Ch-4 I/O Systems

Topic.1 Disk Structure:

 The internal structure of a hard disk drive (HDD) represents following components
and each component explain how they work together to store and access data:

1. Platters

 These are the circular disks where data is stored magnetically. Each platter can hold
data on both sides.
 They rotate at a high speed, allowing the read-write heads to access different parts of
the disk surface quickly.

2. Spindle

 The spindle is the central axis that holds and spins the platters. All platters in a hard
drive are mounted on the same spindle, and they rotate simultaneously.
 The speed of the spindle, measured in revolutions per minute (RPM), determines how
fast data can be accessed.

3. Tracks

 Each platter is divided into concentric circles known as tracks. Tracks are like the
grooves on a vinyl record and hold the actual data.
 In the image, a specific track (t) is labelled on one of the platters.

4. Sectors

 Each track is further divided into smaller segments called sectors. A sector is the
smallest unit of data storage on a disk, typically holding 512 bytes or 4096 bytes of
data.
5. Cylinders

 A cylinder (c) is a set of tracks that are vertically aligned across all platters. Since the
read-write heads move together, accessing data on the same cylinder (on different
platters) does not require moving the heads, making it faster to read data from the
same cylinder.
 The image shows a cylinder, which is a collection of tracks from all platters at the
same distance from the spindle.

6. Read-Write Heads

 Each platter surface has its own read-write head attached to an arm. These heads are
responsible for reading data from and writing data to the platters.
 The read-write heads do not touch the surface of the platters; they float just above
them due to the high-speed rotation of the platters.

7. Arm and Arm Assembly

 The read-write heads are mounted on arms that move across the platters. These arms
are part of the arm assembly, which positions the heads over the correct track and
sector to read or write data.
 The entire arm assembly moves together, meaning all the read-write heads are
positioned over the same track on their respective platters at any given time.

8. Rotation

 The platters spin continuously while the hard drive is operating, which is indicated by
the rotation arrow in the image. This spinning allows the read-write heads to access
data across different parts of the platter.

Topic.2 RAID Types:

 RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks) is a technology used to improve
the performance, reliability, and storage capacity of hard drives in operating systems
by combining multiple physical disks into a single logical unit.
 RAID can provide redundancy (data protection) in case of hardware failures, improve
read/write speeds, or both, depending on the RAID level.
 There are several types of RAID configurations, each offering different benefits and
trade-offs in terms of performance, redundancy, and storage capacity. Below are
the most commonly used RAID levels:

RAID 0 (Striping)

 Description: RAID 0 splits data into blocks and writes them across multiple disks in parallel.
This technique is known as striping.
 Performance: It greatly improves read and write performance because the data is accessed
from multiple disks simultaneously.
 Redundancy: There is no redundancy in RAID 0, meaning if one disk fails, all the data on the
array is lost.
  Storage Capacity: All disk capacity is used for data storage. If you have 4 disks, each 1TB, you
get 4TB of total usable storage.
 Use case: Ideal for systems that require high-speed access, such as video editing or
temporary storage where data loss is acceptable.

RAID 1 (Mirroring)

 Description: RAID 1 copies (or "mirrors") the same data onto two or more disks. Every write
operation is duplicated across all disks in the array.
 Performance: Read performance is improved since the system can read from multiple disks,
but write performance can be slightly slower as data has to be written to all disks.
 Redundancy: It provides full redundancy. If one disk fails, the other has an exact copy of the
data, allowing the system to continue functioning.
 Storage Capacity: Only half the total disk space is usable. If you have 2 disks of 1TB each, you
get only 1TB of usable storage.
 Use case: Suitable for critical data storage where data loss is not acceptable, such as in
servers, databases, and important backups.

