Chapter 2: Computer-System Structures

 Computer System Operation

 I/O Structure
 Storage Structure
 Storage Hierarchy
 Hardware Protection
 General System Architecture
Computer-System Architecture
 Computer-System Operation

 I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently.

 Each device controller is in charge of a particular device
type.
 Each device controller has a local buffer.
 CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local
buffers
 I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller.
 Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its
operation by causing an interrupt.
 Common Functions of Interrupts

 Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service

routine generally, through the interrupt vector, which
contains the addresses of all the service routines.
 Interrupt architecture must save the address of the
interrupted instruction.
 Incoming interrupts are disabled while another interrupt
is being processed to prevent a lost interrupt.
 A trap is a software-generated interrupt caused either
by an error or a user request.
 Interrupt Handling
 The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by
storing registers and the program counter.
 Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:
 Polling – in polling CPU waste lots of cpu cylces by
repeatedly checking the commnad ready bit of every device.
 vectored interrupt system – an alternative to a polled
interrupt, which requires that the interrupt handler to send a
signal to each device in turn in order to find out which one
sent the interrupt request.
 An interrupt can occur at any instant of time whereas, CPU
keeps polling the device at the regular intervals.
 Separate segments of code determine what action should
be taken for each type of interrupt
 I/O Structure

 After I/O starts, control returns to user program only upon

I/O completion.
 Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next interrupt
 Wait loop (contention for memory access).
 At most one I/O request is outstanding at a time, no
simultaneous I/O processing.
 After I/O starts, control returns to user program without
waiting for I/O completion.
 System call – request to the operating system to allow user
to wait for I/O completion.
 Device-status table contains entry for each I/O device
indicating its type, address, and state.
 Operating system indexes into I/O device table to determine
device status and to modify table entry to include interrupt.
 Two I/O Methods
Synchronous Asynchronous
 Direct Memory Access Structure

 Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit

information at close to memory speeds.
 Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer
storage directly to main memory without CPU
intervention.
 Only on interrupt is generated per block, rather than the
one interrupt per byte.
 Storage Structure

 Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU

can access directly.
 Secondary storage – extension of main memory that
provides large nonvolatile storage capacity.
 Magnetic disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered with
magnetic recording material
 Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are
subdivided into sectors.
 The disk controller determines the logical interaction
between the device and the computer.
Moving-Head Disk Mechanism
 Storage Hierarchy

 Storage systems organized in hierarchy.

 Speed
 Cost
 Volatility
 Caching – copying information into faster storage system;
main memory can be viewed as a last cache for
secondary storage.
Storage-Device Hierarchy
 Caching

 Use of high-speed memory to hold recently-accessed

data.
 Requires a cache management policy.
 Caching introduces another level in storage hierarchy.
This requires data that is simultaneously stored in more
than one level to be consistent.
 Hardware Protection

 Dual-Mode Operation
 I/O Protection
 Memory Protection
 CPU Protection
 Dual-Mode Operation

 Sharing system resources requires operating system to

ensure that an incorrect program cannot cause other
programs to execute incorrectly.
 Provide hardware support to differentiate between at least
two modes of operations.
1. User mode – execution done on behalf of a user.
2. Monitor mode (also kernel mode or system mode) –
execution done on behalf of operating system.
 Dual-Mode Operation (Cont.)

 Mode bit added to computer hardware to indicate the

current mode: monitor (0) or user (1).
 When an interrupt or fault occurs hardware switches to
monitor mode.
Interrupt/fault

monitor user
set user mode

Privileged instructions can be issued only in monitor mode.

 I/O Protection

 All I/O instructions are privileged instructions.

 Must ensure that a user program could never gain control
of the computer in monitor mode (I.e., a user program
that, as part of its execution, stores a new address in the
interrupt vector).
Use of A System Call to Perform I/O
 Memory Protection

 Must provide memory protection at least for the interrupt

vector and the interrupt service routines.
 In order to have memory protection, add two registers
that determine the range of legal addresses a program
may access:
 Base register – holds the smallest legal physical memory
address.
 Limit register – contains the size of the range
 Memory outside the defined range is protected.
Use of A Base and Limit Register
Hardware Address Protection
 Hardware Protection

 When executing in monitor mode, the operating system

has unrestricted access to both monitor and user’s
memory.
 The load instructions for the base and limit registers are
privileged instructions.
 CPU Protection

 Timer – interrupts computer after specified period to

ensure operating system maintains control.
 Timer is decremented every clock tick.
 When timer reaches the value 0, an interrupt occurs.
 Timer commonly used to implement time sharing.
 Time also used to compute the current time.
 Load-timer is a privileged instruction.