CHAPTER 6

STABILIZED PAVEMENT
MATERIALS

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 STABILIZATION OF ROADWAYS
2

 Problems related with Soils categorizes sub-grade materials

with low strength, or other unfavorable properties such as
for:
 expansive soils

 dispersive soils

 organic soils

 saline soil or presence of saline water

 These soils require special treatment before acceptance in

the pavement foundation so that they will be re-classified to
fall into one of the sub grade categories for the purpose of
pavement design.

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 STABILIZED PAVEMENT MATERIALS
3

 Soil stabilization is the alteration of the properties of an

existing soil either by blending two or more materials
and improving particle size distribution or by the use of
stabilizing additives to meet the specified engineering
properties.
 Generally, the objective of soil stabilization are:
 Improve the strength (stability and bearing capacity) for subgrade,
sub-base, base and low- cost road surfaces,
 Improve the volume stability – undesirable properties such as
swelling, shrinkage, high plasticity characteristics, and difficulty in
compaction, etc caused by change in moisture,
 Improve durability – increase the resistance to erosion, weathering
or traffic
 Improve high permeability, poor workability, frost susceptibility, etc

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 STABILIZED PAVEMENT MATERIALS
4

 The factors that should be considered in soil

stabilization include:
 Physical and chemical composition of the soil to be stabilized,
 Availability and economical feasibility of stabilizing agents,
 Ease of application,
 Site constraints,
 climate,
 curing time, and safety.
 Such factors be taken into account in order to select
the proper type of stabilization.

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 UNBOUNDED PAVEMENT MATERIALS
5

 Basically four techniques of soil stabilization are

commonly practiced in pavement construction.
 Mechanical stabilization
 Cement stabilization,
 Lime stabilization, and
 Bitumen stabilization
 The suitability of these methods depends on site
constraints, materials, climate, and economic feasibility.
 The stabilizing process with admixture involves the
addition of a stabilizing agent to the soil, mixing with
sufficient water to achieve the optimum moisture
compaction of the mixture, and final curing to ensure
that the strength potential is realized.
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 Mechanical Stabilization
6

 Mechanical stabilization is a method by which a soil or

gravel is mixed with the original soil in order to improve
the grading and mechanical characteristics of the soil.
 It is an improvement of an available material by blending it
with one or more material in order to improve the particle
size distribution and plasticity characteristics.
 Typical materials used for mechanical stabilization include
river deposited sand, natural gravel, silty sands , sand clays,
silt clays, crushed run quarry products, volcanic cinders
and scoria, poorly graded laterites and beach sands, etc.
 Materials produced by blending have properties similar to
conventional unbounded materials and can be evaluated by
ordinary methods.
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 Mechanical Stabilization
7

 The principal properties affecting the stability of compacted

base or sub-base materials are internal friction and cohesion.
 Internal friction is chiefly dependent on the characteristics of
the coarser soil particles, i.e. gravel, sand and silt sizes.
 The cohesion, shrinkage, swelling and compressibility are
mainly associated with the quantity and nature of the clay
fraction as indicated by plastic properties.
 Preliminary mix design of mechanical stabilization is based on
particle size distribution, plastic properties and strength tests
(CBR, etc.)
 When unconventional materials are used, more detailed
testing and investigation will often be needed and may include
the modification of the accepted design or specification
criteria.
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 Mechanical Stabilization
8

Particle Size Distribution: -

 While maximum friction strength does not necessarily coincide with
maximum density, the achievement of a high density will generally
provide a high frictional strength.
 A particle size distribution that results maximum dry density,
obtained with the closest packing and minimum voids, has been
shown experimentally to follow fuller‟s equation with the value of
the exponent „n‟ usually 0.45 to 0.50 for most soils.
 The theoretical maximum density of aggregates is obtained when
grain size distribution follow the Fuller maximum density equation
of the form:

Where: p = percent passing sieve size “d”

D = maximum sieve size in the material,
n = a constant which varies between 0.45 to 0.50.
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 Mechanical Stabilization
9
Particle Size Distribution: -
 With some materials such as gravel, sand and clays, high
densities can be achieved with „n‟ values as low as 0.33.
 For materials, with a maximum size of 19 mm, the amount
of fines passing the 75μm sieve will be 6 and 8% for „n‟
values of 0.5 and 0.45 respectively.
 In certain cases higher percentages of material passing the
75 µm sieve may provide the best performance.
 When the pavement design relies on a relatively low
permeability in the pavement courses, the materials used
should be of particle size distribution within the limits
established by substituting values of 0.50 and 0.33 for „n‟ in
the above equation.
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 Mechanical Stabilization
10

Particle Size Distribution: -

 These limits are sufficiently wide to allow for variations that
will inevitably occur in field mixing.
 When the value of the exponent „n‟ is less than 0.33, the
fines content of the material may be excessive. A high fine
content will result in reduced permeability, but may lead to
the development of pore pressures and consequent
instability during compaction or in service.
 Where „n‟ is greater than 0.5, the material may be prone to
segregation and raveling and therefore more difficult to
work.

