Smartzworld.com Smartworld.

asia

UNIT – IV
File System Implementation

File Concept
 Contiguous logical address spaceand Types:
 Data
 numeric
 character
 binary
 Program

File Structure
 None - sequence of words, bytes
 Simple record structure
 Lines
 Fixed length
 Variable length
 Complex Structures
 Formatted document
 Relocatable load file
 Can simulate last two with first method by inserting appropriate control characters
 Who decides:
 Operating system
 Program

File Attributes
 Name – only information kept in human-readable form
 Identifier – unique tag (number) identifies file within file system
 Type – needed for systems that support different types
 Location – pointer to file location on device
 Size – current file size
 Protection – controls who can do reading, writing, executing
 Time, date, and user identification – data for protection, security, and usage monitoring
 Information about files are kept in the directory structure, which is maintained on the disk

File Operations File is an abstract data type

 Create
 Write
 Read
 Reposition within file
 Delete
 Truncate
 Open(Fi) – search the directory structure on disk for entry Fi, and move the content of entry to memory
 Close (Fi) – move the content of entry Fi in memory to directory structure on disk

jntuworldupdates.org Specworld.in
Smartzworld.com Smartworld.asia

Open Files
 Several pieces of data are needed to manage open files:
 File pointer: pointer to last read/write location, per process that has the file open
 File-open count: counter of number of times a file is open – to allow removal of data from open-file table
 when last processes close it
 Disk location of the file: cache of data access information
 Access rights: per-process access mode information

Open File Locking

 Provided by some operating systems and file systems
 Mediates access to a file
 Mandatory or advisory:
 Mandatory – access is denied depending on locks held and requested
 Advisory – processes can find status of locks and decide what to do

File Types – Name, Extension

Access Methods

Sequential Access
 read next
 write
 reset
 no read after last write
 (rewrite)

jntuworldupdates.org Specworld.in
Smartzworld.com Smartworld.asia

Direct Access
 read n
 write n
 position to n
 read next
 write next
 rewrite n
n = relative block number

Sequential-access File

Simulation of Sequential Access on Direct-access File

Example of Index and Relative Files

jntuworldupdates.org Specworld.in
Smartzworld.com Smartworld.asia

Directory Structure
 A collection of nodes containing information about all files
 Both the directory structure and the files reside on disk
 Backups of these two structures are kept on tapes

Files
F F F F
F

Disk Structure
 Disk can be subdivided into partitions
 Disks or partitions can be RAID protected against failure
 Disk or partition can be used raw – without a file system, or formatted with a file system
 Partitions also known as minidisks, slices
 Entity containing file system known as a volume
 Each volume containing file system also tracks that file system’s info in device directory or volume table of
 contents
 As well as general-purpose file systems there are many special-purpose file systems, frequently all within the
same operating system or computer

A Typical File-system Organization

jntuworldupdates.org Specworld.in
Smartzworld.com Smartworld.asia

Operations Performed on Directory

 Search for a file
 Create a file
 Delete a file
 List a directory
 Rename a file
 Traverse the file system

Organize the Directory (Logically) to Obtain

 Efficiency – locating a file quickly
 Naming – convenient to users
 Two users can have same name for different files
 The same file can have several different names
 Grouping – logical grouping of files by properties, (e.g., all Java programs, all games, …)
Single-Level Directory
 A single directory for all users

 Naming problem
 Grouping problem
 Two-Level Directory
 Separate directory for each user

jntuworldupdates.org Specworld.in
Smartzworld.com Smartworld.asia

 Path name
 Can have the same file name for different user
 Efficient searching
 No grouping capability

Tree-Structured Directories

Creating a new file is done in current directory

 Delete a file rm
 <file-name>
 Creating a new subdirectory is done in current directory
mkdir <dir-name>
Example: if in current directory /mail

jntuworldupdates.org Specworld.in
Smartzworld.com Smartworld.asia

mkdir count

mail
 Deleting ―mail‖ Þ deleting the entire subtree rooted by ―mail‖

prog copy pr ex coun

Acyclic-Graph Directories

 Have shared subdirectories and files

Two different names (aliasing)If dict deletes list Þ dangling pointer

 Solutions:
 Backpointers, so we can delete all pointers Variable size records a problem
 Backpointers using a daisy chain organization
 Entry-hold-count solution
 New directory entry type
 Link – another name (pointer) to an existing file
 Resolve the link – follow pointer to locate the file

General Graph Directory

 How do we guarantee no cycles?

