LECTURE 1:

FUNCTIONS
MAT1051
BAU
Lecture 1 Objectives
◦ Define what a function is.
◦ Find the domain and range of a given function.
◦ Apply the Vertical Line Test to determine whether a given graph is a graph of a
function.
◦ Determine whether a function is odd, even, or neither.
◦ Identify the different types of functions.
What is a Function?
◦ From the minute we wake-up in the morning, we constantly witness
relationships among quantities, formally called, variables. For example:
◦ Temperature varies with the time of the day;
◦ The human population of the world depends on time.
◦ The area of a circle depends on its radius.
◦ The height of a child with respect to age.

◦ These relationships can often be described mathematically by what is called a

function.
 A function can be viewed
as a machine.
Stewart, Calculus.

DEFINITION: A function f is a rule that assigns each element x in a set D, called the domain,
to exactly one element, denoted as f (x). The set of all values of f (x) is called the range.
Elements in the
domain are called
independent
variables

Elements in the
range are called
dependent
variables
Thomas, Calculus
 The Graph of a Function
◦ The graph of a function 𝑓 is the set of all ordered pairs (𝑥, 𝑦) in the 𝑥𝑦-
plane satisfying the equation 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 .

The y-coordinate of
any point (𝑥, 𝑦) on the
graph is 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 .
Consequently, the
value of 𝑓(𝑥) can be
viewed as the height of
the graph above the
point 𝑥. Stewart, Calculus
Domain of 𝑓 is on the 𝑥-axis.
Range of 𝑓 is on the 𝑦-axis.
 Example 1
◦ The graph of a function 𝑓 is shown.
◦ Find the values of 𝑓(1) and of 𝑓 5 .
◦ What are the domain and range of 𝑓?
◦ Solution:
◦ We need to find the 𝑦 value corresponding to 𝑥 = 1. In other words, we are looking for the
point on the graph that lies above 𝑥 = 1. Thus, 𝑓 1 = 3.
◦ Similarly, 𝑓 5 ≈ −0.7.
◦ To find the domain, we ask the following question: for which x-values is f(x) defined?
◦ From the graph we see that 𝑓(𝑥) is defined when 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 7. So the domain of 𝑓 is the closed
interval 0,7 .
◦ To find the range, we ask the following question: what are the values that are taken by the
function (i.e., the y values)?
◦ From the graph, 𝑓 takes on the values from −2 to 4. Thus the range of 𝑓 is [−2,4].
 Example 2
◦ Find the domain and range of the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 1.
◦ Solution:
◦ We see that 𝑓 is defined for all values of 𝑥, so
its domain is the set of all real numbers, written as −∞, ∞ , or simply ℝ.
◦ To find the range of 𝑓 we need to be careful!
◦ Clearly, 𝑥 2 ≥ 0, for all 𝑥, it follows that 𝑥 2 + 1 ≥ 1.
◦ Thus, the range of 𝑓 is 1, ∞ .
 Example 3
◦ Find the domain and range of 𝑔 𝑡 = 4 − 𝑡 2 .
◦ Solution:
◦ Since the square root of a negative number is not defined (as a real number), the
domain of 𝑔 consists of all values of 𝑡 such that 4 − 𝑡 2 ≥ 0. So, we simply need
to solve for 𝑡.
4 − 𝑡2 ≥ 0
𝑡2 ≤ 4
−2 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2
◦ Therefore the domain of 𝑔 is −2,2 .
Example 3
Continued
◦ To find the range, we observe that it should consist
only of nonnegative numbers, by definition of the
square root.
◦ Since we know that −2 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2, then 0 ≤ 𝑡 2 ≤ 4.
Moreover, 0 ≤ 4 − 𝑡 2 ≤ 4. So, 0 ≤ 4 − 𝑡 2 ≤ 2.
Therefore the range of 𝑔 is 0,2 .
 Example 4
1
◦ Find the domain of 𝑔 𝑥 = .
𝑥 2 −𝑥
1 1
◦ Solution: Since 𝑔 𝑥 = = is a rational function, and division by
𝑥 2 −𝑥 𝑥(𝑥−1)
zero is not allowed, the function is not defined for 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 1. Thus, the
domain of 𝑔(𝑥) is: −∞, 0 ∪ 0,1 ∪ 1, ∞ .

