Field and Wave Electromagnetic

Chapter7

The time varying fields and Maxwell’s equation

Introduction (1)
Time static fields
1) Electrostatic
∇ × E = 0, ∇i D = ρ , D = ε E
2) Magnetostatic
1
∇i B = 0, ∇× H = J, H = B
μ
note) E and D are not related to B and H for time static cases

Example)
A static E field in a conducting medium ⇒ steady current.( J = σ E )
⇒ give rises to a static magnetic field:Ampere's law. But E field can be completely
determined from the static electric charge or potential distributions
⇒ magnetic field is a consequence

Electromagnetic Theory 2 2
 Introduction (2)
Time varying fields
& E and D are properly related to B and H
1) modify ∇ × E equation → fundamental postulate leading to Faraday's law
2) then modify the ∇ × H equation to be consistent with the equation of continuity
∂ρ
cf ) ∇i J = 0 for static. but ∇i J = − for time varying
∂t
3) ∇i D = ρ and ∇i B = 0 never changes.

Electromagnetic Theory 2 3

Faraday’s Law
Michael Faraday ⇒ 1831, experimental law ⇒ postulate
Definition : the quantitative relationship between the induced emf and the rate
of change of flux linkage

Fundamental postulate for Electromagnetic Induction

∂B
∇× E = − ⇒ Non-conservative field cannot be expressed
∂t
as the gradient of a scalar potential
∂B
∫ C
E idl = − ∫
S ∂t
idS

Electromagnetic Theory 2 4
A Stationary Circuit in a Time Varying Magnetic Field (1)

d ∂ d ∂
∫ C
E idl = −
dt ∫S
B i ds (∵
∂t
→
dt
, since stationary
∂t
ds = 0)

Right hand rule (counter clock wise)

2 dΦ dΦ
emf , v = ∫ E idl = − , Assume >0
1 dt dt
⇒ v < 0 ⇒ driving current to flow in the direction of clock wise
potential difference of gap between terminal 1 and2
1
assume V12 = − ∫ E idl < 0 ∵V2 > V1
2

Electromagnetic Theory 2 5

A Stationary Circuit in a Time Varying Magnetic Field (2)

Define v = ∫ C
E idl : emf induced in circuit with contour C

1 1
2 ~
2

v : electromagnetive force driving current in the direction of right hand rule

Meaning of contour integral Field between the terminal in the gap
2 1
∫ right
hand
E idl = ∫ E idl (∵ inside contour E = 0) = −∫ E idl = V1 − V2 = V12
1 2

⇒ can be replaced with voltage source. But polarity of v = V12 depends on

the change of the flux linkage

Electromagnetic Theory 2 6
A Stationary Circuit in a Time Varying Magnetic Field (3)

∂B
e.g) > 0 then v (current is in the direction of left hand rule) i.e V12 < 0
∂t

Define Φ = ∫ Bids : magnetic flux crossing surface S [Wb]

S

dΦ
then v = − ⇒ This is valid even in the absense of a physical closed circuit
dt

note The emf induced in a stationary loop caused by a time-varying magnetic

field is a transformer emf

Electromagnetic Theory 2 7

Ex 7-1) A Circular Loop of N Turns of Conducting Wire

πr
A circular loop of N turns, B = zB0 cos( ) sin wt
2b
Find the emf induced in the loop
b πr 2π
sol) each turn Φ = ∫ Bids=∫ ( zB0 cos sin wt )i( z 2π rdr ) cf ) ∫ dφ = 2π
S 0 2b 0

8b 2
π z
= ( − 1) B0 sin wt
π 2
∴ N-turns ⇒ N Φ
dΦ 8 Nb 2 π
∴v = −N =− ( − 1) B0 cos wt [V]
dt π 2

y
b

Electromagnetic Theory 2 8
 Transformers (1)
mmf

∑N I = ∑ℜ Φ
j
j j
k
k k

N1, N2 , i1, i2 ⇒ number of turns and the currents

ℜ : the reluctance of the magnetic circuit

∴ N1i1 − N 2 i2 = ℜΦ
(where N1i1 : mmf in the positive direction, N 2 i2 : mmf in the negative direction)
l
ℜ=
μS
l
∴ N1i1 − N 2 i2 = Φ
μS

