Wave is a form of energy transfer from one point to another.

It is produced by vibrating objects eg

Sound waves ~ are produced by vibrating object such as tuning forks etc.
Light waves ~ are produced by a vibrating electric and magnetic forces
Water waves ~ are produced by a vibrating object in water surface.
All waves exhibits the following properties: Reflection, Refraction,
Diffraction, and Interference.
Water waves may be studied using a ripple tank. The ripple tank consists of a
transparent tray containing water, appoint source of light above the tray, a white
screen and an electric motor (vibrator).
Light
Water waves
Stroboscope
Vibrator
Observer

Bar

Tray

Screen
Image on Screen
As the motor vibrates, the bar attached to it makes plane waves on the water.
Since the bottom of the tray is transparent the light casts an image of the
passing waves on the screen at the bottom.
A spongy foam material is lined on the tray to absorb the wave and prevent it
from being reflected back.
The crests appear bright while troughs are dark due to refraction of light.
To produce circular waves,the bar is replaced with a small spherical ball.
However, its often difficult to follow the continuous waves across the screen,
hence a stroboscope, is used to slow down the motion.
The wave pattern is rep by wave fronts lines.
Trough Wave fronts motion

Crest

Crest

Trough

The lines represents the crests while halfway between any two successive lines
are the troughs.
The distance between two successive wave fronts (lines) is equal to one
wavelength.

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 EXAMPLES
1. The figure below shows a sketch of ripples caused by a vibrator in a ripple
tank whose frequency is 50Hz. Determine the speed of the wave motion

24 cm
2. Figure shows plane wave fronts produced in a ripple tank. Given that the
distance between A and B is 15 cm, determine the wavelength of the wave

A 15cm B
3. Water waves are observed to pass a fixed point at a rate of 120 crests per
minute. A wave crest takes 4.0 seconds to travel between two fixed points
12.0 m apart.Determine:
i) The velocity of the waves.
ii) The wavelength of the waves.

RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION OF WAVE

This is the property of waves to travel in straight lines and perpendicular to
the wave front.Plane waves are produced by a rectangular bar while a circular
wave is produced using a ball.
Plane Circular waves
waves

Wave fronts Wave fronts

If a cork is placed on top of a ripple (wave), it moves up and down rhythmically

but it remains in the same position.
REFLECTION OF PLANE AND CIRCULAR WAVES.
a) PLANE WAVES (STRAIGHT)
i) Plane waves on an oblique angle reflector.
The reflection of the waves obey the known law of reflection of light ieAngle of
incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

Incident waves Oblique reflector

i
r

Reflected waves
Normal

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 ii) Plane waves on a straight reflector at 900.
The wave fronts are reflected back thru the same path as plane waves.
Incident waves

Straight reflector

Reflected waves
iii) Plane waves on a concave reflector
The reflected wavefronts are circular and converge at a focal point infront of the
reflecting surface and then diverge. Hence a concave reflector has a real focus.
Incident waves

Concave reflector
F

Reflected waves
iv) Plane waves on a convex reflector
The waves appear to be diverging from a point behind the reflector. This point is
the focal point of the convex reflector.
Incident waves

Convex
reflector

Reflected waves

b) CIRCULAR WAVES
(i) Circular waves on a plane reflector.
The waves are reflected back as circular waves similar to the incident waves but
in the opposite direction.
Incident waves

Plane reflector

Reflected waves

F O R M 3 N O T E S: W A V E S II Pg 3
 (ii) Circular waves on a concave reflector.
The waves are reflected back as straight (plane) waves.
Incident waves

Concave
reflector

Reflected waves

REFRACTON OF WAVES
This is the bending of waves at a boundary as they move from one
medium to another. In water it occurs when water waves moves from deep to
shallow region and v.v. Refraction occurs due to change of speed of the waves.
The wave travel at different velocities in different media.
SinceV = f λ, when waves move from a deep to a shallow region,
- The velocity reduces.
- The wavelength reduces.
- The frequency remains constant.
Since the frequency of the vibrator does not change, hence the frequency of the
waves also remains the same.
Deep Deep
Shallow

Water

Obstacle
When wavefronts of the same setup is drawn, they are widespread at the deep
region and closely spaced at the shallow region.
Deep Shallow Deep

Water

Obstacle
Various shapes placed under water produces different refraction patterns.
Note: When waves move from a less dense to a denser medium,
velocity and wavelength reduces but frequency is constant.