Note: To find the domain for a function given by a formula, we need to find the set of all numbers for which the
formula makes sense and defines a real number (i.e., the values that make the function valid):
• If a function contains a square root: exclude the 𝑥 values that make the term under the square root negative.
• If a function is rational: exclude the 𝑥 values that make the denominator 0.
 YOUR TURN!
◦ Find the domain of the following functions:
◦ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥+2
◦ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 1
3𝑥
◦𝑔 𝑥 =
𝑥 2 −25
2
◦ℎ 𝑥 =
𝑥 2 +1

Solution:
• 𝑥 ≥ −2
• −∞, ∞
• −∞, −5 ∪ −5,5 ∪ 5, ∞
• (−∞, ∞)
 Example 5: Domain and Range in Context
◦ A stone, at time 𝑡 = 0, is thrown vertically upward from the ground at a speed of
30 m/s. Its height above the ground in meters (neglecting air resistance) is given
by the function ℎ = 𝑓 𝑡 = 30𝑡 − 5𝑡 2 , where 𝑡 is measured in seconds. Find the
domain and range of 𝑓 (making sure your answer makes sense within this
context).
◦ Solution:
◦ By looking at this function, one might want to jump to the conclusion that the
domain is all real numbers. That wouldn’t be wrong if the function was standing
alone without a context. So, one has to be careful when deciding what the
domain and range of a function is if given within a context.
◦ The only relevant times are between the time the stone is thrown (𝑡 = 0) and
the time it hits the ground, when ℎ = 𝑓 𝑡 = 0 (need to find).
Example 5 Continued
◦ Solving the equation ℎ = 30𝑡 − 5𝑡 2 , we get
30𝑡 − 5𝑡 2 = 0
5𝑡 6 − 𝑡 = 0 Factor

5𝑡 = 0 or 6 − 𝑡 = 0 Set each factor equal to 0

𝑡 = 0 or 𝑡 = 6 Solve
◦ The stone is thrown at 𝑡 = 0 and hits back to the ground at 𝑡 = 6. In conclusion, the
domain that makes sense for this problem is 0,6 .
◦ To find the range, one must ask what are the values of h as t varies over [0,6]?
◦ Note that the largest value h occurs when the stone is halfway through its flight, that
is at 𝑡 = 3, which is ℎ = 𝑓 3 = 45.
◦ So the range is 0,45 .
 The Vertical Line Test
◦ We now agree that the graph of a function is a curve in the 𝑥𝑦-plane. Are all
graphs in the 𝑥𝑦-plane are graphs of functions?
◦ It turns out there is a useful test to answer this question.
The Vertical Line Test
A curve in the xy-plane is the graph of a function of x if and only if
no vertical line intersects the curve more than once.

◦ Note that this test agrees with the definition of a function. Namely, a function
assigns a unique value of the dependent variable to each value in the domain.
A Function or
Not a
Function
◦ (a) The circle is not a
graph of a function as it
fails the vertical line test.
◦ (b) is the graph of a
function since any vertical
line will intersect the
graph at exactly one point.
◦ (c) is the graph of a
function since any vertical
line will intersect the
graph at exactly one point.
New Functions from Old Ones
◦ A function of interest generally consists of other functions combined by
arithmetic operations (sums, differences, products, and quotients).