Electromagnetic Theory 2 9

Transformers (2)
a) Ideal transformer
i1 N 2
μ → ∞, N1i1 = N 2i2 ⇒ =
i2 N1
cf ) Faraday's law
dΦ
v1 = N1 ( No negative sign, careful of sign of flux Φ)
dt
dΦ v N
v2 = N 2 (But flux is in the reverse direction) ∴ 1 = 1
dt v2 N 2
effective load seen by the source connected to primary winding
⎛ N1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ v2 2
v1 ⎝ N 2 ⎠ ⎛N ⎞
( R1 )eff = = = ⎜ 1 ⎟ RL
i1 ⎛ N 2 ⎞ ⎝ N2 ⎠
⎜ ⎟ i2
⎝ N1 ⎠
2
⎛N ⎞
∴ Impedance transformation ( Z1 )eff = ⎜ 1 ⎟ ZL
⎝ N2 ⎠

Electromagnetic Theory 2 10
 Transformers (3)
b) Real transformer
l
N1i1 − N 2 i2 = Φ
μs
μs μs
⇒ Λ1 = N1Φ = ( N12 i1 − N1 N 2 i2 ), Λ 2 = N 2 Φ = ( N1 N 2 i1 − N 22 i2 )
l l
di1 di2 di1 di2
∵ v1 = L1 − L12 , v2 = L12 − L2
dt dt dt dt
μs 2 μs 2 μs
(where L1 = N1 , L2 = N 2 , L12 = N1 N 2 )
l l l
For an ideal transformer ⇒ No leakage flux ∴ L12 = L1 L2
For a real transformer ∴ L12 = k L1 L2 , k < 1 (k : coefficient of coupling)

Electromagnetic Theory 2 11

Transformers (4)
Equivalent circuit

R1 , R2 : winding resistance
X 1 , X 2 : leakage inductive reactance
Rc : power loss due to hysteresis and eddy current
X c : nonlinear inductive reactance due to the nonlinear magnetization behavior
of the ferromagnetic core

Electromagnetic Theory 2 12
A Moving Conductor in a Static Magnetic Field
Fm = qu × B
→ Charge Seperation
→ Coulomb force of an attraction
→ Fm and Fe will balance each other to be in equilibrium.

∴ Magnetic force per unit charge

Fm F
= u × B , V = − ∫ E ⋅ dl , E = − m
q q
2
∴ V21 = ∫ (u × B ) ⋅ dl
1

The emf generated around the closed loop is

V '= ∫ C
(u × B ) ⋅ dl → flux cutting emf

Electromagnetic Theory 2 13

Ex 6-5) A Metal Bar Sliding Over Conducting Rails

B = zB
ˆ 0 , constant u

a) V0 = V1 − V2 = ∫ C
(u × B ) ⋅ dl
1'
= ∫ ( xu
ˆ × zB
ˆ 0 ) ⋅ ( ydl
ˆ )
2'

= −uB0 h

V0 (uB0 h) 2
b) I = , Pl = I 2 R =
R R

c) mechanical power
1'
Fm = I ∫ dl × B = − xIB
ˆ 0h
2'

(I : negative direction to dl )
u 2 B0 2 h 2
∴ Pm = F ⋅ u = − Fm ⋅ u =
R

Electromagnetic Theory 2 14
A Moving Circuit in a Time Varying Magnetic Field (1)

Fm = q ( E + u × B )
To an observer moving with C,
the force on q can be interpreted as caused by an electric field E ',
E'= E +u ×B

∂B
∫ C
E '⋅ dl = − ∫
S ∂t
ds + ∫ C
(u × B ) ⋅ dl → General form of Faraday law

the emf induced motional emf

in the moving due to the motion
frame of reference of the circuit in B

transformer emf
due to the time
variation

Electromagnetic Theory 2 15

A Moving Circuit in a Time Varying Magnetic Field (2)

The time rate of chage of magnetic flux,
dΦ d
dt dt ∫S
= B ⋅ ds

= lim ⎡ ∫ B (t + Δt ) ⋅ ds2 − ∫ B (t ) ⋅ ds1 ⎤

1
Δt → 0 Δt ⎢⎣ S2 S1 ⎥⎦
∂B (t )
cf) B ( t + Δt ) = B (t ) + Δt + H .O.T . Taylor's series
∂t
∂B
⋅ ds + lim ⎡ ∫ B ⋅ ds2 − ∫ B ⋅ ds1 + H .O.T .⎤
d 1
dt ∫S
∴ B ⋅ ds = ∫
S ∂t ⎢ S2
Δt → 0 Δt ⎣ S1 ⎦⎥
assuming side surface S 3 as the area swept out by the conductor in time Δt
dS3 = dl × u Δt
from divergence theorem

