UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA

TURKISH TOBACCO CULTURE, CURING, AND MARKETING

By WARREN T. CLARKE

Sun-curing Turkish Type Tobacco. Note use of giant reed poles.

BULLETIN No. 366

June, 1923
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS
BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA
1923
 David P. Barrows, President of the University.

EXPERIMENT STATION STAFF

HEADS OF DIVISIONS
Thomas Forsyth Hunt, Dean.
Edward J. Wickson, Horticulture (Emeritus).
, Director of Resident Instruction.
C. M. Haring, Veterinary Science, Director of Agricultural Experiment Station.
B. H. Crocheron, Director of Agricultural Extension.
C. B. Hutchison, Plant Breeding, Director of the Branch of the College of
Agriculture at Davis.
H. J. Webber, Sub-tropical Horticulture, Director of Citrus Experiment Station.
William A. Setchell, Botany.
Myer E. Jaffa, Nutrition.
Ralph E. Smith, Plant Pathology.
John W. Gilmore, Agronomy.
Charles F. Shaw, Soil Technology.
John W. Gregg, Landscape Gardening and Floriculture.
Frederic T. Bioletti, Viticulture and Fruit Products.
Warren T. Clarke, Agricultural Extension.
Ernest B. Babcock, Genetics.
Gordon H. True, Animal Husbandry.
Walter Mulford, Forestry.
James T. Barrett, Plant Pathology.
W. P. Kelley, Agricultural Chemistry.
H. J. Quayle, Entomology.
Elwood Mead, Rural Institutions.
H. S. Reed, Plant Physiology.
L. D. Batchelor, Orchard Management.
W. L. Howard, Pomology.
*Frank Adams, Irrigation Investigations.
C. L. Roadhouse, Dairy Industry.
R. L. Adams, Farm Management.
W. B. Herms, Entomology and Parasitology.
John E. Dougherty, Poultry Husbandry.
D. R. Hoagland, Plant Nutrition.
G. H. Hart, Veterinary Science.
L. J. Fletcher, Agricultural Engineering.
Edwin C. Voorhies, Assistant to the Dean.

* In cooperation with Division of Agricultural Engineering, Bureau of Public Roads, U. S.

Department of Agriculture.
 TURKISH TOBACCO CULTURE, CURING,
AND MARKETING 1

By WAEEEN T. CLAEKE

CONTENTS page
General Discussion 639
Varieties and Improvement through Selection 644
Climate 649
Soils 651
Preparation of the Land 652
Cultivation —Irrigation 654
The Seed Bed 656
Transplanting 658
Field Treatment and Picking 659
First Operation in Curing 660
Curing Barns 662
Some Suggestions 663
Fermentation, Grading, and Marketing 666
Methods of Fermenting Turkish Tobacco 666
Bulk Fermentation 666
Bale Fermentation 666
Marketing Turkish Type Tobacco 672
Pests 673
*
Appendix 675

The tobacco plant (Nicotiana tdbacum) is a native of the western

hemisphere. It takes its botanical name from Jean Nicot who intro-
duced its use to the French court between 1555 and 1560. It takes
its specific name from a tube called the 'tabaco, used by the natives
'

of Haiti for smoking and for taking snuff. The plant has a rather
close family relationship to the tomato and potato and to the so-called
nightshades.
The first Caucasian visitors to the western continents found the
natives using the leaves of this plant for smoking, chewing, and
snuffing. was highly esteemed by these native Indians and was
It
considered by them to have a certain medicinal value. They under-
stood well the process of curing the leaf and there is small doubt
that the product turned out by them was of good quality. In some
cases the smoking of tobacco assumed a certain ceremonial v.alue.

1 Acknowledgment is made to Daniel S. Neuman, of Napa, California, for

valuable suggestions and material furnished; to Mr. Alfred Aram, President,

Associated Tobacco Growers, Inc., of California, for assistance rendered and
for the section on fermentation, grading, and marketing; to Mr. E. J. Moore-
head of Crows Landing for valuable data furnished and to members of the staff
of the Experiment Station who have read and criticised this manuscript.
640 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION

The smoking' "pipe of peace" meant a sacred ratification of

of the
treaties looking to a cessation of hostilities
between tribes and an
ending- of wars between the colonists and the Indians. The English
colonists soon began to use tobacco and it came to fill a rather im-
portant place in the colonies as a medium of barter and exchange.
It soon found its way to England and to the continent of Europe
through trade channels and has since come into general use through-
out the world.
The alkaloid, nicotine, which is the distinguishing feature of to-
bacco, is In the cured leaf
a violent poison in the concentrated form.
but minute quantities of this alkaloid are found and the material how-
ever used becomes a very mild narcotic. It has, however, enough of this
narcotic effect to be habit-forming, and perhaps this fact accounts for
the very wide use of tobacco all over the world.
The general demand for the cured leaf stimulated tobacco grow-
ing in America and generally throughout the islands contiguous to
our southeastern coast until now the growing (fig. 1) and curing of
tobacco is an extremely important industry on this continent and
in the islands of Cuba, Haiti, and others of the West Indian group.
Some idea of this importance may be gathered from the fact that
nearly seven hundred million pounds of the cured leaf is annually
used in the United States in the manufacture of cigars, cigarettes,
snuff, and smoking and chewing tobacco.
Not alone in this country, however, is tobacco an important agri-
cultural crop. It is grown in greater or less quantities in other
countries, particularly in certain regions in southeastern Europe,
Asia Minor, Servia, the Levant generally, and in Greece. But the
origin of practically all the varieties now grown throughout the
world for commercial purposes may be traced to the continent of
America. Some two hundred years ago tobacco growing began in
the regions designated, seed from America being used. This industry
was begun and carried forward under Turkish auspices and the term
"Turkish tobacco" was early applied to the product. The Turkish
taste was and is for a very mild tobacco, of good aroma and bouquet,
mellow and of good burning qualities. It is used by the people where
it is grown almost exclusively for cigarettes and is esteemed all over

the world for its great delicacy and mildness. Some twenty-five
million pounds of this so-called Turkish tobacco is annually imported
to this country and used in the manufacture of cigarettes.
Some twenty-five to thirty years ago the growing of Turkish
tobacco was begun in California. Occasional individuals, mainly
Armenians and Greeks, succeeded in getting seed from their native
BULLETIN 366] TURKISH TOBACCO CULTURE, CURING, MARKETING 641

lands. This was a difficult matter because of the embargo placed

upon the exportation of seed, and devious means of evasion were
employed. It seemed to satisfy these early importers that the seed
came from known districts but there was no certainty that the seed
was from plants that were true to type and not cross-pollinated. The
plants were given the name of the district from which the seed came,
such as Samsoon (Samsoun, Sampsoon), Cavalla, Smyrna, etc. As

Fig. 1.—A field of Turkish tobacco, Yolo County, California. Carrying

crates in foreground.

a matter of fact, the plants grown showed no uniformity of type.

From the same lot of seed would come plants showing the rather
large, fleshy, sessile leaves of Samsoon through many variations to
the cleanly petiolate leaves of Dubaka (figs. 2-3). These early im-
porters of seed and growers of tobacco practiced no selection of
plants for seed purposes nor did they adequately guard against cross-
pollination. The result was a jumble of types, good, indifferent,
and poor. Curing methods were faulty and with an occasional ex-
ception the final product was harsh and unusable save for low grade
products.
642 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA- —EXPERIMENT STATION