◦ Consequently, one needs to study carefully the arithmetic combinations of

functions and how such combinations affect the domain and range of the
newly obtained function.
Arithmetic Combinations of Functions
◦ If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are two functions with domains 𝐷1 and 𝐷2 , respectively, then we define:
◦ The sum 𝑓 + 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔(𝑥), where the new domain is the intersection of 𝐷1 and
𝐷2 , i.e., 𝐷𝑓+𝑔 = 𝐷1 ∩ 𝐷2 .
◦ The difference 𝑓 − 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑔 𝑥 , where the new domain is the intersection of 𝐷1
and 𝐷2 , i.e., 𝐷𝑓−𝑔 = 𝐷1 ∩ 𝐷2 .
◦ The product 𝑓 ∙ 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 , where the new domain is the intersection of 𝐷1 and
𝐷2 , i.e., 𝐷𝑓∙𝑔 = 𝐷1 ∩ 𝐷2 .
𝑓 𝑓 𝑥
◦ The quotient 𝑥 = , where the new domain is the intersection of 𝐷1 and 𝐷2 but
𝑔 𝑔(𝑥)
we cannot divide by 0, that is 𝐷𝑓 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐷1 ∩ 𝐷2 : 𝑔 𝑥 ≠ 0}.
𝑔
 Example 6
◦ Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 2. Find the domain of 𝑓 + 𝑔 𝑥 .
◦ Solution:
◦ 𝑓 + 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 2.
◦ To find the domain of 𝑓 + 𝑔 𝑥 :
◦ Step 1: Find the domain of 𝑓. 𝐷𝑓 = 0, ∞ .
◦ Step 2: Find the domain of 𝑔: 𝑥 − 2 ≥ 0 ⟹ 𝑥 ≥ 2. Thus, 𝐷𝑔 = 2, ∞ .
◦ Step 3: Find the domain of 𝑓 + 𝑔 𝑥 by finding the intersection of 𝐷𝑓 = 0, ∞ and
𝐷𝑔 = 2, ∞ , that is 𝐷 𝑓+𝑔 = [2, ∞)

0 2
𝐷 𝑓+𝑔 = 𝐷𝑓 ∩ 𝐷𝑔
Example 7
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥. Find the domain of the following combinations.
HOW TO ADD TWO FUNCTIONS?
A GRAPHICAL INTERPRETATION
Composition
of Functions
◦ Another
important
combination of
functions that
arises in many
applications is
the composition
of functions. The
idea behind such
combination can
be seen in the
following
examples:
DEFINITION: If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are functions, the composite function 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 (said
𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑔) is defined by
𝑓∘𝑔 𝑥 =𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 ,
where 𝑓 is called the outer function and 𝑔 is called the inner function.
IMPORTANT NOTE: The domain of 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 is the set of all 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑔
such that 𝑔(𝑥) is in the domain of 𝑓.
 Example 8
◦ Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 2 .
◦ Find 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 𝑥 and its domain.
◦ Solution:
◦ 𝑓∘𝑔 𝑥 =𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥2.
◦ To find the domain:
◦ Step 1: Find the domain of the outer function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥:
◦ 𝐷𝑓 = [0, ∞)
◦ Step 2: Find the domain of the inner function 𝑔 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 2 :
◦ 𝐷𝑔 = −∞, ∞ .
Example 8 Continued
◦ Step 3: Find the 𝑥 values that forces the range of the inner to lie in the domain of
the outer.
𝑔 𝑥 ≥0
1 − 𝑥2 ≥ 0
𝑥2 ≤ 1
𝑥 ≤1
−1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
◦ Step 4: Find the intersection between the 𝑥 values from the step 3 and the domain
of the inner function (i.e., Step 2 ∩ Step 3).
−∞, ∞ ∩ −1,1 = −1,1 .