∫ V
∇ ⋅ B dv = ∫ B ⋅ ds2 − ∫ B ⋅ ds1 + ∫ B ⋅ ds3
S2 S1 S3

∴ ∫
S2
B ⋅ ds2 − ∫ B ⋅ ds1 = −Δt
S1 ∫ C
(u × B ) ⋅ dl

d ∂B
dt ∫S
∴ B ⋅ ds = ∫ ⋅ ds − ∫ (u × B ) ⋅ dl
S ∂t C

d dΦ
∴ V ' = ∫ E 'idl = − ∫ B ⋅ ds = −
C dt S dt

Electromagnetic Theory 2 16
 Maxwell’s Equation (1)

static Time varying

∂B
∇× E = 0 ∇× E = −
∂t
∇i D = ρ , D = ε E
∇i D = ρ

∇× H = J ∂D
∇× H = J +
∂t
∇i B = 0, B = μ H
∇i B = 0

Electromagnetic Theory 2 17

Maxwell’s Equation (2)

Note ① Continuity equation
∇i J = 0: for steady state current
∂ρ
∇i J = − : time varying current
∂t
② Vector identity
∂ρ
∇i(∇ × H ) = 0 = ∇i J ⇒ contradiction ∇i J = −
∂t
∂ρ ⎛ ∂D ⎞
∴ ∇i(∇ × H ) = 0 = ∇i J + = ∇i⎜ J + ⎟ , where ρ = ∇i D
∂t ⎝ ∂t ⎠
∂D Displacement current density. [A/m2]
∇× H = J + Time varying electric field and induced magnetic field→coupling
∂t
Cf) Lorentz force equation, F = q ( E + u × B)

Electromagnetic Theory 2 18
 Integral Form of Maxwell’s Equation
Cf) Differential form → Point function
∂B
∇× E = − ⇒ Apply stokes's theorem over open surface S with contour C
∂t

∂B
∫ (∇ × E )ids = −∫
S ∂t S
ids

∂B dΦ
① ∫ E idl = − ∫ ids = − : Faraday's law
c s ∂t dt
∂D
② ∫ H idl = I + ∫ ids : Ampere's circuital law
c s ∂t

③ ∇i D = ρ ⇒ ∫ Dids = Q : Gauss law

s

④ ∇i B = 0 ⇒ ∫ Bids = 0 : No isolated magnetic charge

s

Electromagnetic Theory 2 19

Ex. 7-5
(a) Displacement current = conduction current
1 conduction current → current on the wire.
Apply circuit theorem
dv
iC = C1 c = C1V0ω cos ωt
dt
2 Displacement current. Reminding
∂D
∇× H = J +
∂t
A
Assuming the area A, plate separation d, permitivity μ , then C1 = ε
d
Assume E is uniform in the dielectric (ignoring fringing effects)
then
v V
E = c , D = ε E = ε 0 sin ωt
d d
∂D A
iD = ∫ ids = ε V0ω cos ωt = C1V0ω cos ωt = iC
A ∂t d

Electromagnetic Theory 2 20
 Ex. 7-5
(b) Magnetic field intensity reminding Ampere's law
∂D ∂D
∇× H = J +
∂t
, ∫ C
H idl = I + ∫
S ∂t
ids

① surface S1 with ring C

② surface S2 with ring C
① D = 0, ∫ C
H idl = 2π rHφ
( Symmetry around the wire along the contour C) ⇒ constant Hφ
I = ∫ J ids = iC = C1V0ω cos ωt
S

② no conduction current, but displacement current

C1V0
I = id , ∴ Hφ = ω cos ωt
2π r

Electromagnetic Theory 2 21

Potential Functions (1)

Vector magnetic potential, A
B = ∇ × A (Solenoidal nature of B)
Vector identity ∇i B = 0, ∇i(∇ × A) = 0
▷ Recall Faraday's law Curl free