 Allow only links to file not subdirectories
 Garbage collection
 Every time a new link is added use a cycle detection algorithm to determine whether it is OK
File System Mounting
 A file system must be mounted before it can be accessed
 A unmounted file system (i.e. Fig. 11-11(b)) is mounted at a mount point

jntuworldupdates.org Specworld.in
Smartzworld.com Smartworld.asia

(a) Existing. (b) Unmounted Partition

Mount Point

File Sharing
 Sharing of files on multi-user systems is desirable Sharing may be done through a protection scheme On
distributed systems, files may be shared across a network Network File System (NFS) is a common
distributed file-sharing method

File Sharing – Multiple Users

 User IDs identify users, allowing permissions and protections to be per-user
Group IDs allow users to be in groups, permitting group access rights

File Sharing – Remote File Systems

 Uses networking to allow file system access between systems

 Manually via programs like FTP

jntuworldupdates.org Specworld.in
Smartzworld.com Smartworld.asia

 Automatically, seamlessly using distributed file systems

 Semi automatically via the world wide web
 Client-server model allows clients to mount remote file systems from servers
 Server can serve multiple clients
 Client and user-on-client identification is insecure or complicated
 NFS is standard UNIX client-server file sharing protocol
 CIFS is standard Windows protocol
 Standard operating system file calls are translated into remote calls
 Distributed Information Systems (distributed naming services) such as LDAP, DNS, NIS,
Active Directory implement unified access to information needed for remote computing
File Sharing – Failure Modes

 Remote file systems add new failure modes, due to network failure, server failure
 Recovery from failure can involve state information about status of each remote request
 Stateless protocols such as NFS include all information in each request, allowing easy recovery but
less security
File Sharing – Consistency Semantics
 Consistency semantics specify how multiple users are to access a shared file simultaneously
 Similar to Ch 7 process synchronization algorithms
 Tend to be less complex due to disk I/O and network latency (for remote file systems
 Andrew File System (AFS) implemented complex remote file sharing semantics
 Unix file system (UFS) implements:
 Writes to an open file visible immediately to other users of the same open file
 Sharing file pointer to allow multiple users to read and write concurrently
 AFS has session semantics
 Writes only visible to sessions starting after the file is closed

Protection
 File owner/creator should be able to control:
 what can be done
 by whomTypes of access
 Read
 Write
 Execute
 Append
 Delete
 List

 Access Lists and Groups
 Mode of access: read, write, execute
 Three classes of users
 RWX

a) owner access 7 Þ 111

RWX
b) group access 6 Þ 110
RWX
c) public access 1 Þ 001

jntuworldupdates.org Specworld.in
Smartzworld.com Smartworld.asia

 Ask manager to create a group (unique name), say G, and add some users to the group. For a particular file
(say game) or subdirectory, define an appropriate access.

owne grou publi

chmo 76 gam

Attach a group to a file

chgrp G game

Windows XP Access-control List Management

A Sample UNIX Directory Listing

jntuworldupdates.org Specworld.in
Smartzworld.com Smartworld.asia

jntuworldupdates.org Specworld.in
Smartzworld.com Smartworld.asia

Mass-Storage Systems
Describe the physical structure of secondary and tertiary storage devices and the resulting effects on the uses of
the devices Explain the performance characteristics of mass-storage devices Discuss operating-system services
provided for mass storage, including RAID and HSM

Overview of Mass Storage Structure

Magnetic disks provide bulk of secondary storage of modern
computers Drives rotate at 60 to 200 times per second
Transfer rate is rate at which data flow between drive and computer
Positioning time (random-access time) is time to move disk arm to desired cylinder (seek time) and time for
desired sector to rotate under the disk head (rotational latency)
Head crash results from disk head making contact with the disk surface
That’s bad
Disks can be removable
Drive attached to computer via I/O bus
Busses vary, including EIDE, ATA, SATA, USB, Fibre Channel, SCSI
Host controller in computer uses bus to talk to disk controller built into drive or storage array
Moving-head Disk Mechanism