Somewhat approximately fifteen to twenty years ago, an

later,
apparently serious effort to produce Turkish tobacco was begun by
the American Tobacco Company, the so-called Trust. Their plant-
ings, which were quite extensive, were made in Tulare County about
the settlement of Yettem and near Exeter. In this set of plant-
ings Greek and Armenian families that had been tobacco growers
in the old country were placed upon the land and they were encour-
aged in every way to continue their hereditary occupation as growers
and curers of tobacco. It was reported that for some cause not
fully explained but evidently economic, this attempt was not a great
success. On the dissolution of the so-called trust into its compo-
nent parts the interest in the work languished and the experiment
ended.
About 1908 the so-called "Exeter Tobacco Ranch," reputed to
be an enterprise of the American Tobacco Company, produced some
very fair tobacco on its properties near Exeter. From the same
source was issued about 1912 an undated pamphlet entitled "Infor-
mation on the Culture of Tobacco in California." In this pamphlet
the writers go very fully into the matter of culture and curing.
They state that "The final result expected is that the general farmer
will, aided by our experiments, produce in quality, tobacco that will

interest manufacturers and on its own merits command a profitable

price for the farmer." For unexplained reasons the pamphlet was
quickly withdrawn from circulation. Though it had but a limited
circulation so far as we can learn, it undoubtedly helped to stimu-
late interest in this crop because of the belief expressed in the possi-
bilities of producing a good grade of Turkish tobacco in this state.
For the last ten years plantings of Turkish tobacco both commercial
and experimental have been made in many of the counties of the
state and our knowledge of both cultural and curing methods has
increased greatly. The success of the business depends mainly on
economic factors, though the application of improved cultural and
curing methods is necessarj^.
It is to be noted that the pioneers in this work had great diffi-
culty in disposing of the product. This is traceable to two causes.
In the first place, owing to improper growing methods, failure to
select s^ed-producing plants and hence mixture of types, poor and
incomplete curing and lack of aging, the product offered for sale
usually did not compare favorably with the imported tobacco. In
the second place there has been an evident reluctance on the part
of manufacturers of tobacco products to use the California product
to any great extent, even when it is of good quality. These two
BULLETIN 366] TURKISH TOBACCO CULTURE, CURING, MARKETING 643

facts have caused many growers to give up the attempt to establish

the new industry.
An interesting fact in connection with this lack of demand for
California-grown tobacco is that it resulted in many thousands of
pounds of fair tobacco being stowed away in barns and almost for-
gotten. The tobacco was forced by circumstances into a protracted
aging which resulted in great improvement of quality.

Fig. 2. —Dubaka leaf closely ap- Fig. 3.— Samsoon leaf, Note ses-
proaching Cavalla type. silecharacter.

Gradually the fact has become recognized that the California

growers would have to enter the manufacturing field themselves to
obtain an adequate recognition of the good quality of their product
and a fair money return. Early in 1922 a company was organized
to handle California-grown Turkish tobacco. This company, a
pioneer in a new field, is now turning out in the neighborhood of
a half -million cigarettes monthly. Their product is finding a ready
644 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION

sale in the retail market. The enterprise, though small, indicates

what can be done and it should be expanded largely but not as a
private enterprise. Undoubtedly the consuming public appreciates
the finished product of our California Turkish tobacco growers,
curers and manufacturers.
There is naturally room for much improvement all along the
line and it is hoped this publication in presenting the facts brought
out by experimental work and by commercial planters may aid in
establishing the industry on a firm agricultural base.

VARIETIES AND IMPROVEMENT THROUGH SELECTION

The term "Turkish tobacco" applies to the varieties of tobacco
grown mainly in southern Macedonia, Turkey, Asia Minor, Servia,
Greece, and the Levant generally. It is characteristically small leafed
as compared with Dark tobacco, light leafed Burley, Sumatra seed
tobacco, and Cuban tobaccos. These varieties are the main reliance
of the tobacco growers of the eastern states and are grown in the
eastern tobacco sections to the exclusion of the Turkish type. The
usable leaf of the Turkish tobacco grown in California ranges in
length from two inches to about ten inches and in width from one
inch to six inches. This range in size is found on the same plant
from the largest leaves at the bottom to the smallest leaves at the
top or blossom end of the plant (fig. 4). By way of comparison
the leaf of eastern types of tobacco frequently reaches as great a
length as twenty inches with a corresponding width of twelve inches.
The leaf of Turkish tobacco is small and of fine texture. Fine-
ness of grain and smallness of ribs are of great importance in deter-
mining the value of Turkish tobacco. The cured leaf of Turkish
tobacco is superior to the leaves of other types in the delicate quality
of itsaroma and bouquet.
The difference noted above will serve to distinguish the leaf of
Turkish type from the leaves of other types of tobacco grown in the
United States. In the Turkish group are many variations which
can be traced in California to the soil and climatic conditions under
which the tobacco is grown and to cross-pollination (fig. 5). In the
first serious attempts to produce Turkish leaf in California some

twenty-five to thirty years ago seed was obtained, as previously stated,

by various and sometimes devious ways from different sections of
Macedonia, Turkey, Asia Minor, Servia and Greece. The principal
varieties, so-called, of which seed was imported were Samsoon (Samp-
soon, Samsoun), Cavalla, Bafra, Dubaka, and Smyrna. It is im-
BULLETIN 366] TURKISH TOBACCO CULTURE, CURING, MARKETING 645

—
Fig. 4. Sun cured leaves. 1-2, sand leaves; 3-4, basma; 5-6-7, gubec; 8-9,
ooch-alte; 10-11, ooch. The names are those used to designate character
of leaf and position on plant "ooch" being the highest.
646 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION

portant to note that these names indicate districts where the leaf
is grown and cured and, as we now know, do not mean distinct varieties
of tobacco. Any of these varieties may change in character to some
extent if the district to which it is brought differs from the district
in which it was originally grown in soil or climate or cultural methods,
or if Further, even when the exchange of
cross-pollination occurs.
seed merely from one district to another, the product will gradu-
is

ally assume other characters than those of the district where it was
originally grown. This sensitiveness of the Turkish tobacco plant to
its environment and to the care it receives is very marked and to-

gether with cross-pollination has resulted in the jumble of types

grown in California. Indeed there is not now to be found here any
considerable quantity of any of the so-called varieties noted above,
but each district in the state where Turkish tobacco has been grown
has developed a type of its own differing materially from the orig-
inal. In some cases this variation has resulted in improvement, in
others in deterioration.
The grower of tobacco should know the local conditions and be
prepared to meet them by developing suitable variations of high
quality. Experiments made by Shamel 2 with the tobaccos of the
Atlantic states showed great virility and viability in seed from self-
pollinated flowers. The desirable features, if such were present, were
transmitted through the seed, as were the undesirable features. This
teaches that by means of proper, well directed seed selection a plant
of high quality can be developed and maintained. Shamel 's method
was, briefly, as follows:
First, Selection. —Plants that show the characters desired by the
grower should be chosen while growing in the field. Size of leaf;
color of leaf at tip as ripening approaches; fineness of leaf texture
(a thick, fleshy leaf is not satisfactory when dealing with Turkish
tobacco) ; small, fine veins or ribs; early maturity; comparative
absence of suckers growing out of the plant at leaf bases; all these
items should be considered when choosing or selecting plants as seed
producers. The selected plants should be well marked so that when
priming begins the leaf pickers will allow their leaves to remain on
the plant.
—
The grower should watch these selected plants
Second, Isolation.
closelyand when the blossom panicle forms should carefully cut off
one or two whorls of leaves immediately below the beginning flowers.
sShamel, Archibald T). The Improvement of Tobacco by Breeding and
Selection. Year Boole of the Department of Agriculture, 1904, pp. 435-452.
BULLETIN 366] TURKISH TOBACCO CULTURE, CURING, MARKETING 647

The operator should provide himself with a number of paper

bags of the kind that when open the bottom assumes an angular
roof-like form. As soon as the first blossom shows color the panicle
should be covered with a paper bag. This should be brought to-
gether about the plant below the blossoms and lightly tied so as to
exclude bees and other pollen bearing insects. These plants should

Dubo-Aa. x Sa

Fig. 5. — Hybrids, Samsoon x Dubaka. Occasional desirable

types are thus produced.

