Turing Machine

In 1936:
Alan Turing introduced the idea of a universal computational device. His idea assumes that
all computations (actions) could be performed by a special kind of a machine, now called a
Turing Machine. He abstracted these actions into a model for a computational machine
that has really changed the world.
However, to be able to discuss the Turning Machine, some terminology must be clarified
first.
Data Processor:
Computer can be considered as a black-box that accepts input data, processes the data,
and creates output data.

Processing
This definition assumes that the computer can ONLY single specific task (such as:
controlling the temperature of a building or controlling the fuel usage in a car), which is not
the case of these days' computers.
Therefore, moving to another model that can effectively describe the computer.

Turing Model
Programmable Data Processor:
The Turing model is a better model for a general-purpose computer. This model adds an extra
element to the specific computing machine: the program.
A program is a set of instructions that tells the computer what to do with data.
What will be the output?
if:
• Different inputs were introduced with the
same program.
• Different programs were used with the same
input.
Same program, different data Same data, different programs
Universal Turing Machine:
A machine that can do any computation if the appropriate program is provided (the first
description of a modern computer).
Therefore
Powerful Universal
Computer Turing Machine
This has been proven
to be equivalent
Von Neumann Model
Computers built on the Universal Turing Machine store data in their memory.
Around 1944-1945:
John von Neumann proposed that, since program and data are logically the same (represented by
0’s and 1’s), programs should also be stored in the memory of a computer.
Computers built on the von Neumann model divide the computer hardware into four subsystems:
Arithmetic Logic Unit
Memory Control Unit (CU) Input / Output
(ALU)

Memory is the storage The arithmetic logic unit The control unit (CU) The input subsystem
area. This is where (ALU) is where calculation controls the operations accepts input data and the
programs and data are and logical operations take of the memory, ALU, program from outside the
stored during place and the input/output computer, while the
processing subsystem output subsystem sends
the result of processing to
the outside world.
Computer Definition
A computer is an electronic device used to
process data and convert it into information
that is useful to people.
Computer Generations during 1950 - Present
Computers built after 1950 more or less follow the von Neumann model. They have become
faster, smaller, and cheaper, but the principle is almost the same.
Historians divide this period into generations, with each generation witnessing some major
change in hardware or software (but not in the model). 1950-1959
The emergence of commercial
computers based on vacuum tubes

1959-1965
Transistors replaces vacuum tubes.
Appearance of two high-level
programming languages, FORTRAN and
COBOL, which made programming
easier
Computer 1965-1975
Integrated circuit reduced the cost
Generations 1975-1985
and size of computers.
Minicomputers appeared on the
The appearance of market and software packages
microcomputers. The emergence became available
of computer networks
1985-Present
The appearance of laptop and palmtop
computers. Improvements in secondary
storage media (CD-ROM, DVD and so on).
The use of multimedia, and the
phenomenon of virtual reality
Computer Categories

Computer
Categories

Embedded Mobile Personal Midrange Mainframe

Supercomputers
Computers Devices Computers Servers Computers

any computer- smart phones PCs and host data for powerful very powerful
based and tablets Laptops small group computers host computers used
equipment of users data and programs for complex
for large group of computations
users and processing
Computer Categories
Embedded Computers:
Embedded into a product and designed to perform specific tasks or functions for that product.
Computers may be embedded into: Blind Spot
• Household appliances (washer, coffee maker, hoover, …etc)
• Thermostats (Fridge and Freezers)
• Sewing machines
• Fitness equipment (treadmills and fitness bikes)
• Cars
Mobile Devices:
A very small device with some type of built-in computing or Internet
capability.
Mobile phone (smart phones) are the most common type of mobile
devices.
Other examples:
• Smart watches
• Handheld gaming devices (Nintendo, Gameboy, and 3DS)
• Portable digital media players (mp4 player and IPod)
• Tablets (IPad, other tablets types)
Computer Categories
Personal Computers:
Small computer designed to be used by one person at a time.
Also called a microcomputer
Available in different sizes and shapes which are:
1. Desktop computers
o Can use tower case, desktop case, or all-in-one
o Can be PC-compatible or Macintosh
2. Portable Computers
o Fully functioning computer which can be carried around
o Have many types, such as:
a. Notebook computers (also called laptop computers)
b. Tablet Computers
c. Hybrid notebook-tablet computers
d. Netbooks (similar to notebook but with limited features such as hard drive
(HDD) and DVD drive)