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CONVEX OBSTACLE
Deep Shallow Deep

Plane water waves

Convex Object

BARRIER AT AN ANGLE
Barrier at an angle
The waves get closer and
Deep region
bend down wards.
Shallow region

REFRACTION OF SOUND WAVES

Sound travels far at night as compared to daytime because itundergoes
refraction. During the day, the layer of air close to the ground is much warmer
than air higher above. Since Sound travel faster at higher temperature,
the lower parts of the wave fronts move faster than the upper parts making the
wave to change the direction of travel. The sound is bent upwards and cannot be
heard over afar distance.
Cool air

Hot air

At night, the layers of air close to the ground become cooler than those above.
Sound waves are bent downwards. That’s why distant sounds are louder and clear
at night. Hot air

Cool air

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DIFFRACTION OF WAVES
This is the spreading of waves around an obstacle as they pass
through an aperture (gap/slit).
The spreading of the waves depends on the size of the gap. If the gap is wide, he
wave length of the waves is very small as compared to the size of the gap hence,
the waves pass as plane waves but there is a slight bend at the edges.
Barrier

Gap

If the gap is smaller or almost equal to the  of the waves the wave fronts
emerge as circular waves.

Diffraction of waves is most evident when the 

of the wave is longeras
compared to the aperture.The bigger the wavelength, the greater the bending.
NOTE: Radio wave signals are easier to receive than TV waves
signals in a place surrounded by hills because radio
waves have longer wavelength than TV waves and hence
can be diffracted down the hill.

Diffraction in sound waves

Sound can be heard round a corner without the source being seen. The waves are
diffracted as the pass through the windows or doors.
Practically, the size of your mouth is much smaller than the  of the
sound you produce and that is why the sound you produce is able to
spread sideways.

Diffraction in light waves

Diffraction of light waves is rare because light has a very short λ. However if a
parallel beam of light passes through a very narrow slit into a dark room the slit
appears to be extended due to spreading of the incoming light waves.

INTERFERENCE OF WAVES
Interference is the effect that occurs when two or more waves
merge. The two waves might add up to form a larger wave, a smaller wave or
cancel out completely depending on the phase relation of each wave.
Phase of a wave is the timing of two wave trains.
There are two kinds of interference.

F O R M 3 N O T E S: W A V E S II Pg 6
(i) Constructive interference~ it occurs when two
waves in phase merge to form a much bigger wave.It occurs
when two crests or two troughs meet.

1
Displacement
(cm)

For two waves in phase, add their amplitudes 1+1=2cm.The two wavesmeetsto
form a bigger wave.
Displacement

1
(cm)

(iii) Destructive interference~ It occurs when two waves out

of phase meet. It occurs when a crest meets a trough. The resulting wave
may cancel out completely or reduce in amplitude than the individual
waves.
For two waves out of phase, find the difference of their amplitudes.

The resultant of the wave is 1-1=0

Displacement (cm)

1
1

-1
-1

The resultant of the wave is 6-2=4

Displacement (cm)

6 4
Displacement

4 2

2
6-2=4
(cm)

-2
-2

Conditions necessary for interference to occur.

A coherent source is used to produce interference ie
- The waves shud have the same frequency.
- Same or nearly equal amplitude
- Constant phase difference.

F O R M 3 N O T E S: W A V E S II Pg 7
Interference in water waves
Two identical balls are placed apart on the same vibrator in a ripple tank to
produce coherent waves. Each ball produces its own circular waves. The waves
from both balls meet as they move out.
The result is alternate dark and bright regions seen on the screen.
C
D C 7, 3, 7cm

S1 D
S2 C
D
C

The bright regions C represent constructive interference while the dark regions D
represent destructive interference.
The lines of constructive interference are called antinodal lines while those of
destructive are called nodal lines.

Interference in sound waves

Coherent waves in sound are obtained by connecting two loud speakers that are
parallel to the same audio frequency generator. The two loud speakers emit
waves of the same frequency, wavelength and are in phase.
X C
Speaker D
C
D
Audio-frequency
generator O P
D
C
D
Speaker C
Y
An observer moving along XY experiences alternate loud sound and soft
sound. The loud sound is heard at C where there is constructive
interference while soft sound is heard at D where there is destructive
interference.
An observer moving along the perpendicular centre btn the two speakers along
OP will hear a loud sound all thru because it is the line equidistant
from both speakers and hence the path difference is zero.
NOTE: ~
- If the frequency of the signal is increased, the dist btn the loud sound
and the soft sound reduces because the wavelength has shortened.
- If a cathode ray oscilloscope is moved along line XY, a wave of max
amplitude at C and min amplitude at D would be seen of the screen.