be watched carefully and the paper bags occasionally raised slightly

and retied so that the blossoms may have ample room for expansion.
The leaves should not be removed from the seed plants, and suckers
should be pinched out as soon as they appear, as the full strength
of the plant should go into seed production.
Though is a prolific producer of seed, as many
the tobacco plant
maturing to each capsule, still a comparatively
as 1000 to 1500 seeds
large number of plants should be selected so that there will be no
possibility of shortage of seed for the next year's planting. Ripeness
648 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION

is determined by the capsules turning brown and brittle. When

this stage has been attained the capsules can be removed green or
unripe ones being discarded, placed in a bag, and the bags should
be of muslin, close- woven, and without holes. The partly filled bags
should be hung in a cool, dry, well ventilated place until the cap-
sules break easily. Then the bags, tightly closed, can be beaten
with a padded paddle so as to thoroughly break up the capsules
and thus liberate the seed. The whole contents of the bag can then
be poured out on a sieve of rather small mesh and the loose seed
sifted into some sort of container. The seed is now ready for dry
storage until seeding time comes again. If the seed is intended for
sale it should be cleaned by repeated screening in a light draft. Care
must be taken not to make this too strong as the seed can be easily
blown away. In some cases seed is cleaned by pouring it into water.
The chaff and light seeds float while the good seed sinks. If this
process is followed, the water, chaff, and light seed should be poured
off as soon as possible and the good seed drained and dried in the
shade. Unless the seed is to be used immediately the drying should
be very carefully done as damp seed soon moulds.
It should be noted that the persistance of type in self -pollinated,
3
selected Cuban tobacco is emphasized by the studies of Hasselbring
who finds that environment has little if anything to do with the
breaking up of types. This does not seem to coincide with our Calif-
ornia field experience.
The breaking-up of type when cross-pollination occurs is noted
in the studies of Calif ornia-grown tobacco •
made by Setchell, Good-
speed, and Clausen. 4 All of this seems to emphasize the necessity
for selection.
By means of careful selection, isolation, and care of the seed the
planter should be able to develop plants that give a high grade
product uniformly throughout his plantation. There is no doubt
that this apparently extreme care pays.

sHeinrich Hasselbring tvpes of Cuban Tobacco. The Botanical Gazette,

(The University of Chicago), vol. 53, No. 2, February, 1912, pp. 113-126,
plates IV-X.
* Setchell, W. A., Goodspeed, T. H., and Clausen, K. E., Inheritance in
Nicotiana tabacum, Univ. Calif. Publ. Bot., vol. 5. pp. 457-582, 2 figures in
text, plants 55-85, April 14, 1922.
BULLETIN 366] TURKISH TOBACCO CULTURE, CURING, MARKETING 649

CLIMATE
The climatic conditions of the valleys of the Sacramento and the
San Joaquin rivers have been found to be only fairly satisfactory
for tobacco growing. While it must be acknowledged that the ex-
tremely high temperature sometimes experienced in these valleys,
together with the lack of atmospheric humidity, render the task
of producing a good tobacco difficult, still fairly good results have
been obtained in Placer, (fig. 6) Sutter, Yolo, Sacramento, San

Fig. 6. —A good quality of hydrid leaf grown in Placer County, California.

Joaquin, Stanislaus, Fresno, Tulare, and other valley counties.

Fair
grades of tobacco have been grown in San Diego, San Benito, Los
Angeles, Santa Cruz, and Contra Costa counties. An exceedingly
good grade of leaf has been grown and cured in Napa County.
The counties noted exhibit a considerable range of climate, yet fairly
satisfactory results have been obtained in each case. The adaptability
of the tobacco plant to various climates as here seen is very marked.
However, the tobacco plant is very sensitive to sharp temperature
changes between day and night. Such changes are very marked in
our great valleys and the condition is undesirable. In the foothill
650 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION

sections bordering these valleys such temperature changes are not

so marked and the conditions are to that extent more favorable.
Regions where the heat of the day and the cold of the night are
modified by the influence of the ocean offer the best conditions in
this respect.
It may be said that the conditions prevailing in the great valleys
are conducive to rank growth of the plants and a not wholly satis-
factory leaf. These conditions make the work of curing much more
than when more moderate heat conditions prevail. Further,
difficult
because of its rather soft, fleshy character the leaf may sunburn.
This danger is more imminent as the leaf approaches maturity and
greater change is going on in the tissue. In sections where some
fog occurs, where there is some precipitation of dew at night, and
yet where there is ample sunlight in the middle of the day, the cli-
matic conditions more nearly meet the needs of the tobacco plants.
The restrictions of climatic conditions are plainly shown in the tobacco
plantings in various parts of this state. The quality of leaf, Sam-
soon and Dubaka and certain crosses between these (figs. 2, 3, 5),
grown in the lower Napa valley where the favorable climatic condi-
tions mentioned above prevail, is particularly fine. The aroma and
bouquet while quite marked are not harsh nor strong. Sun curing
is comparatively easy and the danger of sunburn is at a minimum.

Enough is now known to prove that the climatic conditions best

suited to tobacco are found where the ocean influences are plainly
felt. Yet it must not be inferred that the big valleys of the state
are worthless for this crop. The fair product coming from them and
especially from their foothills is proof that Turkish tobacco can
be successfully grown in them. The sensitiveness of the tobacco
plant to its environment and its adherence to type under given condi-
tions make it especially easy for the grower to develop varieties
suited to the climatic conditions of his own ranch. The observa-
tion regarding the influence of the ocean is in line with the experi-
ence of the Turkish tobacco sections of southeastern Europe and
Asia Minor where some atmospheric humidity is the rule. Garner
states: "In the portion of southern Macedonia around the port of
Cavalla and other nearby towns and in the Smyrna, Trebizond and
Samsoun districts of Asia Minor are grown the finest cigarette to-
baccos in the world." 5 It is worthy of note that the climates of
the districts mentioned are modified by the influences of sea and

sGarner, W. W., Physiologist in charge of tobacco investigations, Bureau

of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, article on To-
bacco in Encyclopedia Americana, vol. 26, pp. 658-665.
BULLETIN 366] TURKISH TOBACCO CULTURE, CURING, MARKETING 651

fog. These regions closely approximate the climatic conditions found

in the small coastal valleys of California. From the evidence in
hand there are undoubtedly very large areas in the big valleys where
a fair grade of leaf can be produced and* also much territory in
smaller valleys where a most excellent product can be and is being
turned out.

SOILS
A very wide range of soils can be successfully used for growing
Turkish tobacco. Good crops have been noted on even such recal-
citrant soils as the adobes. Because of the difficulty of properly
working adobe soils and the coarseness of the leaf produced on them,
the adobes should in most cases be avoided. A further objection to
adobe soils is found in the difficulty experienced at transplanting
time. It is very difficult to set the young and tender tobacco plants
in the adobes and a poor stand frequently results. The plant, how-
ever, makes a wonderfully strong growth when once it has taken
hold, provided the moisture content of the soil has been kept at the
best by good cultural methods. Indeed the* objection is often made
to the adobe soils that the tobacco plant makes too rank a growth
on them.
In order with the adobes come the clay loams. These, too, are
hard to work to a fine tilth but when so worked are excellent for
Turkish tobacco, giving good yields of an excellent leaf provided
the climatic conditions are right. With these clay loam soils care-
ful methods of preparation are necessary to secure the best results.
The loams on the whole may be considered as good soils for this
crop. They are usually work down to the necessary
fairly easy to
fineness, are retentive of moisture,and are usually well supplied with
the elements necessary for plant growth. The yield of leaf on the
loams is usually excellent and the quality is good.
Sandy loams are usually very easy to work and their ability to
retain moisture is excellent. The quality of leaf produced on them
is very good, of fine aroma and satisfactory color. The yield is
not so great ordinarily as on the previously mentioned soils.
The very sandy soils are light producers, easy to work but poorly
retentive of moisture. A leaf of very fine quality is grown on soils
of this type and though a light tonnage may be expected on the
whole they are to be classed as thoroughly good soils for Turkish
tobacco.
The silts which have a tendency to run together and puddle
are, if tilth can be maintained, fairly satisfactory for this crop.
652 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION

Their variability of structure and character make them hard soils

to manage and Turkish tobacco crops on such soils are apt to show
much variation in style of leaf, and hence are difficult to harvest
properly. Nevertheless good tonnages have been reported on the
•

silt soils of the great valleys of the state.