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 Mechanical Stabilization
11

 Liquid Limit and plasticity index: -

 The plasticity limits generally be used as satisfactory design criteria
for mechanical stabilized materials.
 Moreover, plastic Index and Linear Shrinkage of a material passing
0.425 mm are normally related to one another. The permissible
values of shrinkage may be determined by test or estimated from
the permissible values of PI. Typical values are 2% for sealed and
3% for unsealed pavements.
 When the percentage of soil binder is low, as a rough rule, the
plasticity Modulus (PI x the percentage passing the 425 gm sieve
relative to the whole material) should not exceed 200 for gravel to
receive bituminous surface treatment.
 In arid climates, consideration could be given to relax the PM to
about 400, provided road formations are well drained.
 In the case of major woks it is advisable to construct trial sections of
pavement for evaluation at least two years before embarking upon
their large- scale use.
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 Mechanical Stabilization
12
Strength Tests: -
 Stabilized materials may be assessed by strength tests suitable for
this purpose at the density and moisture conditions prevailing in the
pavement during the service life.
 Prediction of moisture condition and hence the failure envelopes at
moisture conditions bracketing the equilibrium moisture conditions
and at the required density anticipated is important.
 The equilibrium moisture conditions to be expected in a pavement
may be obtained by examining existing roads constructed from
materials similar to those being investigated and assembling such
information for future use.
 One of the most commonly used strength tests is the laboratory CBR
test.
 A 4-day soaking of compacted specimens before testing is generally
used.
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 Mechanical Stabilization
13
 However, conditions to be adopted for the test may be altered in respect
of the degree of compaction and moisture content, to simulate the worst
conditions expected in service.
 The selection of suitable criteria should take account of local experience,
especially that related to the performance of local materials.
 Design of stabilized mixtures to reach satisfactory road pavement
involves:
 characterizing the individual materials,

 proportioning them to fit the selected criteria,

 making up a trial mixture to adequate investigation and

 design, good construction and control testing techniques.

 This involves careful proportioning and thorough mixing of the

constituent materials to produce a uniform unsegregated final product
which can be compacted and finished in accordance with the
specification.
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 Cement Stabilization
14

 Cement is an effective stabilizing agent applicable to a wide

range of soils and situations .It has two important effects on
soil behaviors:
 Reduces the moisture susceptibility of soils: cement binds the
particles greatly and reduces moisture induced volume change
 Develop inter-particle bonds in granular materials: increased tensile
strength and elastic modulus.
 Soil properties progressively change with increasing cement
contents. For practical reasons, two categories of cement
stabilized materials have been identified.
 Cement modified materials: cement is used to reduce plasticity,
volume- change, etc, and the inter-particle bonds are not
significantly developed.
 Cement bound materials: cement is used to sufficiently enhance
modulus and tensile strength. Cement bound materials have
practical application in stiffening the pavement.

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 Cement Stabilization
15

SELECTION OF CEMENT CONTENT

 The cement content determines whether the characteristics
of the mixture are dominated by the properties of the
original soil or by the hydration products.
 As the proportion of cement in the mixture increases, so
the strength increases. Strength also increases with time.
 The choice of cement content depends on the strength
required, the durability of the mixture, and the soundness
of the aggregate.
 The minimum cement content, expressed as a percentage
of the dry weight of soil, should exceed the quantity
consumed in the initial ion exchange reactions.
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 Cement Stabilization
16

 It is recommended that the percentage of cement added

should be equal to or greater than the initial consumption
of lime test (ICL), (British Standard 1924).
 A number of factors influence the quality of the cement-soil
interactions.
 The most important factors can be categorized into four
groups:
 Nature and type of soil.

 Cement content.

 Moisture content.

 Pulverization, mixing, compaction, and curing

conditions.
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 Cement Stabilization
17

Nature and type of soil.