Notebook Tablet Hybrid Notebook-tablet Netbook

Computer Categories
3. Thin Clients and Internet Appliances
o Devices that must be connected to network in order to perform their tasks
o Have many types, such as:
a. Thin clients (have lower cost than desktop computers)
Advantages:
• More secure: data are stored on network server
• Easier maintenance: all software are located on the server
Disadvantages:
• Can not function when the network is down
b. Internet appliances
• Smart TV, Smart Fridge, and IPTV receivers
• Gaming consoles (Playstation, Xbox, and Wii)
Computer Categories
Midrange Servers:
• A medium-sized computer used to host programs and data for a small network.
• Also called a minicomputer
• More powerful and more expensive than personal computer
• Users connect to it via a network with a computer, thin
client, dumb terminal (consists of monitor and keyboard).

Mainframe Computers:
• Powerful computer used by many large organizations (hospitals,
universities, banks and governmental offices) to manage large
amounts of centralized data
• Larger, more expensive, and more powerful than midrange servers
• Can be used to run multiple programs at the same time
• Usually operate 24 hours a day (results in high cost of electricity)

11
Computer Categories
Supercomputers:
• It is characterized by:
▪ The Fastest computer in the market
▪ The most expensive
▪ The most powerful
• Therefore, it can be used in:
▪ Controlling missile guidance systems and satellites
▪ Forecasting the weather
▪ Managing complex websites (search sites and social
networking sites)
• Can be used to run only one application as fast as possible
Computer Hardware
Computer hardware can be divided into 7 categorizes:
Computer Hardware
Motherboard:
The motherboard is the main board that is screwed into the computer case directly. Its function
is to connect all the computer hardware so that they can communicate and work together.
Graphics card port
PCI (Peripheral Component
Interconnect)

Speed
AGP (Accelerated Graphics
Port)
PCIe (Peripheral Component
Interconnect express)
Computer Hardware
Motherboard:
Computer Hardware
Central Processing Unit (CPU):
A comparison between the 1st processor in 1971 and one of the latest processors in shown below.

4004 Core i9
Introduced 1971 Introduced 2018
Transistors count 2300 Transistors count 3.5 billions
Chip performance 0.06 MIPS Chip performance 5.2 BIPS

To understand the great development that takes place in processors, a timeline for the
INTEL processors evolution (as an example) will be illustrated.
Evolution of Processors
Processor Year Clock Speed Bus Width Main Specs
Intel 8008 1972 500 KHz (Data/Address) Addressable memory 16 KB
8 bits (multiplexed addressing) (6+8
bits)
Intel 8080 1974 2 MHz (Data/Address) Addressable memory 64 KB
8/16 bits
Intel 8085 1976 3 MHz (Data/Address) Addressable memory 64 KB
8/16 bits
Intel 8086 1978 5 MHz (Data/Address) Addressable memory 1 MB
10 MHz 16/20 bits
(turbo)
Intel 8088 1979 4.77 MHz (Data/Address) Addressable memory 1 MB
(cheaper) 8 MHz (turbo) 8/20 bits
Intel 80286 1982 6- 16 MHz (Data/Address) Addressable memory 16 MB
16/24 bits
Intel 80386-DX 1985 16-33 MHz (Data/Address) Addressable memory 4 GB
(years 87-89) 32 bits
Intel 80386-SX 1988 16-33 MHz (Data/Address) Addressable memory 16 MB
(cheaper) (years 89-92) 16/24 bits
Evolution of Processors
Processor Year Clock Speed Bus Width Main Specs
Intel 80486-DX 1989 25-50 MHz (Data/Address) Addressable memory 4 GB
(years 90-91) 32 bits
Intel 80486-SX 1991 16-33 MHz (Data/Address) Addressable memory 4 GB
(cheaper) (years 91-92) 32 bits
Intel 80486-DX2 1992 40-66 MHz (Data/Address) Addressable memory 4 GB
(years 90-91) 32 bits
Intel 80486-DX4 1994 75-100 MHz (Data/Address) Addressable memory 4 GB
32 bits
Pentium (P5) 1993 60-66 MHz (Data/Address) Addressable memory 4 GB
64/32 bits
Pentium Pro 1995 166-200MHz (Data/Address) Addressable memory 64 GB
(server systems) (years 95-97) 64/36 bits
Celeron 1998 266-300MHz (Data/Address) Addressable memory 4 GB
(cheaper) 64/32 bits
Pentium III 1999 450-600MHz (Data/Address) Addressable memory 64 GB
64/36 bits
Evolution of Processors
Other Processor s also were available in the market as:
• Pentium IV
• Pentium D
• Dual Core
• Core 2 Duo
• Core 2 Quad
• i3
• i5
• i7
• i9
Address Multiplexing