The most satisfactory soil for Turkish tobacco is a sandy loam
with a considerable admixture of wash gravel and broken rock con-
taining a good quantit}^ of lime. Such soils may be low in their
nitrogen content but this is an advantage so far as the tobacco plant
is concerned. Turkish tobacco grown on such soils would normally
be of high quality with excellent leaves which, when properly cured,
develop a fine aroma and bouquet. These soils would be considered
of rather low agricultural value for other field crops or for orchard
purposes. Of
this type are the best soils for tobacco production in
the Levant, Macedonia, Greece, and other countries. Such soils
are to be found in our Sierra foothills and on the valley edges of the
coast range of mountains. They at present maintain a meager agri-
culture but with intelligent care on the part of the grower could be
made to produce remunerative crops of Turkish tobacco. It should
be noted that the main plantings of tobacco have so far been made
mostly under the climatic conditions of our big valleys and on com-
paratively heavy soils. The result has been a sacrifice of quality
in favor of quantity.
It will be observed that Turkish tobacco is very adaptable to

various soils and that so far as this item isconcerned can be grown
over a wide range of territory. But its character is very sensitive
to varying soil conditions and when grown on one type of soil pro-
duces a leaf that may differ strongly from the leaf grown on another.
The variations will show in the size and texture of the leaf, in the
coarseness or fineness of the midrib, in aroma, and in burning qualities.
It is therefore uncertain what the character of the leaf will be
on a given soil until the crop has been grown, harvested and cured.
Commercial plantings that have been under observation show that
a given soil will, with occasional rests and rotations, develop uni-
formly a characteristic type of leaf provided a rational system of
seed selection has been followed.

PREPARATION OF THE LAND

Turkish tobacco growing is a highly specialized form of agriculture
and requires careful methods of work at all stages. This is as nec-
essary in the matter of land preparation as in all the other operations
BULLETIN 366] TURKISH TOBACCO CULTURE, CURING, MARKETING 653

together. The soil should be well supplied with decaying organic

matter. A
good top dressing of stable, cow yard, or sheep manure
or of chicken droppings should be given the land in September before
the first rains. Lacking these organic manures a good summer cover
crop should be grown on the intended tobacco field. After the first
rains the field should be plowed deep, turning under the manure
dressing or the cover crop so that the material is well worked into
the soil. An old alfalfa field that has been pastured for several
seasons can be advantageously used, provided the alfalfa has been
thoroughly killed out in the plowing process. Such a field usually
is well supplied with organic matter at and close to the surface. The
plowing must be well done and no "cut and cover" work should
be tolerated. It should always be borne in mind that good careful
work in preparation saves much labor in working the land when the
crop is in.

Following this plowing the land should be allowed to lie

first

unworked for from weeks to two months. At the end of this

six
period the land should be gone over with a weed knife and such
weeds as have appeared destroyed. If the field is an old alfalfa
patch a good heavy hoe should be used to destroy such of the alfalfa
plants as were not killed by the original plowing. It should be borne
in mind that the more weeds and foul growths that are destroyed
at this time the easier will be the work of keeping the field clean
when the tobacco plants are set and growing.Again the field should
be allowed to remain undisturbed and unworked until spring. At
this time when danger of frost is about over the field should be put
in a state of fine tilth by either plowing to a depth of about four
inches and then lightly harrowing it or by going over it with a

disc cultivator two ways. Treatment such as this should put the
land in excellent condition. Of course the treatment of the soil will
have to vary from the above ideal with the varying seasonal climatic
conditions but the planter should come as near to it as possible.
Not only does such careful work greatly reduce the labor of weed
control but it increases the moisture retention possibilities of the soil.

This latter item is one of very considerable importance as the tobacco

plant is a great user of water and the transpiration of water vapor
through the leaves is very considerable.
The field then being in a state of good tilth, low back-furrows
should be run about four feet apart north and south the length of
the field. A light harrow should be run over these back-furrows
lengthwise. This should leave the back-fnrrowed portion of the
field slightly higher than the rest and on this raised portion or low
654 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION

ridge the young plants should be set about two feet apart. This
arrangement allows easy cultivation between the rows, and, if irri-
gation is practiced, the ridged condition in a measure protects the
tobacco plants against direct contact with the water.
The width between the plants in the rows will in a measure have
to be determined by the character of the soil. The general rule that
the richer the soil the closer should be the plants in the row holds
good.
CULTIVATION AND IRRIGATION
The careful preparation of the land makes the soil retentive of
moisture. The great expanse of leaf surface presented in a field
of Turkish tobacco that is growing well means a very considerable
transpiration of water vapor and so every effort must be made to
avoid further loss of soil moisture through evaporation (fig. 1). The
field should be gone over with a light cultivator at rather frequent
intervals. This keeps the soil in good tilth, destroys weeds, and
thus overcomes transpiration of water vapor through the weed leaves.
The space between the plants in the row should be gone over with a
hoe occasionally to kill out weeds that may have started there. By
this careful work a better chance
given the tobacco roots to develop
is

and to use the nutrient elements of the soil. The tobacco plant
sends out its main feeding roots laterally and fairly close to the
surface, hence the optimum of soil moisture conditions must be main-
tained in that region. This closeness to the surface of the feeding
roots further emphasizes the necessity of shallow, light cultivation
and hoeing. Serious setbacks will result if these roots are destroyed.
In occasional cases, irrigation may becomenecessary, though it
is to be avoided if possible. An index of the possible necessity of
irrigation is to be found in the condition of the plants themselves.
In the early morning the leaves will be upright and turgid owing
to the fact that there will have been but little transpiration of water
vapor during the night. If during the forenoon, say up to ten
o 'clock, the leaves wilt it is fairly certain there is not enough moisture
in the soil and irrigation should be resorted to. On the other hand
if wilting does not occur till well on in the afternoon the soil mois-
ture condition may be considered good. Irrigation of tobacco plants
should not be done unless there is a positive need of water. Care
must be exercised to keep the water from coming in contact with
the plant and it should be applied sparingly, as an excess of water
is liable to cause root rot and other troubles. Further, if the plants
get too much water they will become spindling and weedy the leaves ;

will become very light colored and thin, with very poor aroma and
BULLETIN 366] TURKISH TOBACCO CULTURE, CURING, MARKETING 655

flavor 7), and will develop an over-coarse mid-rib.

(fig. In short a
leaf of poor quality will result from the improper and excessive
use of water. To properly apply irrigation water a shallow furrow
should be turned in the center of the rows. A small head of water
should be run down this furrow, care being taken that the water does
not escape from the furrow and form puddles about the plants. In

Fig. 7. — Over-irrigated. Note thinness of leaf and coarse mid-rib.

the well prepared water should seep laterally and downward

field,

fairly rapidly. A
good supply of water can thus be evenly dis-
tributed through the field. As soon as it is possible to get on the
ground after irrigation, the cultivators should be run over the land
so that no baking or cracking will occur. Also the interspaces, where
the cultivator has not broken the ground, should be well hoed. Water
conservation in the soil must be accomplished if the best results
with the plants are to be obtained.
656 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION

THE SEED BED

Great care must be exercised in preparing the seed bed for start-
ing the plants later to be transplanted to the fields. The soil of the
bed should be a light sandy loam well worked several times so that
it will be in a fine state of tilth. As near the middle of March as
weather conditions permit the ground to be used as a seed bed should
be trenched to a depth of about fourteen inches and to a width of
some four feet (fig. 8). For convenience the bed should be made
about ten feet long. Fresh stable manure should be placed in the
trench so that when it is tamped down the manure layer will
well
be six or seven inches thick. worked bed soil above
Fill in the well
the manure layer. Then build sides and ends of ten inch boards to
enclose the bed, filling in soil so that the top of the bed will be about
two or three inches higher than the surrounding land. Provide a
frame of wood strips that will easily fit over the bed sides and ends
and cover this with light sheeting. This cover should be provided
with cross pieces so that the cloth will not sag down to the plants
when they are growing. The manure layer furnishes, through the
process of decay, a considerable amount of bottom heat and when
temperature conditions demand it, the cover can be kept in place
and the whole interior kept warm and in good condition to foster
growth.
Some planters sterilize the bed soilby burning quantities of straw
over it, thus destroying many weed In the tobacco sections
seeds.
of the eastern states this method of seed destroying is common. In
our observations, firing the bed soil is not the best practice as it
burns out the organic matter in the soil. This makes the earth puddle
and crust easily, which is a condition that should be avoided. In
the dark tobacco, Burley and Sumatra seed sections, burning the
seed beds and also steaming them is done to destroy weed seed.
These processes are not necessary under our California conditions
provided the seed bed soil has been under preparation for some
time before seeding is done and all weed growth has started and
been destroyed.
'

The preparation of the seed bed being completed and the last
light raking done, the planter should be prepared to do his seeding.
The tobacco seed is extremely small, ranging not more than one
millimeter in length, and one rounded teaspoonful is ample to seed
a bed of the size above described and this in turn will, if germina-
tionis good, furnish between five and six thousand plants or enough
BULLETIN 366] TURKISH TOBACCO CULTURE, CURING, MARKETING 657

to set one acre of land. The seed is broadcasted in the bed soil.