 This include: clay content (max 5%) plasticity of the soil
(max LL of 45), gradation, content of organic materials
(max 2%), sulphate content (max 0.25% for cohesive soils
and 1 % for non- cohesive soils), and PH content.
 Soils with high clay content and high plasticity are difficult
to mix and high additive contents are required for an
appreciable change in properties.
 Pre-treatment with lime however is good method to allow
the soil to be cement- stabilized later one.
 The requirements with respect to the organic matter, PH,
and sulphalte contents are in fact the same as those which
are used for concrete.
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 Cement Stabilization
18
Cement content
 The cement required to stabilize soils effectively vary with
the nature and type of soils.
 The criteria used are the compressive strength vary with the
nature and type of soils. The criteria used are the
compressive strength (about 1.7 MPa) after seven days.
 The quantity required for gravely soils is generally much
less than required for silty and clayey soils.
 Generally, a soils is regarded to be suited for cement-
stabilized if the soil has a maximum grain size than 75 mm,
percents passing and retained 0.075 mm sieve is less than
35% and greater than 55% respectively, and liquid and
plastic limits less than 50 and 25 respectively.

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 Cement Stabilization
19
Cement content.
 Based on vast experience on vast experienced on cement stabilization,
the general guidelines in the following table have been provided
regarding the amounts of cement that are needed to stabilize a soil.
Amount of Cement (%)
Soil type
By Weight By Volume
A-1-1 3-5 5-7
A-1-b 5-8 7-9
A-2 5-9 7 - 10
A-3 7 - 11 8 - 12
A-4 7 - 12 8 - 13
A-5 8 - 13 8 - 13
A-6 9 - 15 10 - 14
A-7 10 - 16 10 - 14
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 Cement Stabilization
20

Moisture content
 Moisture is required for hydration of cement to take place,
to improve the workability, and facilitate the compaction of
the soil – cement mixture.
 The soil-cement mixture exhibit the same type of moisture
– density relationship as an ordinary soil. Thus, for a given
compaction effort, there is an optimum moisture content at
which the maximum density is obtained.
 It is, however, seen that the highest compressive strength
can be obtained with specimens compacted slightly below
the optimum for maximum density.

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 Cement Stabilization
21

Pulverization, mixing, compaction, and

curing conditions
 Many procedures of construction are available, but can be
categorized into mixing in plant (in a travelling plant and
stationary plant for dry mixing), and in place mixing.
 The methods are principally the same except mixing in the
first is done in mixing plants and in the later is in-place.
 Regardless of the type of machine used, the procedure of
mix- in- place construction involves initial preparation of
the sub-grade, pulverization of the soil, spreading of the
soil, dry-mix the soil and the cement, adding water and wet
mix, compact and finish, and protect and cure( place a
curing membrane to keep moist).
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 Cement Stabilization
22

 The influence of the degree of mixing and compaction is self explaining.

 One should however be aware of the fact that any delay in compaction
after mixing will have a negative effect.
 As with concrete, curing is an important factor influencing on the end
result. The temperature should be high enough and the stabilized
material should be prevented from drying out in order to obtain the
best result.
 Since cement stabilized materials constitute in most cases the main
structural part of pavements, much attention is given to their
mechanical characteristics such as:
• Tensile and compressive strength,
• Deformation behavior, and
• Fatigue characteristics

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 Lime Stabilization
23
 Lime is a broad term which is used to describe calcium oxide
(CaO)- quick lime; calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2- hydrated lime,
and calcium carbonate (CaCO3)-carbonate is of no value for
stabilization.
 The most commonly used products of quick lime and hydrated
lime are hydrated calcitic lime (CaO), dolomitic quick lime (CaO
MgO).
 Lime can be applied as dry hydrated lime, quick lime or slurry
lime.
 Lime is an effective stabilizing agent for clayey to improve both
workability and strength. Lime is not effective with cohesion less
or low cohesion materials without the addition of secondary
(pozzolanic- fine materials which react with lime to form
cementations compounds) additives.
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 Lime Stabilization
24