𝐷𝑓∘𝑔
Example 9
◦ Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 2 .
◦ Find 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 𝑥 and its domain.
◦ Solution:
◦ 𝑔∘𝑓 𝑥 =𝑔 𝑓 𝑥 =1− 𝑥 2 = 1 − 𝑥.
◦ To find the domain:
◦ Step 1: Find the domain of the outer function g 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 2 :
◦ 𝐷𝑔 = (−∞, ∞)
◦ Step 2: Find the domain of the inner function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥:
◦ 𝐷𝑓 = [0, ∞).
Example 9 Continued

◦ Step 3: Find the 𝑥 values that forces the range of the inner to lie in the domain of
the outer.
𝑥≥0
◦ Thus, any 𝑥 values will force the range of 𝑓 to lie in the domain of 𝑔.
◦ Step 4: Find the intersection between the 𝑥 values from the step 3 and the domain
of the inner function (i.e., Step 2 ∩ Step 3).
0, ∞ ∩ −∞, ∞ = 0, ∞ .

𝐷𝑔∘𝑓
 Your Turn!
◦ If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 2 − 𝑥, find each function and its domain.
◦ 𝑓∘𝑔
◦ 𝑔∘𝑓
◦ 𝑓∘𝑓
◦ 𝑔∘𝑔

◦ Solution:
4
◦ 𝑓∘𝑔 𝑥 = 2 − 𝑥 , 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑠 −∞, 2 .
◦ 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 𝑥 = 2 − 𝑥, 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑠 [0,4]
◦ 𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 𝑥 = 4 𝑥 , 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑠 0, ∞
◦ 𝑔∘𝑔 𝑥 = 2 − 2 − 𝑥 , 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑠 −2,2 .
 Symmetry
“A picture is worth a thousand
words!”
◦ Graph (a) possesses the property that whenever
the point (𝑥, 𝑦) is on the graph, the point
(−𝑥, −𝑦) is also on the graph. We say that graph
(a) is symmetric with respect to the origin.
◦ Graph (b) possesses the property that whenever
the point (𝑥, 𝑦) is on the graph, the point (−𝑥, 𝑦)
is also on the graph. We say that graph (b) is
symmetric with respect to the 𝒚-axis.
◦ Graph (c) does not exhibit symmetry neither
about the origin, nor about the 𝑦-axis.
Odd Function
Symmetry in
Functions
◦ DEFINITION:
◦ An even function 𝑓 has the property that
𝑓 −𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 , for all 𝑥 in the domain. The
graph of an even function is symmetric
about the 𝑦-axis.
◦ An odd function 𝑓 has the property that
𝑓 −𝑥 = −𝑓 𝑥 , for all 𝑥 in the domain.
The graph of an odd function is symmetric
about the origin.

Even Function
Example 10
◦ Identify the symmetry, if any, in the following functions.
a) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 − 2x 2 − 20
b) 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 1
1
c) ℎ 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 −𝑥

◦ Solution:
a) We use the previous definition to check for any symmetry in the function. That
is, we first evaluate 𝑓(−𝑥):
𝑓 −𝑥 = −𝑥 4 − 2 −𝑥 2 − 20 = 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 2 − 20 = 𝑓(𝑥)
Thus, we conclude that 𝑓(𝑥) is an even function.
Example 10 Continued
b) 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 1
Again, we must check what we will get when we evaluate 𝑔 −𝑥 .
𝑔 −𝑥 = −𝑥 3 − 3 −𝑥 + 1 = −𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 + 1.
So, 𝑔(−𝑥) is neither 𝑔(𝑥) nor −𝑔 𝑥 , therefore, 𝑔 has no symmetry.

1
c) ℎ 𝑥 =
𝑥 3 −𝑥
Similarly, we evaluate ℎ −𝑥 .
1 1 1
ℎ −𝑥 = 3
= 3
= − 3
= −ℎ 𝑥 .
−𝑥 − −𝑥 −𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑥 −𝑥
So, ℎ 𝑥 is an odd function, since ℎ −𝑥 = −ℎ(𝑥).
 Representing Functions
Recall:
DEFINITION: A function f is a rule that assigns each element x in a set D, called the domain,
to exactly one element, denoted as f (x). The set of all values of f (x) is called the range.