Some growers mix the seed with four or five times the bulk of corn-
meal which helps to an even distribution of the seed. There is a
danger in this practice as under the bed conditions of heat and
moisture molds are likely to develop and seriously injure the young
plants. In the eastern tobacco growing sections and in a few iso-
lated cases in California powdered gypsum has been used instead
of cornmeal at the rate of four times as much gypsum as seed by

HOT BEZO, CROSS 3ECTJ0N

«Scfl/e,^"-- tfoot
Fig. 8. —Hot bed showing detail of construction

volume. This medium for carrying the seed is very satisfactory as

its color affords a ready index as to the evenness of seed distribution,
and though the amount of gypsum is minute it seems to have a stimu-

lating effect on the seedlings. After the seed has been broadcasted
it should be lightly brushed in and the soil somewhat compacted

with a board. The bed should be sprinkled with water, not drenched,
and the moisture supply should be kept at the surface until the
plants start.
Much care must be exercised at this time both in the matter of
watering and in that of ventilating the bed. With too much humidity
and warmth the young plants may be killed in great numbers by
"damping off," a fungous disease that attacks them at or about
the ground surface. On the other hand, if the bed is overventi-
lated and kept too cool germination may be seriously delayed. Some
658 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION

growers as a precautionary measure dust the beds lightly with finely

powdered sulfur and no doubt this to some degree overcomes danger
of ''damping off."
The germination of tobacco seed is usually slow and in some cases
the seed may not start at all. It is decidedly a good plan to have
the seed tested for germination. 6
In three trial tests made to determine the germination power of
Turkish tobacco seed grown in California and purchased in the
open market the results were as follows: (The length of test with each
lot was 15 days.)
Lot 1 Germination 82.5 per cent
Lot 2 84.0
Lot 3 84.5

These may be considered good tests and such seed can be safely
used.
TRANSPLANTING
All having gone well with the seed bed and the young plants
having attained a height of from two to four inches, transplanting
to the field should begin. Ordinarily transplanting occurs from the
middle to the last of April though the exact time will depend on
the advance of the season. A careful study of the work of many
growers shows that a two-to-four-inch seedling is preferred as it
seems to take hold better than the larger plants when planted out
in the field. The seed bed should be loosened up carefully with a
spading fork and the plants gently drawn and bunched, roots to
roots. This work should be done preferably on a cloudy day, and
in any case the young drawn plants should be kept moist and in the
shade from the time they are drawn until they are planted in the
field. If cloudy weather does not occur at planting time then the
work should be done in the late afternoon and evening.
From the seed beds, the plants are taken to the field in boxes
covered with wet sacks. Planting may be done by hand or with a
horse drawn planter. Greater success has been reported from the
eastern tobacco plantationswhen mechanical planters were used than
when work was done by hand. If the work is done by hand the
the
operator should be provided with a wooden dibble or with a narrow
bladed trowel. With these he makes the hole for the young plant
and then sets it, taking care that the roots are worked downward
and that the soil is well compacted about the cro.vn of the plant.
eThis work is done at the seed testing laboratory, State Department of
Agriculture, Sacramento, California.
BULLETIN 366] TURKISH TOBACCO CULTURE, CURING, MARKETING 659

The planters should be followed immediately by a tank wagon of

some sort, and each plant should receive about a quart of water to
insure a fair compacting of the earth about the roots and to furnish
the young plant with an ample supply of water during the trying
time of starting new roots.
If planting machines are used, the labor of this operation is

greatly reduced and a more even stand can be expected. Whether

the mechanical planter is used or the plants are put out by hand,
the ridge made in preparation of the land should be followed care-
fully. A man with a hoe should follow the planter, adjust the
covering of the small plants, and cover over wet places so that no
baking of the soil may occur.
The young Turkish tobacco plants have good vitality and should
not show the shock incident to transplanting for more than a day
or two.
FIELD TREATMENT AND PICKING
From the time the plants have begun to grow in the field, con-
stant care and attention must be given them. Shallow cultivation
must be practiced at frequent intervals to destroy weeds and thus
prevent too rapid water transpiration from the soil and so avoid
the necessity of irrigation. Care must be taken to pinch out the
suckers at the leaf bases as they rob the plant of nutriment and so
detract from the value of the product. For this purpose the patch
must be gone over every few days. While removing suckers, a look-
out for tobacco worms must be maintained and these voracious pests
destroyed when found. Weeds must be hoed out and in fact the
best cultural conditions maintained. The farmer should have the
best product as his ideal and he may be sure that the plants will
respond to good care. Care must be exercised not to bruise or break
leaves as such leaves make a low grade product.
The question as to whether blossoms should be removed can, from
the evidence in hand, be answered in the affirmative. By such re-
moval or topping as soon as the panicle begins to form, the strength
and vitality of the plant goes into leaf production and better
quality and more uniform size of leaves is the result. Of course the
blossoms of seed bearing bearing plants will have to be left as ex-
plained on pages 644-648.
If all has gone well, in from forty-five to fifty days after trans-
planting, the lowest leaves called 'refuse' will show a slight yellow-
ing at the tip and a slight greenish yellow spotting which indicates
ripening. They are then ready to be picked. Usually these 'refuse'
leaves are ignored, though occasionally they are cured and used in
660 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA —EXPERIMENT STATION

making insecticidesand low grade tobacco products. The tobacco

leaves ripen in order from the lowest to those near the blossom
panicle and the pickers must go over the field at frequent inter-
vals so that the leaves do not get over-ripe. Picking of leaves must
be done in the late afternoon and early evening after the tempera-
ture has fallen but before the dew begins to fall. This work may
also be done in the morning after the dew has disappeared but before
the heat of the day is on. After the picking of the refuse comes the
taking off of the 'sand' leaves, the next whorl or two above (fig. 4).
These leaves receive their name from the fact that they carry some
dust and grit owing to their nearness to the ground. The next
series above, usually of two whorls, is known as 'basma. Then comes
'

the series, usualty again of two whorls, known as 'gubec' (dubec,

dubeque, djubec). These leaves when properly taken and cor-
rectly cured are of fine quality and much sought for in the
trade. Next in order comes the smaller leaves known as 'Ooch-alte'
and Ooch.
'
' These highest, smallest leaves may be not more than
one inch long and still be of the best quality. There is no arbi-
trary rule that can be set down to govern the picker in his choice
of leaves for grades. Expertness in this comes only with practice.
Leaves of a given grade should be kept together in the picking.
For instance the picker taking basma leaves should not mix them
with gubec leaves even though the latter may be in condition to
pick. These should be taken in a second picking. The leaves should
be handled with care to avoid breakage as much as possible; they
should be carried to light packing cases (fig. 1) and placed in these
in an orderly manner so they may be easily removed without dam-
age. If the removal of the blossoms or topping has been practiced
the difference in size of leaves will not be marked.