RAID 5 (Striping with Parity)

 Description: RAID 5 stripes data across multiple disks, but it also stores parity information
(error correction code) across all disks. This allows data to be reconstructed if a single disk
fails.
 Performance: RAID 5 offers good read performance (like RAID 0), but write performance is
slower because of the overhead needed to calculate and write the parity data.
 Redundancy: It provides redundancy by using parity, which means the system can tolerate
the failure of one disk without data loss. If a disk fails, the system can use the parity data to
rebuild the lost information.
 Storage Capacity: The storage capacity is reduced by one disk's worth of space. For example,
in an array of 4 disks (each 1TB), the usable storage is 3TB (the capacity of one disk is used
for parity).
 Use case: Common in environments where both performance and fault tolerance are
needed, such as file servers and databases.

RAID 6 (Striping with Dual Parity)

 Description: RAID 6 is similar to RAID 5 but adds an additional parity block, allowing it to
recover from the failure of two disks simultaneously.
 Performance: Like RAID 5, RAID 6 provides good read performance, but the write
performance is slightly slower due to the additional parity calculations.
 Redundancy: It offers greater redundancy than RAID 5, as it can withstand the failure of two
disks without data loss.
 Storage Capacity: The storage capacity is reduced by two disks’ worth of space. For example,
in an array of 6 disks, the usable capacity is 4 disks’ worth (e.g., with six 1TB disks, the usable
capacity is 4TB).
 Use case: Suitable for environments where high fault tolerance is needed, such as
enterprise-level storage systems.

RAID 10 (RAID 1+0 or RAID 0+1)

  Description: RAID 10 combines the features of RAID 1 and RAID 0. It mirrors the data across
pairs of disks and then stripes the mirrored pairs. This gives the speed benefits of RAID 0
along with the redundancy of RAID 1.
 Performance: RAID 10 provides high read and write speeds (similar to RAID 0) while
ensuring redundancy through mirroring (RAID 1).
 Redundancy: It offers strong redundancy. If one disk in a mirrored pair fails, the other disk
continues to operate, and data remains safe. However, if both disks in a mirrored pair fail,
data is lost.
 Storage Capacity: The usable capacity is half of the total disk space, similar to RAID 1. With 4
disks of 1TB each, the total usable space is 2TB.
 Use case: Ideal for high-performance applications where both speed and fault tolerance are
essential, such as databases and web servers.

RAID 0+1 (Mirror of Stripes)

 Description: RAID 0+1 is essentially the opposite of RAID 10. It creates a mirrored set of
striped disks. First, data is striped across multiple disks (RAID 0), and then the entire array is
mirrored (RAID 1).
 Performance: Similar to RAID 10, it provides excellent read and write speeds due to striping.
 Redundancy: While RAID 0+1 does offer redundancy, it is less fault-tolerant than RAID 10. If
one disk in a striped pair fails, the mirror takes over. However, if another disk in the
mirrored set fails, the entire array could fail.
 Storage Capacity: Like RAID 10, RAID 0+1 also has half of the total storage capacity available.
With four 1TB disks, only 2TB is usable.
 Use case: Used in high-performance applications where data redundancy is necessary, but
RAID 10 is more popular due to its superior fault tolerance.

RAID 50 (RAID 5+0)

 Description: RAID 50 combines RAID 5’s parity with RAID 0’s striping. It requires multiple
RAID 5 arrays to be striped together, offering the performance boost of RAID 0 and the
redundancy of RAID 5.
 Performance: Provides higher read and write speeds due to striping, while still maintaining
the fault tolerance of RAID 5.
 Redundancy: Can tolerate multiple disk failures, but only if they occur in different RAID 5
arrays. A failure of two disks in the same RAID 5 set will result in data loss.
 Storage Capacity: Reduced by the equivalent of one disk per RAID 5 array.
 Use case: Often used in large, high-availability storage systems that require both
performance and reliability.

RAID 60 (RAID 6+0)

 Description: RAID 60 is a combination of RAID 6 and RAID 0. It stripes data across multiple
RAID 6 arrays.
 Performance: High read and write speeds thanks to striping, and better redundancy than
RAID 50 due to dual parity in RAID 6.
 Redundancy: Can tolerate the failure of two disks per RAID 6 array, offering enhanced fault
tolerance.
 Storage Capacity: Reduced by the equivalent of two disks per RAID 6 array.
 Use case: Suitable for high-performance systems that require maximum fault tolerance.