Unit 1 Notes (24ELN)

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INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

UNIT I- DIODES AND ITS APPLICATION

What do you mean by electronics?


• Electronics is a branch of Physics that deals with the theory and use of devices in
which the electrons travel through a vacuum, gas, or a semiconductor medium.
What is meant by electronic devices?
• Electronic devices are components for controlling the flow of electrical currents for
the purpose of information processing and system control.
Types of Electronic Components
• These are of 2 types: Passive and Active Components.
1. Passive Components
• These components are those that do not have gain or directionality. They are also
called Electrical elements or electrical components.
• A circuit element which only absorbs the power and convert it in heat or stores in
electric field or magnetic field is known as passive component.
• Passive components do not require any external power source to function.
• Example: Resistors, Capacitors, Diodes, Inductors.
2. Active Components
• These components are those that have gain or directionality.
• A circuit component which can deliver power or power gain in an electric circuit is
known as active component.
• Some active components require an external power source to function.
• Example: Transistors, Integrated Circuits or ICs, Logic Gates.

Function of Basic Electronic Components


1. Terminals and Connectors: Components to make electrical connection.
2. Resistors: Components used to resist current.
3. Switches: Components that may be made to either conduct (closed) or not (open).

4. Capacitors: Components that store electrical charge in an electrical field.


5. Magnetic or Inductive Components: Components that store electrical charge in a
magnetic field.
6. Network Components: Components that use more than 1 type of Passive
Component.
7. Piezoelectric devices, crystals, resonators: Passive components that use
piezoelectric effect.
8. Diodes: Components that conduct electricity in only one direction.
9. Transistors: A semiconductor device capable of amplification and switching.
10. Integrated Circuits or ICs: A microelectronic computer circuit incorporated into a
chip or semiconductor; a whole system rather than a single component.
Circuit Symbols of Electronic Components

Important Terms
• Current
It is the flow of electrons.. It is indicated by I or i. It is measured in Amperes. This can be
alternating current AC or direct current DC.
• Voltage
Voltage is the pressure from an electrical circuit's power source that pushes charged electrons
(current) through a conducting loop. It is indicated by V. It is measured in Volts.
• Resistance
It is the property of opposing the flow of electrons. It is indicated by R
• Ohms Law
According to Ohm’s law, the potential difference across an ideal conductor is proportional to
the current through it. VαI
The voltage is directly proportional to the resistance it offers. VαR

V=IR

Basic Electronics:
• Matter is made up of molecules which consists of atoms.

• atom consists of positively charged nucleus and a number of negativelycharged


electrons which revolve round the nucleus in various orbits.
• When an electron is raised from a lower state to a higher state, it is saidto be excited.

• While exciting, if the electron is completely removed from the nucleus,the atom is
said to be ionized.
So, the process of raising the atom from normal state to this ionized state iscalled as
ionization

Energy Bands
• In gaseous substances, the arrangement of molecules is not close.
• In liquids, the molecular arrangement is moderate.
• But, in solids, the molecules are so closely arranged, that the electrons in the
atoms of molecules tend to move into the orbitals of neighboring atoms.
• Hence the electron orbitals overlap when the atoms come together.
• Due to the intermixing of atoms in solids, instead of single energy levels, there will
be bands of energy levels formed.
• These set of energy levels, which are closely packed are called as Energy bands.
i) Valance Band

• The electrons that are present in the outermost shell are called as Valance
Electrons.
• These valance electrons, containing a series of energy levels, form an energy band
which is called as Valence Band.
• The valence band is the band having the highest occupied energy.

ii) Conduction Band


• The valence electrons are so loosely attached to the nucleus that even at room
temperature, few of the valence electrons leave the band to be free.
• These are called as free electrons as they tend to move towards the neighboring
atoms.
• These free electrons are the ones which conduct the current in a conductor and
hence called as Conduction Electrons.
• The band which contains conduction electrons is called as Conduction Band.
• The conduction band is the band having the lowest occupied energy.
iii) Forbidden gap
• The gap between valence band and conduction band is called as forbidden energy
gap.
• As the name implies, this band is the forbidden one without energy. Hence no
electron stays in this band.
• The valence electrons, while going to the conduction band, pass through this.
• The forbidden energy gap if greater, means that the valence band electrons are
tightly bound to the nucleus.
• Now, in order to push the electrons out of the valence band, some external energyis
required, which would be equal to the forbidden energy gap.
iv)Inner band
• Filled band
• On the positive half-cycles, point A will be positive with respect to point B. Similarly, point B
will be positive with respect to point C.

• In this condition, D1 will allow conduction (its anode will be positive with respect to its
cathode) while D2 will not allow conduction (its anode will be negative with respect to its
cathode). Thus, D1 alone conducts during positive half-cycles.

• On the negative half-cycles, point C will be positive with respect to point


B. Similarly, point B will be positive with respect to point A.

• In this condition, D2 will allow conduction (its anode will be positive with

respect to its cathode). Thus, D2 alone conducts on negative half-cycles.

• Current is routed through the load in the same direction on successive half-cycles.

• This current is derived alternately from the two secondary windings.

• The switching action of the two diodes results in a pulsating output voltage being developed
across the load resistor (RL).

• Unlike the HWR circuit the pulses of voltage developed across RL will occur at a frequency of
100Hz (not 50Hz).

• This doubling of ripple frequency allows us to use smaller values of the reservoir and
smoothing capacitor to obtain the same degree of ripple reduction (the reactance of a
capacitor is reduced as frequency increases).

• The peak voltage produced by each of the secondary windings will be approximately 17V and
the peak voltage across RL will be 16.3V (i.e., 17V- 0.7V forward threshold voltage dropped by
the diodes)

• The reservoir capacitor C1 can be connected to ensure that the output voltage remains at or
near the peak voltage even when the diodes are not conducting.

• The capacitor charges to peak value of 16.3V in the positive cycle and holds the voltage at
this level when the diodes are non-conducting.
• The time required by C1 to charge to the maximum (peak) level is determined by the
charging circuit time constant (the series resistance multiplied by capacitance value).

• C1 charges very rapidly as soon as either D1 or D2 starts to conduct.

• The time required for C1 to discharge is very much larger.

• The discharge time is equal to the product of the capacitance value and RL.

• In practice, RL is very large and greater than secondary winding, hence

• capacitor takes longer to discharge.

• During this stage D1 and D2 will be reverse-biased and held in a non- conducting state. As a
consequence, the only discharge path for C1 is through RL.

• An alternative to the use of the bi-phase circuit is that of using a four-diode bridge rectifier.

• Here opposite pairs of diodes conduct on alternate half-cycles.

• This arrangement avoids the need to have two separate secondary windings.
• On positive half cycles, point A will be positive with respect to B. D1 and D2 will
conduct and D3 and D4 will not conduct.

• On negative half cycles, point B will be positive with respect to A, D3 and D4 will
conduct and D1 and D2 will not conduct.
• The current is routed through the load in the same direction on successive half cycles.
• Similar to bi-phase rectifier, the switching action of the two diodes results in a pulsating
output voltage being developed across (RL)
• The peak voltage is approximately 16.3V (i.e 17V - 0.7V forward threshold voltage).

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