FIRST OPERATIONS IN CURING

The loosely filled packing cases are taken to the barn or shed,
where stringing is done. This process consists of threading the leaves
on linen or cotton strings with a spear headed needle. The petiole
of the leaf is pierced with the needle about three-quarters of an inch
from the end and the leaves drawn down on the string. The process
may be likened to stringing beads. Some care must be exercised so
as not to split the petiole or the leaf. The strings should be eight
feet long and in stringing twelve inches should be left clear for
tying purposes at each end. The leaves on a string should all face
the same way and should be so spaced as not to touch when the string
is stretched and the leaves hanging down. A quarter of an inch
BULLETIN 366] TURKISH TOBACCO CULTURE, CURING, MARKETING 661

apart has been found to be a satisfactory spacing. Poles seven

feet long and from an inch an inch and a quarter in diameter
to
should be provided in quantity. The giant reed (Arundo donax) is
used whenever obtainable as it makes strong yet light poles (front-
ispiece). When the string is filled for some six feet of its length
the free ends are tied to either end of the pole, the string being
stretched so that sagging down of the leaves will be reduced to a
minimum when the loaded poles are racked. The racks both in the
barn or shed and those used out of doors are made so that the free ends

Fig. 9. — Small sun-curing rack showing burlap covers removed.

of the poles will engage them and the leaves on the strings hang
down. A string should be tied in such a way as to relieve the sag
at the pole center. The poles with their leaf -laden strings are then
racked in a shed or barn with small free air spaces between the
strings and left in a closed room for from twenty-four to forty-
eight hours for their first wilting There must be
(figs. 10-11).
good ventilation in the shed or barn while this process is going on

so that the air about the leaves will not became excessively humid.
Too quick wilting or on the other hand too much moisture at this
time will detract from the quality of the leaf. The end of the first
process will be indicated by the leaves turning a greenish yellow to
lemon yellow in color.
After wilting, the strings of leaves on poles are removed to a
larger room or barn and allowed to remain there for twenty -four
hours or an til all the moisture has disappeared. They are then
662 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION

removed to outside racks (frontispiece and fig. 9). These racks

are best placed over stony ground. If such ground is not available
the best plan is to haul rock, either wash gravel of fair size, or
broken rock, to the rack site so that the curing leaf may hang over
stony ground. As even a temperature as possible should be kept
about the leaves. This is promoted by the rocky floor which takes
in heat during the day and slowly gives it up at night. The poles
of leaves can be racked overnight in the barn and this perhaps is
better than leaving them outdoors over the rock floors
Covers of burlap somewhat larger than the area covered by the
racks should be provided (fig. 9). These may be used to shade the
racks of leaves if the sun heat becomes excessive, say about 80° F.
The burlap covers should be placed over the racks if fog occurs and
should certainly be in position shortly before sunset. They should
hang down at the ends and sides of the racks as far as the leaf
tips do. They are necessary in properly starting the curing of the
leaf, as they tend to retain radiated heat from the rock bottom and

exclude fog or excess of dew. They are also quite indispensible as

shade producers if the sun's heat becomes excessive. It may be
necessary to take them off or put them on several times a day to
get the best results.
CURING BARNS
For convenience and economy in handling the tobacco during the
stages prior to fermentationand grading, especially designed barns
are desirable. Figures 10 and 11 are suggestive of how such barns
should be constructed. Figure 10 shows the exterior of the barn in
outline. In this figure G is a double door affording ingress for
wagons while a similar door is placed at the rear allowing egress;
H is a double window large enough to allow the passing in of racks
of strings of tobacco over tracks like those used in prune curing
yards and C is the room for preliminary wilting as described on

page 661.
In figure 11 is the same barn with the front removed to show the
interior arrangement. In this figure A indicates the door or en-
trance; B, a sorting platform; C, the wilting room; D, trusses to
support the garlands (fig. 17) E, controllable ventilators; and F-F,
;

openings for ventilation. In a barn of this type the rapidity of

curing can be controlled as well as the humidity, by a careful use
of the ventilators.
This barn also obviates the necessity of curing the tobacco out-
side at night. It is extremely difficult to give the tobacco even
temperature day and night by the burlap covering method.
BULLETIN 366] TURKISH TOBACCO CULTURE, CURING, MARKETING 663

In the use of this barn, all the doors and openings are left open
until about 4 P. M. As the temperature outside begins to fall, the
tobacco in the process of sun curing outside during the day is rolled
into the barn over the tracks and the barn shut tight. Heat col-
lected in the barn during the day will be preserved and a nearly
uniform temperature between day and night insured.
This style of a barn was developed by Alfred Aram, president
of The Associated Tobacco Growers Inc. of California and has been
successfully used in this state. It is known as the Pacific Type Cure
House.

Fig. 10. — Outline of the Pacific Type Cure House. For detail see text.

m •m

Fig. 11. —Section of a Pacific Type Cure House. For detail see text.

SOME SUGGESTIONS
It will be seen that Turkish tobacco raising is a highly specialized
industry requiring the greatest attention to detail at all times. The
grower must exercise judgment and care from the choice of seed to
the end of the preliminary curing. Of course he could carry the
leaf through the fermentation and grading but on the whole it would
be poor policy to do so. The manufacturers demand a uniform pro-
664 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION

duct and if each grower cures his leaf to the selling stage such uni-
formity cannot be obtained. There would be about as many variations
in the cured product as there were individuals engaged in the work.
Standardization is well understood by our California farmers and
this can be accomplished by the growers only by well considered and
well executed cooperation. Without this sort of cooperation the
individual will find himself at the mercy of a not too friendly market
and his venture will end in failure. Central curing, grading, and
aging barns should be provided. They should not be privately owned
and operated but should be cooperatively the property of the growers.
Men should be employed to manage them who are experts in the
various manipulations the leaf must undergo so that the final result
will be proper curing, good quality, and uniform grading. Lack
of uniformity of curing (fig. 12) will in itself tend to degrade the

product and reduce the price. The cooperative idea in handling

agricultural products is not a new one to the farmers of this state.
The time is not so far back when butter was manufactured on the
farm and each purchase the consumer made might be considered
an experiment. Sometimes the product pleased and sometimes it
was a disappointment. Then came the day of the creameries, mostly
operated cooperatively, and the result was improvement in the quality
and uniformity in the character of the butter.
Standardization is well understood by our fruitmen and no suc-
cessful orchardist would admit any desirability whatever in the hit
or miss jumble of former days. The business could not stand the
strain.
The grower of Turkish tobacco should profit by the lessons
taught in other lines of agriculture and be a cooperator first, last,
and always. He should, through cooperation, be in a position to
put the manufactured article on the market provided he cannot get
a fairly remunerative price otherwise. He should remember that
the honest buyer would prefer to buy where there are large lots of
a uniform type than to search for this type through a large number
of non-uniform lots of leaf. The business of curing and disposing
of the crop can be expected to remain in the unsatisfactory position
it has so far occupied unless this general idea of cooperation is devel-
oped and maintained. L
BULLETIN 366] TURKISH TOBACCO CULTURE, CURING, MARKETING 665

Fig. 12. —Non-uniform curing. Note variations in shading. This condition

caused a reduction in price of the product.
666 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION

FERMENTATION, GRADING, AND MARKETING

Contribution of Alfred Aram, President, Associated Tobacco Growers Inc.,
of California

The
success of the final fermentation and uniform grading deter-
mines to a great extent the value of the finished product. Under no
condition, however, will good fermentation overcome the results of
mistakes during the growing and sun curing. To ferment Turkish
tobacco special equipment and expert supervision is essential. This
makes it both inadvisable and expensive for the farmer to cure his
own crop. Also, the work of grading the tobacco to uniform grades
acceptable to the manufacturer is very important and the fermen-
tation and grading are best done at the same time and place. It
is evident that if each farmer were to undertake to grade his crop

there could be no uniform grades. The necessity of uniform grades

and their relation to marketability and price is too well understood
by the California farmers to need further comment.

METHODS OF FERMENTING TURKISH TYPE TOBACCO

There are two methods of fermentation, 'bulk' fermentation,
and 'bale' fermentation. The particular method to be followed can
be determined only by experts who must carefully consider the
quality, the condition, the intended use, weather conditions, and
the preferences of the market.
Bulk fermentation. —In previous chapters we have seen that after
the sun-cure the tobacco strings are hung in the barn in garlands
of five strings (figs. 11-17). In the fall or early winter, damp
weather will make the tobacco soft and pliable and it can then be
handled without danger of breaking the leaves. The garlands are
now taken down and delivered to the nearest receiving plant or
warehouse equipped to ferment and grade the tobacco and bale it
ready for shipment. For bulk fermentation the tobacco should
not contain more than four per cent nor less than three per cent
of moisture by weight. Not often does tobacco delivered in the
fall contain less than the minimum moisture required. In most
cases it is far in excess of the maximum four per cent. The first

step in the warehouse is to bring the tobacco to the desired moisture

content. This is done either by ventilation or the application of
slow heat or both. A satisfactory method of testing the moisture
content is to take a number of leaves from a number of garlands
BULLETIN 366] TURKISH TOBACCO CULTURE, CURING, MARKETING 667

and weigh them. Then the leaves are thoroughly dried and weighed
again. The loss in weight represents the weight of the moisture
evaporated. The percentage can be arrived at by the formula
100A
== X where A represents the loss in weight, B the weight before
B
drying, and X
the percentage of moisture content to be determined.
After the tobacco is brought to the proper moisture content
the bulk or pile is made in a room where humidity and temperature
can be controlled. The bed is first laid on the clean board floor by
putting trash (tobacco of no commercial value) or blankets about
three inches high a.nd covering a space 10 x 10 feet, the tobacco
to be fermented is next laid on this bed in straight rows with the
strings in straight lines and the leaves overlapping about one-half
of their length. Since the strings are seven feet long and the fer-
menting pile ten feet long there will be three feet 'overage.' This
is In making the pile and
necessary as will be explained later.
laying the strings the method shown in the diagrams is followed
(fig. 13).
/7/-j6 Ftow Row
Th>rd Fourth Rtw

lo'

III 1 III

TJgZZ

Fig. —
Arrangement of strings of tobacco for bulk fermentation,
13. For
detail see text.