∂B ∂ ⎛ ∂A⎞
∇× E = − ∴∇ × E = − (∇ × A) ⇒ ∇ × ⎜ E + ⎟=0
∂t ∂t ⎝ ∂t ⎠
▷ Vector identity ∇ × (∇V ) = 0
and reminding E = −∇V for electromagnetics
∂A ∂A
E+ = −∇V for time varying i.e) E = −∇V − [V / m]
∂t ∂t

Electromagnetic Theory 2 22
 Potential Functions (2)
∂A
Cf) Static → = 0 ∴ E = −∇V
∂t
Time varying E is induced by charge distribution ρ and time varying
magnetic field → time varying current, J

▷ B also depends on A ∴ E , B are coupled

1 ρ μ0 J
▷V =
4πε 0 ∫
v' R
dv ', A =
4π ∫
v' R
dv ' : From the static condition

These are solution of poisson equation

ρ
∇ 2V = − and ∇ 2 A = − μ0 J
ε0
▷ The time-retardation effects associated with the finite velocity of
propagation is neglected

Electromagnetic Theory 2 23

Potential Functions (3)

Quasi-static fields
- ρ and J vary slowly with time
- the range of interest R is small compared to the wavelength
cf) Frequency is high, and R is large compared to wavelength
: time-retardation effect must be included.
From the equations
∂A ∂D
B = ∇ × A, E = −∇V − , ∇× H = J + (B = μ H , D = ε E)
∂t ∂t
∂⎛ ∂A⎞
∇ × ∇ × A = μ J + με ⎜ −∇V − ⎟
∂t ⎝ ∂t ⎠
Recalling vector identity
∇ × ∇ × A = ∇(∇i A) − ∇ 2 A

Electromagnetic Theory 2 24
 Potential Functions (4)
⎛ ∂V ⎞ ∂2 A
∴∇(∇i A) − ∇ 2 A = μ J − ∇ ⎜ με ⎟ − με
⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t 2
∂2 A ⎛ ∂V ⎞
∇ A − με 2 = − μ J + ∇ ⎜ ∇i A + με
2
⎟
∂t ⎝ ∂t ⎠
- we only designated ∇ × A = B but we are free to choose ∇i A
- vector A will be specified by giving ∇ × A and ∇i A

∂V ∂V
- let ∇i A + με = 0 , for static = 0 ∴∇i A = 0
∂t ∂t
Lorentz gauge for potentials

Electromagnetic Theory 2 25

Potential Functions (5)

∂V ∂A
cf) For static, = 0, =0
∂t ∂t
∴∇i A = 0
then vector poisson equation
∇ 2 A = − μ0 J

- Then nonhomogeneous wave equation for vector potential becomes

∂2 A
∇ 2 A − με = − μ J : Vector potential wave equation
∂t 2
 Potential Functions(6)
∨ Scalar potential wave equation
∂A ⎛ ∂A⎞
E = −∇V − , ∇i D = ρ ⇒ −∇iε ⎜ ∇V + ⎟=ρ
∂t ⎝ ∂t ⎠
∂ ρ ∂V
∴∇ 2V + (∇i A) = − , ∇i A = − με
∂t ε ∂t
∂ 2V ρ
∴ ∇ 2V − με =−
∂t 2
ε

Electromagnetic Theory 2 27

Boundary Condition (1)

⊙ Electric field's boundary condition
∂B
∫ c
E idl = − ∫
s ∂t
ids ... ∫ s
Dids = ∫ ρ dv
v
...

From equation
∂B
∫ s ∂t
ids → 0 when Δh → 0, since area S → 0

∴ E1t = E2t (E1t Δw − E2t Δw = 0)

Electromagnetic Theory 2 28
 Boundary Condition (2)
From equation

∫ s
Dids = ( D1 in2 + D2 in1 )ΔS = n2 i( D1 − D2 )ΔS = ρ s ΔS

∴ n2 i( D1 − D2 ) = ρ s , D2 n − D1n = ρ s
Magnetic field's boundary conditions
⎛ ∂D ⎞
∫ c
H idl = ∫ ⎜ J +
s
⎝
⎟ids
∂t ⎠
∴ H1 iΔw + H 2 i(−Δw) = J sn Δw , H1t − H 2t = J sn
i.e) n2 × ( H1 − H 2 ) = J s
cf) n2 & J s are perpendicular to each other