Magnetic tape
Was early secondary-storage medium
Relatively permanent and holds large quantities of data
Access time slow
Random access ~1000 times slower than disk
Mainly used for backup, storage of infrequently-used data, transfer medium between systems
Kept in spool and wound or rewound past read-write head
Once data under head, transfer rates comparable to
disk 20-200GB typical storage
Common technologies are 4mm, 8mm, 19mm, LTO-2 and SDLT

Disk Structure
Disk drives are addressed as large 1-dimensional arrays of logical blocks, where the logical block is the
smallest unit of transfer The 1-dimensional array of logical blocks is mapped into the sectors of the disk
sequentially Sector 0 is the first sector of the first track on the outermost cylinder

jntuworldupdates.org Specworld.in
Smartzworld.com Smartworld.asia

Mapping proceeds in order through that track, then the rest of the tracks in that cylinder, and then through the
rest of the cylinders from outermost to innermost

Disk Attachment
Host-attached storage accessed through I/O ports talking to I/O busses
SCSI itself is a bus, up to 16 devices on one cable, SCSI initiator requests operation and SCSI targets perform
tasks
Each target can have up to 8 logical units (disks attached to device
controller FC is high-speed serial architecture
Can be switched fabric with 24-bit address space – the basis of storage area networks (SANs) in which many
hosts attach to many storage units
Can be arbitrated loop (FC-AL) of 126 devices

Network-Attached Storage
Network-attached storage (NAS) is storage made available over a network rather than over a local connection
(such as a bus)
NFS and CIFS are common protocols
Implemented via remote procedure calls (RPCs) between host and
storage New SCSI protocol uses IP network to carry the SCSI protocol

Storage Area Network

Common in large storage environments (and becoming more common)
Multiple hosts attached to multiple storage arrays - flexible

jntuworldupdates.org Specworld.in
Smartzworld.com Smartworld.asia

Disk Scheduling

The operating system is responsible for using hardware efficiently — for the disk drives, this means having a
fast access time and disk bandwidth
Access time has two major components
Seek time is the time for the disk are to move the heads to the cylinder containing the desired sector
Rotational latency is the additional time waiting for the disk to rotate the desired sector to the disk
head Minimize seek time
Seek time » seek distance
Disk bandwidth is the total number of bytes transferred, divided by the total time between the first request for
service and the completion of the last transfer
Several algorithms exist to schedule the servicing of disk I/O requests .We illustrate them with a request queue
(0-199)

98, 183, 37, 122, 14, 124, 65, 67

Head pointer 53
FCFS
Illustration shows total head movement of 640 cylinders

SSTF
Selects the request with the minimum seek time from the current head position
SSTF scheduling is a form of SJF scheduling; may cause starvation of some
requests Illustration shows total head movement of 236 cylinders

jntuworldupdates.org Specworld.in
Smartzworld.com Smartworld.asia

SCAN

The disk arm starts at one end of the disk, and moves toward the other end, servicing requests until it gets to the
other end of the disk, where the head movement is reversed and servicing continues. SCAN algorithm
Sometimes called the elevator algorithm
Illustration shows total head movement of 208 cylinders

C-SCAN
Provides a more uniform wait time than SCAN
The head moves from one end of the disk to the other, servicing requests as it goes
When it reaches the other end, however, it immediately returns to the beginning of the disk, without servicing
any requests on the return trip
Treats the cylinders as a circular list that wraps around from the last cylinder to the first one

jntuworldupdates.org Specworld.in
Smartzworld.com Smartworld.asia

C-LOOK

Version of C-SCAN
Arm only goes as far as the last request in each direction, then reverses direction immediately, without first
going all the way to the end of the disk