All the stems in the first layer point in the same direction while
the stems in the second layer point in the opposite direction. This
method of alternating the direction of the stems and the 'overage'
is carried out to the completion of the pile ten feet high. It will
be seen that every fourth layer will have the same direction of stems
and overage.
In building the pile or bulk, when it is five feet high a speci-
ally constructed thermometer is placed on the pile with the base at
the center of the pile and the reading end projecting beyond the
edge. The entire bulk is then covered with blankets or quilts pro-
vided for this purpose.
The pile is now left to 'heat up' to the desired degree but under
no condition to exceed 120° F. This first heating may require from
eight to twenty-four hours according to a number of conditions.
When the first heating has reached the desired point, the pile is
668 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION

torn down, the tobacco allowed to cool and bulked again for the
second heating. It is obvious that the center is the warmest part
of the bulk and the temperature decreases in the direction of the
outer edges. Therefore in building the second pile from the first
pile special care is necessary in order that the tobacco on or near
the outer edges at the first pile will come near the center of the
second pile. This is essential to insure the uniform fermentation of
all the tobacco. This may be accomplished in several ways. The
following method is satisfactory.
The pile is taken down from the top until approximately one-
fourth is taken off and laid to one side (fig. 14). This is repre-
sented in the following diagram as Section A. Then Section B is
taken off and placed to the opposite side of the pile. Section C
is placed on Section B and Section D on Section A. This leaves
vacant the place occupied by the first pile. A new bed is made on the
space occupied by the first pile and the second pile is constructed
by placing all the various sections in the order of C. D. A. B.

fjec. D ^ Sec C ( Sec C >

Sec A Sec. _D Jec. B

Jec. A

S*c. C

Fig. 14. —Piling for bulk fermentation. For detail see text.

It will B and C were in the center of the

be noted that Sections
first and received the maximum amount of fermentation while
pile
Sections A and D being at the top and bottom respectively received
the minimum of fermentation. In the new pile, Sections A and D
are placed at the center with B and C at the top and bottom respec-
tively. In making up the second pile a system should be followed
so as to insure, without confusion and mistakes, that the ends of the
strings at the outer edge of the first pile will come inside of the
overage of the second pile. This is necessary to give uniform fer-
mentation to both ends of the strings. The method of alternating
the ends of the strings in the overage from the first to the second
BULLETIN 366] TURKISH TOBACCO CULTURE, CURING, MARKETING 669

pile may be made clear by the following diagram (fig. 15). This
second pile is also allowed to heat to the predetermined point and
taken down, and the operation is repeated as before until the tobacco
has fermented to the required degree. No definite statement can
be made as to the number of bulkings necessary. That is governed
by several considerations and can be determined only in each indi-
vidual case at the time.

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11 s
.f

Posiiion 0/ Si rmys in f/'rsf />t/e Pfi Sri i op o{ Sir /njs in second P"
Fig. 15. —Method of alternating position of strings from first to second
pile. For detail see text.

When the fermentation is complete, the tobacco is allowed to

cool and then graded according to color, size, and smoking
it is

quality. This also can only be done under expert supervision with
accurate knowledge of manufacturer's requirements, the needs of the
market intended to be reached, and the types of cigarettes in which
the tobacco is to be used. After grading, the tobacco is made into
uniform bales of approximately 100 pounds each. It is essential
that each bale should contain tobacco of similar color, quality, and
size.

The baling is done by the use of collapsible boxes in which the

tobacco strings are placed in uniform rows and in such a way that
only stems will be exposed at the two opposite sides of the bale.
The contents of the box is then subjected to pressure under screw
presses and allowed to remain under pressure for a few hours. The
pressure is then released, the box taken apart and the tobacco cov-
—
ered with burlap on four sides the top, bottom, and the two ends,
leaving the two sides formed by the stems exposed. These sides
are laced as shown in figure 16. This method of baling makes it
possible to examine the tobacco in the bale by loosening the lace
one one side and after examination the lace can be drawn tight and the
670 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION

bale restored to its shape without opening the burlap covering.

If the fermentation has been done properly, the tobacco should not
heat again in the bales. However, it is advisable to shift the bales
and change their position once in ten days during the months of
April and May following.
—
Bale fermentation. In this method of fermentation the tobacco
is graded upon the delivery at the warehouse, the moisture is fixed

at not more than three per cent, and the material is baled as described
under bulk fermentation. The bales are placed on shelves in a
building where the tobacco is not subject to the variation of out-
side temperature. The bales are carefully inspected and their posi-
tion shifted every ten clays. Any bales developing more than the

Fig. 16. — One hundred pound bale of tobacco showing side lacing.

required heat are loosened by opening the lace sides and (fig. 16)
air is allowed to penetrate through. The must
shifting of the bales
continue until fermentation has progressed sufficiently so that no
longer heat is generated to a degree to damage the tobacco. During
the April and May following they must be examined again and any
bales having a tendency to heat must be shifted every week or ten
days. Excessive moisture content at the time of baling or over-
heating from failure to examine and shift the bales, will result in
molding, which destroys the value of the tobacco for smoking pur-
poses. The bale method of fermentation is a slow process and takes
several months to complete but the results are satisfactory. Bulk
fermentation is completed in a comparatively short time and it
makes possible a degree of uniformity of the finished product rarely
attainable by the bale method. Each has its enthusiastic advo-
cates. The bulk method, however, should never be attempted except
under proved expert supervision. It is more exacting and lack of
constant vigilance or mistakes will result in serious damage to the
tobacco.
BULLETIN 366] TURKISH TOBACCO CULTURE, CURING, MARKETING 671

Fig. 17. — Garlanded strings of tobacco ready for cure house.

672 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION

The foregoing description of the various methods of fermenta-

tion given for the purpose of acquainting the farmer with the
is

character and importance of the work involved in making the crop

a finished, marketable commodity. A detailed, scientific discussion
of fermentation is beyond the scope of this paper and of no prac-
tical value to the farmer. Specialized training, practical experi-
ence, knowledge of the needs of the various markets and manu-
facturers, and special equipment are absolute requirements for this
work.
MARKETING TURKISH TOBACCO
To determine the method of marketing best adopted to this crop,
it is well to keep in mind that

(a) Prior to fermentation, Turkish tobacco is highly

perishable. The work of fermentation can not be
delayed later than the November following the har-
vest. Beyond that period the tobacco cannot be held,
nor can it be shipped a distance of more than a day's
journey.