 The cementitous products resulting from cement and lime

stabilization are with comparable behavior and follow fairly
similar evaluation, and construction considerations.
 The significant difference in the nature and rate of cementations
reactions, however, is a basis for the choice between cement and
lime.
 Basically four different factors are involved in the soil-lime
reaction which are: Cat ion exchange, flocculation, pozzolanic
reaction, and carbonation.
 Cat ion exchange is an immediate reaction and unlike pozzolanic
reaction, reaction, it is not significantly dependent on
temperature in which cations such as sodium and hydrogen are
replaced by calcium ions for which the clay mineral has a greater
affinity.
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 Lime Stabilization
25
 It has been shown that the thickness of the water layer around the
clay particles decrease substantially as the result of cation
exchanges.
 This condition the turn promotes the development of flocculent
structures. This means that plasticity, shrinkage and swelling and
other normal clay – water interactions are distinctly inhibited.
 The effect of lime on clay minerals of high cation exchange capacity,
such as montmorillonite clays, is therefore more apparent than it is
on clay of low cation exchange capacity such as koalinite clays.
 Chemically equivalent amounts of quick lime and hydrated lime
have the same effect on plasticity.
 However, quick lime has an additional drying effect since, the
chemical reaction between the lime and the water in the soli
removes free water from the sol and the heat produced by the
reaction assists in drying.
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 Lime Stabilization
26
 The change in plasticity is accompanied an immediate change in
the strength of the soil as measured by the CBR.
 The effect of lime on the CBR value increases with time as the
pozzolanic reactions take effect.
 Siliceous and aluminous materials in the soil react with lime to
produce a gel of calcium silicates and aluminates.
 This gel cements the soil particles together in a manner that is
similar to that of hydrated cement.

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 Lime Stabilization
27

 Minerals in the soil that react with lime to produce a cementing compound
are known as pozzolans, it takes, it takes considerably more time than
required for hydration of Portland cement.
 This long term effect on strength, causing continuing strength
improvements with time, often called pozzolanic reactions.
 The cementing action also depends on climatic conditions and a thorough
compaction of the mixture.
 High curing temperatures have a positive effect on the pozzlanic reactions.
 Temperatures lower than 13 and 160C retard the reaction; from this point of
view it is obvious that lime stabilization is especially popular in tropical
countries.
 Carbonation occurs when the hydrated lime reacts with the CO2 from the
air.
 Carbonates (CaCO3) add some strength but the carbonation reaction “eats”
the lime and will therefore dater pozzilanic reactions.
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 Lime Stabilization
28

 Other factors that are of influence on the soil- lime reaction

are:
 The presence of excessive quantities of organic carbon retards
the lime –soil reaction,
 Moderately weathered and un-weathered soils with high pH
display good reactivity,
 Poorly drained soils exhibit a higher degree of lime-reactivity
than better drained soils,
 All calcareous soils react satisfactorily with lime and
 A minimum amount of clay approximately 15% is required to
insure an adequate source of silica and/ or alumina for the
lime- soil pozzolanic reaction.

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 Lime Stabilization
29

 The strength of lime stabilized materials is dependent on the amount of

lime, the curing time, curing temperature and compaction.
 In addition, the quality of water, type of stabilizing lime, and uniformity of
are important affecting the quality of production as they are in cement
stabilization.
 Mix design procedures for lime stabilization are the determination of the
maximum amount of lime that can be taken by the soil before free lime
occurs (the lime content above which further increases do not produce
significant additional strength) or the lime requirement to attain a specific
strength levels.
 Characteristics related design procedures are related to the conditions for
which they have been developed.
 The usually used minimum strength requirements for mix design are 0.69
MPa for subbaes and 1.12 for subbase materials and 0.11 for base- course
materials.
 When lime is used for subgrade improvements, the design lime content
may be designated as the lime content above which no further appreciable
reduction in PI occurs or minimum lime content is increased 0.5 to 1.0% to
offset the effect of field variability.
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 Bituminous Stabilization
30

 Bituminous materials are used as stabilizers to retard or completely

stop moisture absorption by coating soil or aggregate grains in the soil-
aggregate mixture.
 Bituminous stabilization is used with non- cohesive granular materials-
where the bitumen adds cohesive strength; and with cohesive materials
–where the bitumen “waterproofs” the soil thus reducing loss of
strength with increase in moisture content.
 Both effects take place partly from the formation of bituminous film
around the soil particles which bonds them together and prevents the
absorption of water, and partly from simple blocking of the pores,
preventing water from entering the soil mass.
 Because more care is necessary in bituminous stabilization to achieve
satisfactory mixing, its use has not been as widespread as cement and
lime stabilization.