◦ How can we represent a function?

◦ Formulas
◦ Graphs
◦ Tables
◦ Words
 Using Formulas
◦ We briefly introduce the families of functions that are going to be used throughout the
course. We will always refer to those and discuss them whenever the need arises.
◦ Polynomials:
𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 ,
where the coefficients 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , … , 𝑎𝑛 are real numbers with 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0 and 𝑛, a nonnegative integer, is
the degree of the polynomial.
◦ Facts about Polynomials:
◦ The domain of any polynomial is the set of all real numbers.
◦ An n-th degree polynomial can have as many as n real zeros or roots, that is the values of 𝑥 at
which 𝑝 𝑥 = 0. Graphically, these are the points at which the graph of 𝑝(𝑥) intersects the
𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
◦ Examples:
◦ 𝑝 𝑥 = 3𝑥 + 4
◦ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 + 2
◦ Rational Functions
𝑝 𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 = ,
𝑞 𝑥
where 𝑝 and 𝑞 are polynomials.
◦ Fact about rational functions:
◦ The domain of a rational function is the set of all real numbers except those for which the denominator
is zero, i.e., the values of 𝑥, for which 𝑞 𝑥 = 0 are excluded.

◦ Algebraic Functions
As the name implies, these are the functions constructed using addition, multiplication, division,
and roots.
◦ Fact about algebraic functions:
◦ Polynomials and rational functions are algebraic functions.
◦ If an even root appears, then the domain of the algebraic function does not contain values of 𝑥 that make
the quantity under the root negative.
◦ Examples:
◦ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 + 2
◦ ℎ 𝑥 = 5 𝑥 (𝑥 3 + 2)
◦ Exponential Functions
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑏𝑥,
where the base 𝑏 ≠ 1 is a positive real number.

◦ Facts about exponential functions:

◦ Exponential functions are popular for modeling many natural phenomena such as
population growth (if b>1), radioactive decay (if b<1), concentration of drugs in blood, etc.
◦ The domain of the exponential function consists of all real numbers.
◦ The natural exponential function, defined by 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 , with base 𝑏 = 𝑒, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒 ≈
2.71828 … most frequently appears in many applications. It is quite popular, that you will
find it on any scientific calculator.
◦ Trigonometric (Trig) Functions
cos 𝑥 , sin 𝑥 , tan 𝑥 , sec 𝑥 , cot 𝑥 , csc 𝑥.
◦ Facts about trigonometric functions:
◦ Trig functions appear in many applications in engineering, physics, astronomy etc.
◦ Those will be discussed in details in the next lecture.
◦ Functions represented by formulas: algebraic, and transcendental functions.

Algebraic Functions
Transcendental Functions

r Exponential
Rational Functions
Trigonometric
Polynomials Many
More
Representing Functions Using Graphs
◦ Graphs provide us with a visual
representation of functions, and
hence making it easier to
understand their behavior, and
relationships. In addition, from a
graph, we can determine the
domain, range, and learn about the
shape and characteristics of a The vertical acceleration a of the ground as measured by a
graph. seismograph during an earthquake is a function of the elapsed time t.
The figure shows a graph generated by seismic activity
during the Northridge earthquake that took place in Los Angeles in
1994.
How Do We Graph Functions?
◦ The easy answer is via graphing calculators, and software.
◦ However, technology might not always be the answer as some errors might
occur. Consequently, we need to develop some analytical skills to graph
functions using the old ways, namely a paper and a pencil. This is where
calculus jumps in!
◦ Both technology and analytical methods are essential to produce accurate
graphs.
◦ In this course, we will direct our attention to developing analytical methods to
graph algebraic and some transcendental functions, which in turn can be easily
checked using a simple graphing calculator.
 Linear Functions and Their Graphs
◦ A function is linear if its slope, or rate of change, is the same at every point.
◦ A linear function described in words:
◦ During the early years of the Olympics, the height of the men’s winning pole vault increased
approximately 8 inches every four years. The following table shows that the height started at 130
inches in 1900 and increased by the equivalent of 2 inches a year. Thus, the height was a linear
function of time from 1900 to 1912. If 𝑦 is the winning height in inches and 𝑡 is the number of years
since 1900, we can write
That same linear function described
𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑡 = 130 + 2𝑡. using a mathematical formula.