Selecting a Disk-Scheduling Algorithm

SSTF is common and has a natural appeal
SCAN and C-SCAN perform better for systems that place a heavy load on the
disk Performance depends on the number and types of requests
Requests for disk service can be influenced by the file-allocation method
The disk-scheduling algorithm should be written as a separate module of the operating system, allowing it to be
replaced with a different algorithm if necessary
Either SSTF or LOOK is a reasonable choice for the default algorithm
Disk Management
Low-level formatting, or physical formatting — Dividing a disk into sectors that the disk controller can read
and write
To use a disk to hold files, the operating system still needs to record its own data structures on the
disk Partition the disk into one or more groups of cylinders
Logical formatting or ―making a file system‖
To increase efficiency most file systems group blocks into
clusters Disk I/O done in blocks
File I/O done in clusters Boot
block initializes system
The bootstrap is stored in ROM
Bootstrap loader program
Methods such as sector sparing used to handle bad blocks

jntuworldupdates.org Specworld.in
Smartzworld.com Smartworld.asia

Booting from a Disk in Windows 2000

Swap-Space Management
Swap-space — Virtual memory uses disk space as an extension of main memory
Swap-space can be carved out of the normal file system, or, more commonly, it can be in separate disk partition
Swap-space management
4.3BSD allocates swap space when process starts; holds text segment (the program) and data
segment Kernel uses swap maps to track swap-space use
Solaris 2 allocates swap space only when a page is forced out of physical memory, not when the virtual memory
page is first created
Data Structures for Swapping on Linux Systems

RAID Structure

RAID – multiple disk drives provides reliability via redundancy Increases the mean time to failure Frequently
combined with NVRAM to improve write performance
RAID is arranged into six different levels
Several improvements in disk-use techniques involve the use of multiple disks working cooperatively Disk
striping uses a group of disks as one storage unit RAID schemes improve performance and improve the
reliability of the storage system by storing redundant data
Mirroring or shadowing (RAID 1) keeps duplicate of each disk
Striped mirrors (RAID 1+0) or mirrored stripes (RAID 0+1) provides high performance and high
reliability Block interleaved parity (RAID 4, 5, 6) uses much less redundancy
RAID within a storage array can still fail if the array fails, so automatic replication of the data between arrays is
common

jntuworldupdates.org Specworld.in
Smartzworld.com Smartworld.asia

Frequently, a small number of hot-spare disks are left unallocated, automatically replacing a failed disk and
having data rebuilt onto them

RAID (0 + 1) and (1 + 0)

Extensions
RAID alone does not prevent or detect data corruption or other errors, just disk
failures Solaris ZFS adds checksums of all data and metadata
Checksums kept with pointer to object, to detect if object is the right one and whether it
changed Can detect and correct data and metadata corruption
ZFS also removes volumes, partitions.
Disks allocated in pools
File systems with a pool share that pool, use and release space like ―malloc‖ and ―free‖ memory allocate /
release calls

jntuworldupdates.org Specworld.in
Smartzworld.com Smartworld.asia

ZFS Checksums All Metadata and Data

Traditional and Pooled Storage

Stable-Storage Implementation
Write-ahead log scheme requires stable storage To implement stable storage:
Replicate information on more than one nonvolatile storage media with independent failure modes
Update information in a controlled manner to ensure that we can recover the stable data after any failure during
data transfer or recovery

Tertiary Storage Devices

Low cost is the defining characteristic of tertiary storage Generally, tertiary storage is built using removable
media Common examples of removable media are floppy disks and CD-ROMs; other types are available

jntuworldupdates.org Specworld.in
Smartzworld.com Smartworld.asia

Removable Disks
Floppy disk — thin flexible disk coated with magnetic material, enclosed in a protective plastic case Most
floppies hold about 1 MB; similar technology is used for removable disks that hold more than 1 GB
Removable magnetic disks can be nearly as fast as hard disks, but they are at a greater risk of damage from
exposure
A magneto-optic disk records data on a rigid platter coated with magnetic
material Laser heat is used to amplify a large, weak magnetic field to record a bit
Laser light is also used to read data (Kerr effect)
The magneto-optic head flies much farther from the disk surface than a magnetic disk head, and the magnetic
material is covered with a protective layer of plastic or glass; resistant to head crashes Optical disks do not use
magnetism; they employ special materials that are altered by laser light
WORM Disks
The data on read-write disks can be modified over and over
WORM (―Write Once, Read Many Times‖) disks can be written only once
Thin aluminum film sandwiched between two glass or plastic platters
To write a bit, the drive uses a laser light to burn a small hole through the aluminum; information can be
destroyed by not altered
Very durable and reliable
Read-only disks, such ad CD-ROM and DVD, com from the factory with the data pre-recorded

