49, > Note The definition of logarithm could have been used in Example 5 by | first writing, log(3x + 2) + logte — 1) = 1 logiol(3x + 2)G@— DJ= 1 Proiucr propery (Bx + 2)Q — 1) = 10', Definition of logarithm (Section 4.3) and then continuing as shown above.462. CHAPTERS Inverse, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions [GESEITEIE sowvine 4 Base: LocaRmHMic EQUATION Solve In e"* — In(x — 3) = In 2. Give the exact value(s) of the solution(s). Solution Ine’ — In(x — 3) = In2 Inv = Ine 3)=In2_— oe = x (eation 4.3) Quotient property Property of logarithms Multiply by x = 3. Solve for. Seetion 1.1) ‘Verify thatthe solution st is (6. (NOW TRY EXERCISE A summary of the methods used for solving equations in this section follows. SOLVING EXPONENTIAL OR LOGARITHMIC EQUATIONS ‘To solve an exponential or logarithmic equation, change the given equation into one of the following forms, where a and b are real numbers, a > 0 and @# 1, and follow the guidelines. La =5 Solve by taking logarithms on both sides. 2, log, fle) = Solve by changing to exponential form a’ = f(x). 3. log, fix) = log. g(x) ‘The given equation is equivalent to the equation f(x) = glx). Solve algebraically. 4, In a more complicated equation, such as the one in Example 3(b), it may be necessary to first solve for a or log, flx) and then solve the resulting equation using one of the methods given above. ‘Check that the proposed solution is in the domain. Applications and Modeling [ESRI +P ovrin AN exroneNTiAL EQUATION TOTHE STRENGTH OF A HABIT ‘The strength of a habit is a function of the number of times the habit is repeated, If V is the number of repetitions and HY is the strength of the habit, then, accord- ing to psychologist C.L, Hull, H = 10000 ~ e where kis a constant, Solve this equation for k.1980 1985 g | als|s Source: Static Abstract ofthe United Stats. 1542 1748 19:17 20.08 2258 2239 4.5 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 463 Solution First solve the equation for e~™ = 1000(1 ~ Divide by 1000. Subtract | Multiply by ~1; rewete Now we solve for k. ‘on both sides -w= (1 -&) ie} 1 H k= Ful - 4) Multiply by — With the final equation, if one pair of values for H and N is known, k can be found, and the equation can then be used to find either H or N for given values of the other variable. nee mt te ) Take natural logarithms Now TRY EXERCISE 63. 4) ‘The logarithmic equation used in the final example was determined by curve fitting, which was described at the end of Seetion 4.4. [SEIU MODELING coaL CONSUMPTION IN THE US. ‘The table gives U.S. coal consumption (in quadrillions of British thermal units, or quads) for several years. The data can be modeled with the function defined by flo) = 26.97 Int ~ 102.46, = 80, where ¢ is the number of years after 1900, and f(7) is in quads. (a) Approximately what amount of coal was consumed in the United States in 2003? How does this figure compare to the actual figure of 22.32 quads? (b) If this trend continues, approximately when will annual consumption reach 25 quads? Solution (a) The year 2003 is represented by ¢ = 2003 ~ 1900 = 103. f(03) = 26.97 In 103 = 102.46 ~ 2254 Use a caleutator, Based on this model, 22.54 quads were used in 2003. This figure is very close to the actual amount of 22.32 quads.464 CHAPTER Inverse, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions (b) Lets) = 25, and solve fort 25 = 2697 Int ~ 102.46 127.46 ‘Add 102.46, Divide by 26:97; revit Wei in exponential form r= 13 Use a caleulat: Add 113 to 1900 to get 2013. Annual consumption will reach 25 quads in approximately 2013. [NOW TRY EXERCISE 81. | PEI cers ose mere! enon cer sao can be solved for its exact solution using the meaning of logarithm and the change-of- base theorem. Since x is the exponent to which 5 must be raised in order to obtain 9, the exact solution is oe9 Ind togs9, or ER, or For each equation, give the exact solution in three forms similar to the forms explained here. L719 2 #10 a(4y-n 4 (t)fna t= = . (4 (+ Solve eack exponential equation. Express irrational solutions as decimals correct to the nearest thousandth, See Examples 1-3. Se 6-13 i 2 (6 14, t= PS m() 2A, .O5(L.15¥ = 5 22. 