(b) Until it is properly fermented, graded, and baled,

tobacco is not a finished product acceptable to the
manufacturer. It cannot enter the national or world
market. The trade is confined to tobacco ready for
the manufacturer.

farmers who must sell their crop before fermenta-

It follows that
tion and grading have a very short time in which to dispose of it
and can only sell to buyers who may be willing to buy the tobacco
where it is. Under these conditions the farmer must accept what-
ever these local buyers may be willing to pay. The fact that leaf
tobacco is a commodity enjoying a world-wide market and is bought
and sold throughout the year in all countries is of no practical
value to the farmer who must sell his tobacco prior to fermenta-
tion and grading. Only those who have properly fermented and
graded tobacco to sell have access to the market in leaf tobacco. In
the countries of the Levant, local receiving warehouses are owned
and operated by brokers or branch offices of large manufacturers.
The farmer sells his crop to these buyers soon after the tobacco
is sun-cured. This system has not been satisfactory to the farmer.
Its defects,from the farmer's standpoint, are obvious. The system
has persisted in the Levant because social and economic conditions
prevailing there have made it difficult if not impossible for the
Bulletin 366] TURKISH TOBACCO CULTURE, CURING, MARKETING 673

farmers to have their own finishing plants and to market their

tobacco cooperatively.
The success of cooperative marketing in California suggests that
the tobacco growers of this state should own and operate the receiv-
ing warehouses in each district on the cooperative principle. That
the tobacco growers of the state realize this is indicated by the
fact that there has been organized the " Associated Tobacco Growers
Inc." of California, a non-stock, non-profit, growers marketing asso-
ciation.

PESTS
Already a number of pests have appeared to vex the grower of
tobacco in California. The greatest losses noted have been caused
by jack The tobacco plant with its very bitter, unpleasant
rabbits.
tasting leaves would not seem to be very tempting to these animals
yet they find the interior portion of the main stalk much to their
liking. This portion of the growing plant is sweet and succulent and
the jack rabbits gnaw away the bark and eat out the heart of the
plant, thus causing its death. The writer has seen a field of tobacco
so badly injured by jack rabbits that it was not worth harvesting.
A good rabbit proof fence of meshed wire fencing and the consci-
entious use of the shotgun will adequately control this pest. Some
success has been had with poisoned baits. The most efficient poison
bait so far reported has been raisins with a minute crystal of strych-
nine worked into each one.
Ground squirrels are reported to have caused losses in many
cases though not so great as those caused by jack rabbits. Before the
field is planted, a vigorous campaign of destruction of squirrels
should be carried on. Poisoned baits, and strychnine, and
raisins
poisoned grains should be used. Destruction by gasses should also
be a part of the campaign. The State Department of Agriculture,
Sacramento, California, will, through its Division of Rodent Control,
aid in a practical way in such a campaign. The College of Agri-
culture of the University of California is also prepared to aid and
assist in work of this sort.
Of insect pests, several kinds have proved so far to be somewhat
troublesome. Grasshoppers have been reported as a menace, though
the damage caused by them has been insignificant.
The common tomato worm and the tobacco worm, the larvae of
certain of the humming-bird moths known as the horned caterpillars
(Protoparce sexta and Protoparce quinquemaculata) are probably
the most troublesome insect pests in the tobacco fields. So far con-
trol has been obtained bv destroying the individual worms when
674 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION

seen and by destroying: the egg masses. The eggs are laid on the under
sides of the larger leaves near the center and the number may run
as high as thirty to each mass. The moths fly freely in the early
evening and some growers report great success in light-trapping
the pregnant females. The method used is to place ordinary lanterns
in shallow pans having about an inch of oil coated water in them.
These are put about in the field, and the moths, attracted by the
lights, dash to them and fall into the oil-coated water. By using
all three methods, the damage done by the larvae of the humming-
bird moth may be reduced to the minimum.
The tobacco flea beetle (Epitrix sp.) is frequently troublesome
in tobacco fields. It is a very minute, dark brown to black beetle which
when seen under a fairly strong magnifying glass is found to be
quite pilose. It can be readily recognized from its jumping move-
ments which resemble those of a flea and from which it takes its
name.
Cut-worms, the larvae of certain noctuid moths, occasionally do
damage to, or even destroy, the young plants. Good cultural methods
usually keep these pests below the danger point though occasionally
poisoned baits may have to be used to control them. Cabbage leaves,
sliced carrots or sliced potatoes lightly dusted with equal parts of
Paris Green and flour have been found to be effective when placed
where these larvae can find them and feed on them.
No diseases of any importance have been noted yet in our Calif-
ornia tobacco fields. Root rot has been observed and in every
case was directly traceable to either careless or excessive use of water.
None of the troubles here noted save the jack rabbits and squirrel
nuisance has been the cause of death of any considerable number of
plants. However, any damage to a part of a leaf makes perfect
curing of it nearly impossible. The leaf that has been injured
however slightly by grasshoppers, tobacco worms, cutworms, or flea
beetles must go in a grade lower than the leaf not so injured and
so in the aggregate a considerable loss may occur. The grower's
aim should be to produce a perfect leaf, therefore every effort should
be made to control pests of all kinds.
 : : :

Bulletin 366] TURKISH TOBACCO CULTURE, CURING, MARKETING 675

APPENDIX
Daniel S. Neuman, of Napa, California, a man of wide experience
in all phases of tobacco production and curing, offers the following
information and comment
When writing a thesis for the degree of Master of Chemistry
in the University of San Vladimir, Kief, Russia, I chose the subject
of qualitative analysis of nicotines found in different varieties of
European and Asiatic grown tobaccos. The first part of this thesis
was devoted to the study of the history of tobacco in those countries.
Using only the original sources, I found that
"Tobacco was first introduced into Spain from the American continent
in the 16th century. From there it was easy to trace its rapid spread to
France, Austria, Hungary, the Balkan States, Greece, Turkey, and thence
eventually to Eussia. Tobacco was also grown in Great Britain in con-
siderable quantities in the 17th century, but its cultivation was prohibited
after a few years, so as not to injure the American industry (America being
at that time a colony of Great Britain).
easy to understand why Spain, France, Austria and Hungary ceased
It is
to be tobacco growing countries as all of them adopted a government mo-
nopoly on all tobacco products, and the maximum fixed price for home-grown
tobacco was so small, that it hardly paid a planter to continue to cultivate
it."

One of the main ingredients of tobacco is Nicotianin (tobacco

camphor). This crystallizes easily at the ordinary temperature of
the air.

Nicotina, an alkaloid similar to conia (a strong narcotic), does

not exist in tobacco in solid form at the ordinary temperature.
It can be found only in an oily volatile state. Nor does it exist
in infusions of tobacco, and only a mere trace of it can be found
in decoctions. But when tobacco is burned as in smoking, the fol-
lowing substances are formed

1. Nicotianin
2. Empyreumatic oil

3. Carbonate of ammonia
4. Soot
5. Different gases (7)

The common name generally applied to these combined sub-

stances is Nicotine. This point is very important as the samples
of Turkish tobacco grown in different countries show a great vari-
ation in the percentage of these ingredients. To have a perfect
aromatic tobacco the percentages have to be evenly balanced. For
 :

676 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION

instance,Havana, Cuba, tobacco not grown under canvas contains

such a small percentage of tobacco camphor that it lacks aroma
and is of little commercial value. On the other hand, Havana to-
bacco grown under canvas (which protects it from the chemical
action of the sun's fierce rays) retains all its volatile constituents,
thus developing the aroma and flavor which are so much, prized by
smokers the world over. No tobacco today commands so high a
price as Havana raised under canvas.
Agood deal of difference can be noticed in tobacco grown in
different districts in Turkey, as the amount of essential constitu-
ents varies according to the latitude. Tobacco grown in the northern
districts is much more delicate and of finer quality.
Advice to cover with paper bags the tobacco blossoms, on plants
selected for seed in order to prevent cross-pollinization is very good in
part, but my experience proves that many of the seeds do not full}7
mature if covered continuously, as the paper covering prevents proper
ventilation of the seed capsules. The writer adopted the following
plan:
1. Cover with paper bags until the capsules are entirely formed,
then, replace bag with a double thickness of cheese cloth.
2. When the seeds have entirely matured, dip the whole seed
crown in bichloride of mercury solution 1 to 30,000, to destroy
tobacco dust insects, etc. dry thoroughly at once, and seal in a
;

paper sack previously pricked with a pin for ventilation.

The writer used the following method
The collected leaves were placed in piles about ten inches high
on tables in a cool, well ventilated room, and left until they com-
menced to sweat (evaporation of sap). This usually required from
thirty to thirty-eight hours. (At the same time this wilts the to-
bacco leaves and renders them so flexible that there is less danger
of breaking or damaging them w hen they are being strung.)
T

Having strung and fastened the tobacco to the sticks the sticks
were placed in the shade where they were kept for three or four days,
until the leaves began to turn yellow, when they were removed to
the open racks for sun curing.