Tapes
Compared to a disk, a tape is less expensive and holds more data, but random access is much slower
Tape is an economical medium for purposes that do not require fast random access, e.g., backup copies of disk
data, holding huge volumes of data
Large tape installations typically use robotic tape changers that move tapes between tape drives and storage
slots in a tape library
stacker – library that holds a few tapes silo
– library that holds thousands of tapes
A disk-resident file can be archived to tape for low cost storage; the computer can stage it back into disk storage
for active use

Operating System Support

Major OS jobs are to manage physical devices and to present a virtual machine abstraction to applications For
hard disks, the OS provides two abstraction:
Raw device – an array of data blocks
File system – the OS queues and schedules the interleaved requests from several applications

Application Interface
Most OSs handle removable disks almost exactly like fixed disks — a new cartridge is formatted and an empty
file system is generated on the disk
Tapes are presented as a raw storage medium, i.e., and application does not not open a file on the tape, it opens
the whole tape drive as a raw device
Usually the tape drive is reserved for the exclusive use of that application
Since the OS does not provide file system services, the application must decide how to use the array of blocks
Since every application makes up its own rules for how to organize a tape, a tape full of data can generally only
be used by the program that created it

Tape Drives
The basic operations for a tape drive differ from those of a disk drive
locate() positions the tape to a specific logical block, not an entire track (corresponds to seek())

jntuworldupdates.org Specworld.in
Smartzworld.com Smartworld.asia

The read position() operation returns the logical block number where the tape head
is The space() operation enables relative motion
Tape drives are ―append-only‖ devices; updating a block in the middle of the tape also effectively erases
everything beyond that block
An EOT mark is placed after a block that is written

File Naming
The issue of naming files on removable media is especially difficult when we want to write data on a removable
cartridge on one computer, and then use the cartridge in another computer
Contemporary OSs generally leave the name space problem unsolved for removable media, and depend on
applications and users to figure out how to access and interpret the data. Some kinds of removable media (e.g.,
CDs) are so well standardized that all computers use them the same way

Hierarchical Storage Management (HSM)

A hierarchical storage system extends the storage hierarchy beyond primary memory and secondary storage to
incorporate tertiary storage — usually implemented as a jukebox of tapes or removable disks
Usually incorporate tertiary storage by extending the file
system Small and frequently used files remain on disk
Large, old, inactive files are archived to the jukebox
HSM is usually found in supercomputing centers and other large installations that have enormous volumes of
data

Speed
Two aspects of speed in tertiary storage are bandwidth and latency Bandwidth is measured in bytes per second
Sustained bandwidth – average data rate during a large transfer; # of bytes/transfer time Data rate when the data
stream is actually flowing
Effective bandwidth – average over the entire I/O time, including seek() or locate(), and cartridge switching
Drive’s overall data rate
Access latency – amount of time needed to locate data
Access time for a disk – move the arm to the selected cylinder and wait for the rotational latency; < 35
milliseconds
Access on tape requires winding the tape reels until the selected block reaches the tape head; tens or hundreds
of seconds
Generally say that random access within a tape cartridge is about a thousand times slower than random access
on disk
The low cost of tertiary storage is a result of having many cheap cartridges share a few expensive drives
A removable library is best devoted to the storage of infrequently used data, because the library can only satisfy
a relatively small number of I/O requests per hour

Reliability
A fixed disk drive is likely to be more reliable than a removable disk or tape drive An optical cartridge is likely
to be more reliable than a magnetic disk or tape A head crash in a fixed hard disk generally destroys the data,
whereas the failure of a tape drive or optical disk drive often leaves the data cartridge unharmed

Cost
Main memory is much more expensive than disk storage The cost per megabyte of hard disk storage is
competitive with magnetic tape if only one tape is used per drive The cheapest tape drives and the cheapest disk
drives have had about the same storage capacity over the years Tertiary storage gives a cost savings only when
the number of cartridges is considerably larger than the number of drives

jntuworldupdates.org Specworld.in