1297 = 6 B30) +1= 100 A SLZPAHT=T 28, 210.05" +3= 10 261A —4= 60 27. S(LOIS P= B28, 30— H(75' = 29. Solve each logarithmic equation, Express all solutions in exact form. See Examples 4-6, 29, Stax = 10 30, Slogs = 2 31. Inds) = 15 32, In(2x) = 5 33, log? ~ 3) = 5 34. In =) = > 38, lop(2x +4) = 2 36, logl8 ~ 38) = 37. logis? +37) = 3 38. loge +65) 0 39, Inx + nx? =3 40, logx + log? = 34.5 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 465 41. log x + log (x — 21) = 2 42, log x + log(3x ~ 13) = 1 43. logle +25) = 14 log(2e— 7) 4, dogK LL + 9) = 3 + logte + 3) 48. In(4x — 2) — In = —In(x — 2) 46. In(S + 4x) = In(3 + 2) 47. logs(x + 2) + logs(x — 2) 48, loga(x — 7) + log: x 49, log,(2x — 3) + logax + I) = 1 50, logs(3x + 2) + logsix — 1) = 1 SL. Ine*—2ine = ine* ‘52, Ine'— Ine’ = Ine* 3: log,(log:2) = 1 54, log x= Viogx (65. log x? = (logx)* 56, log, V2e -2 57. Concept Check Suppose you overhear the following statement: “I must reject any negative answer when I solve an equation involving logarithms.” Is this correct? Why or why not? 58. Concept Check What values of x could not possibly be solutions of the following equation’? log.(4x ~ 7) + logo + 4) Solve each equation for the indicated variable, Use logarithms with the appropriate bases. See Example 7. Bi p=o+, tors — king, fore Pi 61. T= Ty + (T— T)10™, fore mar forn E 63. Rin "), fort ; a 65. y= A+ BU e%), for m= 6~25109(M), ora 7 ogA=Iog8~ Clr ford 6h d= 1014(E), ter wan r(iet)\, torr 70. D= 160 + 101g, forx For Exercises 71-76, refer to the formulas for compound interest given in Section 4.2. awe(ieZ) and an ze: TL. Compound Amount 1€$10,000 is invested in an account at 3% annual interest com- pounded quarterly, how much will be inthe account in $ yr if no money is withdrawn? 72. Compound Amount If $5000 is invested in an account at 4% annual interest compounded continuously, how much will be in the account in 8 yr if no money is withdrawn? 173. Investment Time Kurt Daniels wants to buy a $30,000 car. He has saved $27,000. Find the number of years (to the nearest tenth) it will take for his $27,000 to grov to $30,000 at 4% interest compounded quartery. 74, Investment Time Find to the nearest hundredth if $1786 becomes $2063 at 2.6%, With interest compounded monthly 75. Incerest Rate Find the interest rate to the nearest hundredth of a percent that will produce $2500, if $2000 is lft at interest compounded semiannually for 35 yr.466 CHAPTER 4 Inverse, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions 76. Interest Rate At what interest rate, to the nearest hundredth of a percent, will $16,000 grow to $20,000 if invested for 5.25 yr and interes is compounded quarterly? (Modeling) Solve each application, See Example 8. ‘71. In the central Sierra Nevada (a mountain range in California), the percent of mois- ture that falls as snow rather than rain is approximated reasonably well by {fls) = 863 nx ~ 680, where xis the altitude in feet and f(x) is the percent of snow. Find the percent of mois ture that falls as snow at each altitude. (a) 30008 (b) 4000 (@) 7000 "78. C. Home Creations finds that its total sales in dollars, T(x), from the distribution of x thousand eatalogues is approximated by T(x) = 5000 log(x + 1). FFind the total sales resulting from the distribution of each number of catalogues, (a) 5000 (b) 24,000) 49,000 79. Average Annual Public Us Costs ‘The table shows the cost of a year’s tuition, room and board, and fees at public university from 2000-2008. Letting y represent the cost fand x represent the number of years since 2000, we find that the function defined by fle) = 8160(1.06)" models the data quite well According to this _200# 810298 function, when will the cost in 2000 be 2005 10810 sou 2006 S135 2007 S118 Source: ww.pinetonreviewcom 80, Race Speed Atthe World Championship races held t Rome's Olympic Stadium in 1987, American sprinter Carl Lewis ran the 100-m race in 9.86 sec. His speed in me~ ters per second after seconds is closely modeled by the function defined by Fl) = 11.6501 ~ (Source: Banks, Robert B., Towing Icebergs, Falling Dominoes, and Other ‘Adventures in Applied Mathematics, Princeton University Press, 1998,) (a) How fast was he running as he crossed the finish line? (b) After how many seconds was he running atthe rate of 10 m per sec? Fatherless Children ‘The percent of U.S, children growing up without a father has increased rapidly since 19S0, If x represents the number of years since 1900, the function defined by 8145 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 467 ‘models the percent fairly well. (Source: National Longitueinal Survey of Youth; US. Department of Commerce; U.S. Census Bureau.) (a) What percent of U.S. children lived in a home without a father in 1997? (b) In what year were 10% of these children living in a home without a father? 