Electromagnetic Theory 2 29

Boundary Condition (3)

note)
The tangential component of the H field is discontinuous across an
interface where a free surface current exists

if both media have finite conductivity, currents are defined by volume

current density
→ surface currents do not exists
→ H1t = H 2t
i.e) discontinuous only for interface with an ideal perfect conductor or super
conductor.
∇i B = 0 ∴ B1n = B2 n

Electromagnetic Theory 2 30
 Interface Between Two Lossless Linear Media

Linear media → permitivity : ε , permeability : μ

Lossless → σ =0

Assume, at interface, no free charge → ρS =0

no surface currents → J S =0

D1t ε1 B1t μ1
E1t = E2t ⇒ = , H1t = H 2t ⇒ =
D2t ε 2 B2t μ2
D1n = D2 n ⇒ ε1 E1n = ε 2 E2 n , B1n = B2 n ⇒ μ1 H1n = μ2 H 2 n

Electromagnetic Theory 2 31

Interface between a Dielectric and Perfect Conductor (1)

Good conductor → perfect conductor

Interior of perfect conductor (surface charge only) : E
( E , D) ⇒ ( B, H ) are zero in the interior of a conductor
cf) In static case, E , D may be zero, but H , B may not be zero.

E 2 = 0, H 2 = 0, D 2 = 0, B2 = 0

Electromagnetic Theory 2 32
Interface between a Dielectric and Perfect Conductor (2)

E1t = 0, E2t = 0
n2 × ( H1 − H 2 ) = J s , H 2t = 0
H1t = J sn , if J sn = 0 → H1t = 0
n2 i ( D1 − D2 ) = ρ s , D2 n = 0, D1n = ρ s
B1n = 0, B2 n = 0
note) n2 : outward normal from medium2

At an interface between a dielectric and a perfect conductor

: E1 is normal to and points away from(into) the conductor surface
ρs
E1 = E1n =
ε1
: H1 is tangential to the interface with a magnitude of
H1 = H1t = J s

cf ) direction n2 × ( H1 − H 2 ) = J s

Electromagnetic Theory 2 33

Wave Equation and Their Solutions (1)

∂2 A
Wave equation : ∇ 2 A − με = −μ J
∂t 2
∂ 2V ρ
∇ 2V − με 2 = −
∂t ε
Solution :
i Assume an elemental point charge at time t , ρ (t )Δν ′ located at the
origin of the coordinates.
i Spherical coordinates.
i V depends only on R. and t because of spherical symmetry.
(No dependence on φ )
i Except at the origin,
1 ∂ ⎛ 2 ∂V ⎞ ∂ 2V
⎜ R ⎟ − με =0
R 2 ∂R ⎝ ∂R ⎠ ∂t 2

Electromagnetic Theory 2 34
Wave Equation and Their Solutions (2)
New variable
1
V ( R, t ) =U ( R, t )
R
∂ ⎛1 ⎞ 2 ⎡ 1 1 ∂U ⎤ ∂U
R2 ⎜ U ( R, t ) ⎟ = R ⎢ − 2 U + ⎥ = −U + R
∂R ⎝ R ⎠ ⎣ R R ∂R ⎦ ∂R
1 ∂ ⎡ ∂U ⎤ 1 ⎡ ∂U ∂U ∂ 2U ⎤
−U + R = ⎢ − + + R ⎥
R ∂R ⎢⎣
2
∂R ⎥⎦ R ⎣ ∂R ∂R
2
∂R 2 ⎦
1 ∂ 2U 1 ∂ 2U ∂ 2U ( R, t ) ∂ 2U ( R, t )
∴ − με = 0, i.e) − με =0
R ∂R 2 R ∂t 2 ∂R 2 ∂t 2
Any function of (t − R με ) or of (t + R με ) will satisfy the differential
equation
f (t − R με ) is a wave equation which travels away from the origin

Electromagnetic Theory 2 35

Wave Equation and Their Solutions (3)

f (t + R με ) is a wave equation which travels to the origin → physical
nonsense
∴U ( R, t ) = f (t − R με )
the function at R + ΔR at a later t + Δt.
U ( R + ΔR, t + Δt ) = f ⎡⎣t + Δt − ( R + ΔR) με ⎤⎦ = f (t − R με )

if Δt = ΔR με .
ΔR 1 ΔR 1
= ⇒ lim =u = : velocity of propagation
Δt με Δt →0 Δt με
1 ⎛ R⎞
V ( R, t ) = f ⎜t − ⎟
R ⎝ u⎠
⎛ R⎞
Determine f ⎜ t − ⎟
⎝ u⎠