16 KB RAM = 214 → This size of memory needs 14-bits

to be completely addressable.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

How many different combinations exist?

0 1
Example:
0 1 00
For only 2-bits
01 4 combinations
Therefore, 2n combinations 10 (4=22)
11
can be addressed using n-bits
How to Address 16KB RAM using only 8 bits? Multiplexing
8 bits 6 bits

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 bits
Processor Terminology
Multi CPU:
Adding multiple CPUs to the PC motherboard requires:
• Multiple sockets on the motherboard.
• Additional hardware to connect these sockets to
the RAM and other resources.
Multiple CPU systems exist in supercomputers and
servers which provide high processing powers.

Multi Core:
Multi cores existed in the market to increase performance
of PC with moderate expenses.
A CPU with two cores, for example, could run two
different processes at the same time. This speeds up your
system, because your computer can do multiple things at
once.
Processor Terminology
Hyperthreading:
Hyper-threading was Intel’s first attempt to bring parallel
computation to PCs.
This technique is designed to speed up PC by simulating
the existence of more than one virtual (logical) CPU cores
to share physical execution resources.

Example: a CPU with one core and hyper threading can run faster than a CPU with one
core and no hyper threading.
Computer Hardware
Memory:
Is used to store the programs that the computer execute. Knowing that running a program is a
cooperation between Memory and CPU.

RRAM
Computer Hardware
Random Access Memory (RAM):
• It is the memory that holds data and program instructions as the CPU works with them.
• RAM is volatile, meaning it holds data only when the power is on. When the power is off,
RAM's contents are lost. Is this a problem?

Read Only Memory (ROM):

It is the memory that holds the Basic Input Output System (BIOS) of the computer, which is
responsible of testing all the PC hardware as soon as it is turned on.

Cache Memory:
It is the memory that makes retrieving data from the computer's memory more efficient. It
acts as a temporary storage area that the computer's processor can retrieve data from easily.
Processor Motherboard
Computer Hardware
Types of RAM:
SDRAM

SRAM DRAM
Needs constant power Need continuous
supply to retain its data refresh of the data
(over certain periods)
Expensive Cheap
Can be used in Cache Can be used in System
memory memory

DDR stands for Double Data Rate

Computer Hardware
Types of RAM:
RAM is manufactured using either two technologies: SIMM and DIMM

SIMM DIMM
SIMM stands for Single In-line Memory DIMM stands for Dual In-line Memory
Module Module
It supports 32 bit channel for data transfer It supports 64 bit channel for data transfer
It consumes power of 5 volts It consumes power of 3.3 volts
It provides storage space of about 4 MB to DIMM provides the storage 32 MB to 1 GB
64 MB
They are installed in pairs They are installed one at a time
Computer Hardware
Storage:
• Storage Media and Storage Devices
1. Storage media: is the medium where we can store data on (memory card,
CD/DVDs,….etc.)
2. Storage device: is the device that is responsible to read/write to the storage medium
(memory card reader, CD/DVD drive, …etc.)
• These two parts existed in two forms:
1. Separate parts: CD/DVD drive and memory card reader.
2. Sealed together: Hard drives and Flash memory.
Computer Hardware
Storage:
Hard Drive are used to store most programs and data.
It can be internal or external. Also, it can be encrypted.