That same linear function described

using a table.
 Linear Functions and Their Graphs
The linear function above described
IMPORTANT REMARKS:
graphically:
◦ Since the winning height 𝑦 increases as the year 𝑡 increases,
we say that 𝑓 is an increasing function.
◦ The coefficient 2 is the rate, in inches/year, at which the
height increases.
◦ The rate of increase is the slope of the line in the graph on
the right.
◦ The slope is calculated as follows:
𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 146 − 138
𝑚= = = 2 inches/year
𝑟𝑢𝑛 8−4
◦ Using any other two points on the line will yield the same
slope.
◦ 𝑦 = 130 represents the initial height in 1900, i.e., when
𝑡 = 0. The constant 130 is called the 𝑦-intercept.
Linear Functions and Their Graphs
A linear function has the form

𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏.

Its graph is a line such that

◦ 𝑚 is the slope, or rate of change of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥.
◦ 𝑏 is the 𝑦-intercept, or the value of 𝑦 when 𝑥 is zero.

NOTE: If the slope, 𝑚, of the line is zero, we have 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑏, a horizontal line.

Piecewise Functions
◦ In many real-world scenarios, we encounter functions that are defined by
different formulas in different parts of their domains.
◦ Income tax is an example in which a piecewise function is used. For example, in
some tax systems, the tax rate may change based on different income brackets.
◦ Shipping companies may charge different rate for shipping packages based on their
weight or size, and hence the use of a piecewise function to determine the
shipping cost.
◦ Manufacturing processes often have different production rates for different time
periods. A piecewise function can represent the rate of production over time.
 Piecewise Functions
◦ A function 𝑓 is defined by
1 − 𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 1
𝑓 𝑥 = .
𝑥 2, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 1
◦ Evaluate 𝑓 0 , 𝑓 1 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(2).
◦ Sketch the graph.

◦ Solution: Given a piecewise function, we must ask ourselves what is the rule of this
function. By looking at the 𝑥 values, we see that the value of 𝑓 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥, if 𝑥 ≤ 1,
and it is 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 , if 𝑥 > 1.
◦ Since 0 < 1, then 𝑓 0 = 1 − 0 = 1.
◦ Since 1 = 1, then 𝑓 1 = 1 − 1 = 0.
◦ Since 2 > 1, then 𝑓 2 = 22 = 4
For 𝑥 ≤ 1, the graph of 𝑓 that lies to
the left of the vertical line 𝑥 = 1
coincide with the graph of 𝑓 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥

For 𝑥 > 1, the graph of 𝑓 that lies to

the right of the vertical line 𝑥 = 1
coincide with the graph of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2
 The Absolute Value Function
◦ Recall that the absolute value of a number 𝑎, denoted by |𝑎| is the distance from 𝑎
to 0. Since distances are always positive or 0, we have 𝑎 ≥ 0 for every number 𝑎.
Thus the absolute value function is defined as

𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0
𝑓 𝑥 = |𝑥| =
−𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
Examples:
3 =3
−3 = 3
𝜋−5 =5−𝜋

Note: Remember that if 𝑥 is negative, then −𝑥 is positive.

 Power Functions
◦ Power Functions are a special case of polynomials. They have the form
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑛,
where 𝑛 is a positive integer.

The general shape of power functions:

• When 𝑛 is an even integer, then 𝑓 𝑥 is an even function and its graph is similar to the parabola 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 .
• When 𝑛 is an odd integer, then 𝑓 𝑥 is an odd function and its graph is similar to the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 .
• As 𝑛 increases, the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑛 becomes flatter near 0 and steeper after when 𝑥 ≥ 1.
 Root Functions
◦ Root functions are a special case of algebraic functions. They have the form
1
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑛 𝑥,
where 𝑛 is a positive integer.