Electromagnetic Theory 2 36
Wave Equation and Their Solutions (4)
Recall potential function induced by a static point charge ρ (t )Δν at
the origin
⎛ R⎞
ρ ⎜t − ⎟ Δv '
ρ (t )Δv ' ⎛ R⎞ ⎝ u⎠
ΔV ( R) = , Δf ⎜ t − ⎟ =
4πε R ⎝ u⎠ 4πε
⎛ R⎞
ρ ⎜t − ⎟
1 ⎝ u⎠
4πε ∫v '
∴ V ( R, t ) = dv ' : Retarded scalar potential
R
Scalar potential at a distance R from the source at time t
⎛ R⎞
→ Depends on the value of charge distribution at an earlier time ⎜ t − ⎟
⎝ u⎠
Retarded vector potential
⎛ R⎞
J ⎜t − ⎟
μ ⎝ u ⎠ dv '
A( R, t ) =
4π ∫v ' R

Electromagnetic Theory 2 37

Source Free Wave Equation

If the wave is in a simple (linear, isotropic and homogeneous)
non conducting medium. i.e) ε , μ (σ =0)
∂H ∂E
∇ × E = −μ , ∇× H = ε
∂t ∂t
∇i E = 0 , ∇i H = 0
From vector identity
∂ ∂2 E
∇ × ∇ × E = −μ (∇ × H ) = − με 2
∂t ∂t
cf ) A × B × C = B ( AiC ) − C ( Ai B ) = B( AiC ) − ( Ai B)C
∇(∇i E ) − (∇i∇) E = −∇ 2 E
∂2 E 1
∴∇ 2 E − με = 0 if με = 2
∂t 2 u
1 ∂2 E 1 ∂2 H
∇2 E − = 0, ∇ 2 H − 2 = 0 : Homogeneous vector wave equation
u ∂t
2 2
u ∂t 2

Electromagnetic Theory 2 38
 Time Harmonic Fields
Maxwell's equations
- linear differential equations
- sinusoidal time variation of source functions at given frequency
- E , H are sinusoidal with the same frequency

Time harmonic → steady state sinusoidal

Phasors : Amplitude and phase information
→ independent of time
cf) e jωt : time dependent factor

Electromagnetic Theory 2 39

Time Harmonic Electromagnetics (1)

Vector phasors of field vectors : depend on space coordinates
E ( x, y, z; t ) = Re ⎡⎣ E ( x, y, z )e jωt ⎤⎦ ,

where E ( x, y, z ) : vector phasor : complex quantity

∂
E ( x, y, z; t ) = Re ⎡⎣ jω E ( x, y, z )e jωt ⎤⎦
∂t
where jω E ( x, y, z ) : vector phasor
⎡ E ( x, y , z ) ⎤
∫ E ( x, y, z; t )dt = Re ⎢⎣ jω
e jωt ⎥
⎦
E ( x, y , z )
where : vector phasor
jω
∂ ∂2 1
i.e) ⇒ jω , ⇒ ( jω ) , ∫
2
⇒
∂t ∂t 2
jω

Electromagnetic Theory 2 40
 Time Harmonic Electromagnetics (2)
Maxwell's equations
Vector field phasors ( E , H )
Source phasors (ρ , J ), Simple (linear, isotropic and homogeneous) media
∇ × E = − jωμ H , ∇ × H = J + jωε E ⎫
⎪ jωt
ρ ⎬ Assuming e
∇i E = , ∇i H = 0 ⎪
ε ⎭
Time harmonic wave equation for V and A
ρ ⎫ Non-homogeneous helmholtz's equations
∇ 2V + k 2V = − ⎪
ε ⎬ ω
⎪ where k 2 = ω 2 με , k = ω με = : wave-number
∇ A + k A = −μ J ⎭
2 2
u

Electromagnetic Theory 2 41

Time Harmonic Electromagnetics (3)