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 Bituminous Stabilization
31

 Bituminous materials: -
 The bituminous materials that are used for stabilization works are mostly
penetration grade bitumen and cutback bitumen and bitumen emulsion.
 The characteristics of cutbacks depended on the particle size distribution of
the soil, the temperature of application, and the type of mix plant.
 The more viscous binders are normally used for soils having only a small
proportion of material passing the 0.075mm sieve and for plant mixes,
while the lighter binders are used for mix –in place methods and with soils
containing a larger proportion of fines.
 Emulsions are generally suitable for soil stabilization in climate where
rapid drying conditions occur, since this is equivalent to adding water to
the soil as well as bituminous binder.
 In the tropics, where the temperature is high the use of emulsions may be
an advantage since it helps to provide part of the optimum moisture
content for compaction, thereby reducing the amount of water necessary
for this purpose.

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 Bituminous Stabilization
32

 Soils requirements: -
 Bituminous materials are used for the stabilization of both cohesive and
non-cohesive granular soils.
 Soils which can readily pulverized by construction equipment are
satisfactory for bituminous stabilization.
 Cohesive soils usually have satisfactory bearing capacity at low
moisture content. The purpose of using bitumen as a stabilizer in such
soils is to waterproof them as a means to maintain them at low
moisture contents and high bearing capacities.
 In the non-cohesive granular materials, bitumen serves as a bonding or
cementing agent between particles.
 Depending on the particle size distribution and physical properties of
the available soil materials and the function of the stabilizing bitumen,
there are four types of soil-bitumen mixtures in highway engineering.

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 Bituminous Stabilization
33

 Soil-bitumen: this is a mixture of cohesive soil and bitumen for

waterproofing purposes. The maximum grain size should preferably not
greater than one-third of the compacted layer. The bitumen requirements
commonly range from 4-7% of the dry weight of the soil.
 Sand bitumen: sands such as beach, river, pit, or existing roadway sand
may be stabilized with bitumen if they are substantially free from vegetable
matter, lumps or balls of clay or adherent films of clay. Sometimes it may
require admixture of filler material to meet mechanical stability
requirements. The required amount of bitumen content ranges from 4-
10%, the optimum should be determined by compaction, strength, and
water resistance testing and should not exceed the pore space of the
compacted mineral mix.
 Waterproofed granular stabilization: This is a system in which a soil
material possessing good gradation of constituent particles from coarse to
fine, and having high potential density is waterproofed by uniform
distribution of small amount (1-2%) of bitumen.
 Oiled earth: This is a soil surface, consisting of silt-clay material made
water and abrasion resistant by slow or medium curing bitumen cutbacks
or emulsions.

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 Bituminous Stabilization
34
 Table Characteristics of soils empirically found suitable for bitumen
stabilization.
Sieve size Percent passing
Soil-bitumen Sand- Water proofed granular stabilization
bitumen A B C
1.5inch 100
1inch 80-100 100
075inch 65-85 80-100 100
No. 4 >50 -100 40-65 50-75 80-100
No. 10 35-100 25-50 40-60 60-80
No. 40 15-30 20-35 30-50
No.100 10-20 13-23 20-35
No.200 10-50 8-12 10-16 13-30
<12,<25
Plasticity characteristics
LL <40
PI <18 <10;<15 <10;<15 <10;<152

Field moisture <201

Linear shrinkage <51

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 Bituminous Stabilization
35

 The mechanism of stabilization with bituminous materials

consists of adding cohesive strength and reducing the
percolation of water,
 No chemical interaction is taking place.
 Waterproofing occur by coating the surface of particles
aggregated lumps of particles or by blocking the pores of the soil
mass, and a strength comes from the presence of a continuous
film of bitumen giving cohesion.
 There are two opposing effects – the thinner the film of bitumen
the stronger the material; however, thick film or filled pores are
the most effective in preventing ingress of water.
 Too much bitumen, however, causes loss of strength by
lubricating the particles and preventing interlock.
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 Bituminous Stabilization
36

 The mix design procedure for bituminous treatments of soils

may be considered under four headings;
 mix design for stability in non-cohesive or cohesive materials;
 mix design for sand-bitumen mixes, and
 mix design for oiled earth roads.
 For the first three types of mix, a series of tests should be made
with varying bitumen contents and grades using hot bitumen,
cutback and emulsion, and the appropriate mix is selected giving
due weight to the need for stability or water resistance as
required.
 Compaction, compressive, and water absorption test are
normally used to select the optimum amount of bitumen content.
 May difficulties in construction and poor pavement performance
may be attributed to a lack of appreciation of this additive effect.
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 37

THANK YOU

HIGHWAY II - Stabilized Pavement Materials