Important Remarks:
1
• When 𝑛 is even, the domain of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛 is 0, ∞ .
1
• When 𝑛 is odd, the domain of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛 is all real numbers.
1
• When 𝑛 is even, the graph of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛 is similar to that of 𝑦 = 𝑥.
1
• When 𝑛 is odd, the graph of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛 is similar to that of 𝑦 = 3 𝑥 .
 1
The Reciprocal Function 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥
1
• The reciprocal function 𝑓 𝑥 = has the domain −∞, 0 ∪ 0, ∞ .
𝑥
• The graph of the reciprocal function is called a hyperbola.
 Rational Functions
◦ A rational function is of the form
𝑝 𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 = ,
𝑞 𝑥
where 𝑝 and 𝑞 are polynomials. The domain consists of all values of 𝑥 such that 𝑞 𝑥 ≠ 0.
3𝑥 2 +5𝑥+2
◦ Example: 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥 2 −4
Transformation of Functions
◦ We have already seen algebraically how to get a new function from old ones whether by
adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing, or composing.
◦ How can such transformations be perceived graphically?
◦ There are several ways to transform the graph of an old function to get the graph of a new
one.
◦ There are four commonly used transformations:
◦ Shifts in the 𝑥- and 𝑦- directions.
◦ Scaling in the 𝑥- and 𝑦- directions.
 Vertical and Horizontal Shifts in the Graph
of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
◦ When a constant 𝑐 is added or subtracted to every • When a constant 𝑐 is added or subtracted to each
output 𝑦, the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) is shifted vertically. input 𝑥, the graph of 𝑓 𝑥 is shifted horizontally.
◦ If 𝑐 > 0, the graph of 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑐 is a shift of the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) • If 𝑐 > 0, the graph of 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑐) is a shift of the
up 𝑐 units. graph of 𝑓 𝑥 to the left 𝑐 units.
◦ If 𝑐 > 0, the graph of 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑐 is a shift of the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) • If 𝑐 > 0, the graph of 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑐) is a shift of the
down 𝑐 units. graph of 𝑓 𝑥 to the right 𝑐 units.
𝑦 = 𝑥2 + 4
𝑦 = 𝑥2
𝑦 = 𝑥2

𝑦 = 𝑥+2 2 2
𝑦= 𝑥−2

𝑦 = 𝑥2 − 2
Vertical and Horizontal Scaling
◦ When a constant 𝑐 > 1 is multiplied by every ◦ When a constant 𝑐 > 1 is multiplied by every input
output 𝑦, the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) is vertically scaled. 𝑥, the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) is horizontally scaled.
◦ The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑓(𝑥) is obtained by stretching ◦ The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑐𝑥) is obtained by compressing the
the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 vertically by a factor of 𝑐. graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 horizontally by a factor of 𝑐.
◦ The graph of 𝑦 =
1
𝑓(𝑥) is obtained by ◦ The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥/𝑐) is obtained by stretching the
𝑐
graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 horizontally by a factor of 𝑐.
compressing the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 vertically by a
factor of 𝑐.
𝑦 = 𝑥2 𝑦 = 4𝑥 2 𝑦 = 2𝑥
𝑦= 𝑥
𝑥2
𝑦= 𝑥
4 𝑦=
2
 Example
◦ Sketch the graph of 𝑓 𝑥 = − 𝑥 + 2 − 3.
◦ Solution:
◦ Step 1: Start with the graph of 𝑦 = |𝑥|.
◦ Step 2: Shift 2 units to the left.
◦ Step 3: Reflect about the 𝑥 − axis (since we are multiplying |𝑥 + 2| by −1.
◦ Step 4: Shift the graph you got in the third step 3 units down.

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4