∂2 A ∂V
cf ) ∇ 2 A − με = −μ J (∇i A + με = 0 ⇒ ∇i A + jωμε V = 0)
∂t 2 ∂t
∂ 2V ρ
∇ 2V − με 2 = −
∂t ε
∂2 E
∇ 2 E − με 2 = 0
∂t
∂ 2
H
∇ 2 H − με 2 = 0
∂t
Phasor solution
R ω
jω ( t − ) −j R
1 ρe u
1 ρe u

4πε ∫v ' ∫
jωt
V ( R, t ) = dv ' ⇒ V ( R)e = dv '⋅ e jωt
R 4πε v' R
⎧ 1 ρ e − jkR
4πε ∫v ' R
⎪⎪ V ( R ) = dv ' [V]
⎨ Expressions for the retarded scalar and
⎪ A( R) = μ Je − jkR vector potentials due to time harmonic sources
⎪⎩ ∫
4π v ' R
dv ' [Wb/m]

Electromagnetic Theory 2 42
 Time Harmonic Electromagnetics (4)
k 2 R2
cf) e − jkR = 1 − jkR − + ....: Taylor series expansion.
2
ω 2π f 2π
k= = = , u= fλ
u u λ
R 1 ρ
if kR = 2π
λ
1 ⇒ e − jkR = 1, then V ( R ) = ∫
4πε R
v '
dv ' ⇒ static potential

Procedure for determining the electric and magnetic fields due to

time harmonic charge and current distributions
1. Find phasors V ( R) and A( R)
∂A
2. Find phasors E ( R) = −∇V − jω A cf ) E = −∇V −
∂t
B( R) = ∇ × A
3. Find instantaneous E ( R, t )

Electromagnetic Theory 2 43

Source-free Fields in Simple Media (1)

Source free fields in simple media
⎧∇ × E = − jωμ H
⎪
⎪∇ × H = jωε E
⎨
⎪ ∇i E = 0
⎪
⎩ ∇i H = 0

⎧⎪ ∇ 2 E + k 2 E = 0
⎨ 2 Homogeneous vector Helmholtz’s equation
⎪⎩∇ H + k H = 0 and k = ω με
2 2 2

Principle of duality : Source free Maxwell's equations in a simple media

are invariant under the linear transformation
E μ
E ' =ηH, H ' = − , η=
η ε

Electromagnetic Theory 2 44
Source-free Fields in Simple Media (2)

If simple medium is conducting i.e) σ ≠ 0 ⇒ J = σ E

⎛ σ ⎞
∴∇ × H = (σ + jωε ) E = jω ⎜ ε + ⎟ E = jωε c E
⎝ jω ⎠
σ
and ε c = ε − j [F/m] : complex permitivity
ω
cf) ⋅ out of phase polarization : power loss to overcome a fractional damping
mechanism caused by the inertia the charged particle
⋅ finite conductivity → ohmic losses

Complex permitivity
ε c = ε '− jε '' [F/m] , where ε '' : out of phase polarization and finite conductivity
⇒ equivalent conductivity σ = ωε '' ← representing all losses

Electromagnetic Theory 2 45

Source-free Fields in Simple Media (3)

Complex permeability : out of phase component of magnetization
μ = μ '− j μ '', where μ ' μ '' for ferromagnetic materials
∴μ = μ '
Complex wavenumber
kc = ω με c = ω μ (ε '− jε '') : in a lossy dielectric
Loss tangent
⎧ ε '' σ
⎪⎪ tan δ c = ε ' ≅ ωε , where δ c : loss angle
⎨
⎪ loss tangent ε ''
⎪⎩ ε'
Good conductor & Good insulator
σ ωε : Good conductor
σ ωε : Good insulator

Electromagnetic Theory 2 46
Source-free Fields in Simple Media (4)
Cf) Electric hertz vector, π
∂π
A = με , V = −∇ iπ
∂t
: combine the vector and scalar potential and satisfy the Lorentz condition
⎧ ∂A
⎪⎪ E = −∇V −
∂t
⎨
⎪∇ i A + με ∂V = 0
⎩⎪ ∂t

combine continuity equation with J and ρ

∂ρ ∂P
∇i J + = 0, J = , ρ = −∇ i P
∂t ∂t

Single vector equation

∂2π P
∇ 2 π − με =−
∂t 2 ε
∂2π P
E = ∇ (∇ iπ ) − με 2 = ∇ × ∇ × π −
∂t ε
∂π
H = ε∇ ×
∂t
Electromagnetic Theory 2 47

The electromagnetic spectrum