• Magnetic Hard Drives

It consists of:
o Metal magnetic hard disks.
o Read/write heads.
o Access mechanism.

• Solid State Drives (SSD)

o More expensive than the Magnetic Hard drives.
o Faster than Magnetic Hard drive with lower power
consumption.
o It contains no moving parts, i.e. high shock resistance.
Computer Hardware
Storage:
Computer Hardware
Storage:
Optical Drives
o There are three categories of discs: CD, DVD, or Blu-Ray Disc (BD)
o Can be read-only (pre-recorded), recordable (R), or rewritable (RW).
o May be found as single , dual layer (DL), or multi-layers (XL) discs.
o Burning is the process of recording data onto disc that needs the following:
1. An Optical Drive (storage device) to burn data on the CD/DVD/BD.
2. Burning Software (included within Windows or Mac OS).
Computer Hardware
Storage:
5.25” CD 3.5” CD 5.25” DVD-SL

5.25” DVD-DL 5.25” BD-SL 5.25” BD-DL

Computer Hardware
Input Devices:
Are the devices used to input data to the computer Wired/Wireless Mouse

Touch Screen
Keyboard

Stylus
Computer Hardware
Output Devices:
Are the devices used to output data from the computer
Output Devices

What is the difference between

Audio Output Devices Headphone and Headset?
Computer Hardware
Graphics Card:
• Graphics card is the main responsible for displayed all the graphics on the screen through
the Graphical Processing Unit (GPU).
• It determines the highest resolution that can be displayed on the screen.

Video Graphics Array VGA

High-Definition Multimedia Interface HDMI

Digital Visual Interface DVI

Width

Graphical RAM required to display an image [MB] =

(Width x Height x No. of bits / pixel)
(1024 x 1024 x 8) [bits] → divide by 1024 [KB]
Height

→ divide by 1024 [MB]

HD: 720p image resolution (1,280 x 720 pixels)
Full HD: 1080p image resolution (1,920 x 1,080)
Ultra HD: 4K image resolution (3,840 x 2,160 pixels),
8K image resolution (7,680 × 4,320 pixels)
Computer Hardware
Graphics Card:
GPU can be used in conjunction to the CPU of the PC in executing the programs which
increases the productivity of the Computer.

Some of the latest Graphics cards

Computer Software
Computer can run two types of software which are:
• System Software
1. The operating system:
a. Enables the computer to boot.
b. Launch application programs.
2. Utility programs:
a. Transferring files from one storage to another.
File
b. Managing files on your hard drive. Explorer
c. Configuring your computer to work with the Windows
hardware connected to it. Defender
d. Connecting your computer to a network. Network
e. Protecting your computer from unauthorized use. Setup

• Application Software
Programs that allow a user to perform specific tasks on the computer, such as:
1. Writing a letter, designing a presentation, creating a database,
implementing a spreadsheet.
2. Viewing a web page.
3. Listen to music.
4. Playing games.
5. Drawing.
6. Designing your home.
Computer Software
Operating Systems:
It is a collection of programs that manage and coordinate the activities taking place within the
computer.

PC
User

Operating
System

Application programs Interface

Hardware
Computer Software
Operating Systems:

Operating System uses some processing techniques to increase the Computer performance
(running tasks faster), which are:
1. Multitasking (One Core/Processor):
• The ability of an operating system to have more than one program (task) open at one
time.
• With only one CPU (single core), it rotates between programs (tasks) to simulate that all
programs are running at the same time.

2. Multithreading (One Core/Processor):

•Thread is a sequence of instructions within a program that are independent of other
threads (e.g. spell checking, typing, printing).
•Rotating between multiple threads → increase execution speed.
•Most OS support multithreading.
Computer Software
Operating Systems:
3. Multiprocessing and parallel processing (Multiple Cores/Processors):
• Multiprocessing: each CPU or Core executes different program.
• Parallel processing: each CPU or Core executes part of the same program
(work together) to run it faster.
• Tasks are performed simultaneously unlike Multitasking and Multithreading;
tasks are performed sequentially.

Processor 1/Core 1 Program 1

Processor 2/Core 2 Program 2
Processor 3/Core 3 Program 3
Processor 4/Core 4 Program 4