82. Height of the Eiffel Tower Paris's Biffel ‘Tower was constructed in 1889 to commem- ‘orate the one hundredth anniversary of the French Revolution. The right side of the Eiffel Tower has a shape that can be approximated by the graph of the function defined by Fo) = 301 In See the figure. (Source: Banks, Robert B., Towing Icebergs, Falling Dominoes, and Other Adventures in Applied Mathematics, Princeton University Press, 1998.) (a) Explain why the shape ofthe left side ofthe Eiffel Tower has the formula given by f(x). (b) The short horizontal fine at the top of the figure has length 15.7488 Approximately how tall isthe Eiffel Tower? (©) Approximately how far from the center ofthe tower isthe point onthe right side ‘that is 500 ft above the ground’? 83. CO; Fmissions Tax One action that government could take to reduce carbon emis- sions into the atmosphere is to place a tax on fossil fuel. This tax would be based on the amount of carbon dioxide emitted into the air when the fuel is burned. The cost- benefit equation In(1 = P) = =.0034 = 00537 ‘models the approximate relationship between a tax of T dollars per ton of earbon and the corresponding percent reduction P (in decimal form) of emissions of carbon dioxide. (Source: Nordhause, W, “To Slow or Not to Slow: The Economies ofthe Greenhouse Effect,” Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut) (a) Write Pas a function of 7 E10) Graph P for 0 = T= 1000. Discuss the benefic of continuing to aise taxes on carbon, (6) Determine P when 7 — $60, and interpret his est (€) What value of 7 will give a 50% reduction in carbone 84, Radiative Forcing (Refer to Example 5 in Section 4.4) Using computer models, the Intemational Pane! on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1990 estimated & 10 be 6.3 in the radiative forcing equation c Reka Cr where C9 isthe preindosial amount of carbon dioxide and Ci the cunt eel (Source: Cline, W, The Economies of Global Marming Insite for nrnaina Economies, Wishington, D.C, 1992) (a) Use the equation 8 = 63 In to determine the radave forcing R (in wats per square meter) expected by the IPCC ifthe carbon diode level inthe ftmospere doubles rom ts prcndsti level (b) Determine the global temperature incease T. predicted by the IPCC if the carbon dioxide levels were to double. (Hint: T(R) = 1.03R.)468 CHAPTERS Inverse, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions Find f~'(), and give the domain and range. 8S. fle) se 4 86. f(x) = 2In 3x SUse a graphing calculator t0 solve each equation. Give irrational solutions correct to the nearest hundredth 81. e +Inx=5 Bet Ine + 3 8B. Ze HT te 90. e+ 60" 91. loge 2 Bet Md 9 Ins WED RELATING CONCEPTS Applications and Models of Exponential Growth and Decay ‘The Exponential Growth or Decay Function » Growth Function Models = Decay Function Models "Y LOOKING AHEAD TO CALCULUS ‘The exponential growth and decay fanetion formulas ae studied in clew- usin conjunction with he topic ‘ovo a ferential equations. The Exponential Growth or Decay Function In many situations that occur in ecology, biology, economics, and the social sciences, a quantity ‘changes ata rate proportional to the amount present. In such cases the amount present at time ¢ is a special function of ¢ called an exponential growth or decay function. ETNA RO xo ONE Let yp be the amount or number present at time ¢ = 0. Then, under certain conditions, the amount present at any time t is modeled by yaye’, where k is a constant, ‘When k > 0, the function describes growth; in Section 4.2, we saw examples of ‘exponential growth: compound interest and atmospheric carbon dioxide, for ex- ample. When k <0, the function describes decay; one example of exponential decay is radioactivity.