F O R M 3 N O T E S: W A V E S II Pg 8
Interference in light.
Interference on light is observed using the Young’s double slit exp.

Double slit

Monochromatic light S1

S Screen
S2

The Slit S acts as a point source. It receives light from a monochromatic source.
The two slits S1 and S2 are placed infront of slit S and they are used to provide
Coherent waves.
NOTE: A monochromatic light is a light of a one frequency and
contains only one colour while a white light contains all the
seven colours of the rainbow.
Interference of light waves produces alternate bright fringes and dark
fringes on the screen with a central bright fringe at the centre of the
screen. The bright fringes represent constructive interference. While the
dark fringe represents destructive interference.
NOTE: If a white light is used instead of a monochromatic light, the interference
produces “A series of the seven colours of the rainbow on either side
of the screen with a central white fringe”

PATH DIFFEFENCE BTN FRINGES

S1
C
D
Monochromatic
O
light
S2

At the centre of the two slits at point O, there is a central bright fringe. The
distance S1O=S2O hence the path diff S1O - S2O=0
Moving away from the central bright fringe, the first bright fringe forms at point
C, the path diff is S1C - S2C=1λ ie One wavelength
𝟏
The first dark fringe forms at pointD, the path diff is S1D - S2D= 𝛌 ie half
𝟐
wavelength
The path diff btn any two consecutive bright fringes or btn two
consecutive dark fringes is One wavelength. While the path diff btn a
bright fringe and a dark fringe close to each other is half wavelength

F O R M 3 N O T E S: W A V E S II Pg 9
 EXAMPLES
1. In the figure below the second bright fringe after A1 is observed at point P
where the path difference S2P – S1P = 44cm. If the frequency of the wave is
1500Hz, calculate the speed of the waves.
B1
S1 P
A A1
S2

B
Waves

2. In the figure below, point C is the third constructive interference after the
central order. Determine the frequency of the signal generator given the
velocity of sound is 340m/s.
X
Speaker
6.74 m
C
Audio-frequency
generator C O
7.25 m

Speaker Y

PROGRESSIVE (TRAVELLING) WAVES

These are waves that move continuously away from the source.They
can be transverse or longitudinal. Progressive waves can be produced by moving
one end of a rope up and down continuously while the other end is open.

STATIONARY (STANDING)WAVES
These are waves formed by superposing of two equal progressive
waves travelling in opposite direction. The wave motion appears to stand
still.
Conditions necessary for the formation of stationary waves by two
progressive waves.
- Must have the same speed.
- Must have same frequency.
- Same or nearly equal amplitude.
Stationary waves can be produced by a rope tied on one end to a fixed object, the
move the other end up and down continuously.
The wave is reflected back at the fixed end and will be seen as stationery.
A A A A A A

N N N N N

F O R M 3 N O T E S: W A V E S II Pg 10
Points A are called antinodes and are regions of constructive interference. The
displacement is maximum at these points.
Points N are called nodes and are regions destructive interference. The disp is zero at
these points.
Stationery waves can also be produced by a guitar.

PROPERTIES OF STATIONARY WAVES.

- Have nodes at points of zero disp and Antinodes at points of max disp.
- Vibrations of particles at point’s btn successive nodes are in phase.
𝟏
- The distance between successive nodes or antinodes is 𝛌
𝟐

DIFF BTN STATIONARY WAVES AND PROGRESSIVE WAVES

STATIONARY PROGRESSIVE
- Do not transfer energy from - Transfers energy from one
one point to another. point to another
- Dist btn two successive nodes - Dist btn two successive
𝟏 troughs or crests is 𝝀
or two antinodes is 𝝀
𝟐

EXAMPLES
In the Young’s double slit experiment, an interference pattern of bright and dark
fringes was formed as shown below by monochromatic light of wavelength 
coming from a source through slits S1 and S2
Bright
Dark

S1 X Bright
Dark
Bright
S0 Dark
Bright

S2
y

(i) Write an expression for the path difference between S1X and S2X where X
corresponds to the 2nd bright fringe after the central order.
(ii) State the function of the double silts S1 and S2
(iii) Explain how the dark and bright fringes are formed
(iv) What is the effect when the frequency is increased.
ANS: Spacing between the bright and soft fringes decreases
(v) State and explain what would happen on the screen if
a) The slits S1 and S2 were made larger.
ANS: The fringes produced would not be clearer ~ because of the
larger wave fronts produced.
b) The slit separation d btn S1 and S2 is reduced.
ANS The fringes will be more pronounced as the slit separation
get close to the wavelength
c) White light is used instead of monochromatic source.

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