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Applied Power
Quality
This page intentionally left blank
 Applied Power
Quality
Analysis, Modelling, Design and
Implementation of Power Quality
Monitoring Systems

SARATH PERERA
Australian Power Quality and Reliability Centre, University of Wollongong,
Wollongong, NSW, Australia

SEAN ELPHICK
Australian Power Quality and Reliability Centre, University of Wollongong,
Wollongong, NSW, Australia
Elsevier
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek
permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements
with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency,
can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the
Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and
experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or
medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein.
In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the
safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors,
assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products
liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products,
instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
ISBN: 978-0-323-85467-2

For information on all Elsevier publications

visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: Charlotte Cockle

Acquisitions Editor: Rachel Pomery
Editorial Project Manager: Aleksandra Packowska
Production Project Manager: Prem Kumar Kaliamoorthi
Cover Designer: Vicky Pearson Esser
Typeset by STRAIVE, India
Contents

Acknowledgements vii

1. Introduction to power quality in modern power systems 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 What is power quality? 3
1.3 Power quality management philosophy 11
1.4 Overview of contents 15
References 17

2. Steady-state voltage in low voltage networks 19

2.1 Introduction 19
2.2 Voltage standards 20
2.3 Equipment response to voltage magnitude 21
2.4 Causes of steady-state voltage variation 32
2.5 Principles of voltage regulation in LV feeders 33
2.6 Techniques for improving voltage regulation 41
References 48

3. Impact and management of power system voltage

unbalance 49
3.1 Introduction 49
3.2 Commonly used definitions 50
3.3 Measurement of voltage unbalance 51
3.4 Impact of voltage unbalance 52
3.5 Management of voltage unbalance in power systems 54
References 68

4. Impact and management of power system harmonics 71

4.1 Introduction 71
4.2 Definition of waveform (harmonic) distortion 71
4.3 Measurement and analysis of harmonic distortion 77
4.4 Sources of harmonic distortion 80
4.5 Impact of harmonic distortion 92
4.6 Management of harmonic distortion in electricity supply networks 100
4.7 Mitigation of harmonic distortion 126
References 128

v
vi Contents

5. Impact and management of voltage fluctuations, flicker and

rapid voltage changes 131
5.1 Introduction 131
5.2 Effects of voltage fluctuations 133
5.3 Power quality parameters associated with voltage fluctuations 134
5.4 Management of voltage fluctuations and flicker and their
measurement and network planning levels 143
References 145

6. Impact and management of power system voltage sags 147

6.1 Introduction 147
6.2 Definition of voltage sags 147
6.3 Causes of voltage sags 150
6.4 Empirical characteristics of voltage sags 151
6.5 Factors influencing voltage sag severity 153
6.6 Impact of voltage sags 155
6.7 Mitigation of voltage sags 163
6.8 Assessment and reporting of voltage sags 174
References 182

7. Implications of equipment behaviour on power quality 185

7.1 Introduction 185
7.2 Power electronic converters 185
7.3 Motor loads 195
7.4 Capacitor banks 197
7.5 Arcing loads 207
7.6 Transformers 207
7.7 Load behaviour 215
7.8 Impact of variations in supply voltage on appliance performance 246
7.9 Power quality standards for equipment performance 254
References 257

8. Power quality monitoring, data analysis and reporting 259

8.1 Introduction 259
8.2 Standards for power quality monitoring 264
8.3 PQ disturbances and their characterisation 269
8.4 Power quality instruments 274
8.5 Transducers 282
8.6 Motivation for power quality monitoring 294
8.7 Reporting of power quality data 304
References 312

Index 315
Acknowledgements

I wish to acknowledge my past and present colleagues at the Australian

Power Quality and Reliability Centre (APQRC) who have inspired me
to delve in to the quite fruitful subject of power quality. In particular,
I wish to thank Emeritus Professor Vic Gosbell in that regard. I have been
very fortunate to have brilliant postgraduate students who went along
exploratory paths which helped me to open new ways of looking at power
quality phenomena associated with voltage fluctuations and voltage unbal-
ance. I wish to acknowledge the support of my colleagues from a number of
CIGRE working groups who have acknowledged the work carried out
at APQRC.
I have tremendous admiration of my long-standing colleague, Sean
Elphick, who has been a backbone of APQRC. I also wish to acknowledge
the support and insightful knowledge of my colleagues the late Associate
Professor Phil Ciufo, Associate Professor Duane Robinson, Jason David
and Gerard Drury of APQRC.

Sarath Perera

Firstly, I would like to thank my colleagues (past and present) at the

Australian Power Quality and Reliability Centre, specifically and in no par-
ticular order: Professor Vic Gosbell, Associate Professor Duane Robinson,
Associate Professor Phil Ciufo, Dr Vic Smith, Jason David, Gerrard Drury
and Amin Rajabi. I have been fortunate in my career to have been able to
work with such fine mentors and colleagues.
I’d also like to thank my co-author Professor Sarath Perera who has been
a mentor to me for a long period of time.
Finally, I thank my family who have supported me through the process of
compiling this book and perhaps have had to put up with a few too many
weekends of dad in the study working on his book.

Sean Elphick

vii
This page intentionally left blank
CHAPTER 1

Introduction to power quality

in modern power systems

1.1 Introduction
In industrialised countries, electricity supply reliability, as measured by the
frequency and duration of electricity supply interruptions, is now very high.
Whilst reliability, or whether or not any level of voltage is present, may
strictly be considered part of the umbrella of disturbances included in the
broad definition of power quality, the fact that management of reliability
is well understood and that reliability is of a high standard means that reli-
ability and power quality are often considered to be separate topics. Given
the aforementioned high levels of reliability, focus has moved to other areas
of power quality where improvements can be made. Whilst many power
quality concepts have existed for many years, in recent times there have been
some very significant changes to the nature of the loads and generators that
are connecting to electricity supply networks. Whilst these new loads and
generators are not producing any new power quality disturbances, their
characteristics and the methods by which they are being integrated into net-
works have resulted in power quality challenges and continued emphasis on
the overall management of power quality from both a technical and regu-
latory perspective. Examples of recent power system changes that are
directly relevant to power quality performance are as follows:
• There has been a proliferation of small-scale solar photovoltaic (PV) gen-
eration being integrated into low voltage (LV) networks. The majority
of these systems are installed on household rooftops. As an example,
Fig. 1.1 shows the trend of total installed capacity of solar PV in Australia
over the past 20 years. The figure shows that take-up increased rapidly
from 2010 onward and continues to increase rapidly. Integration of these
distributed solar PV generators into low voltage electricity distribution
networks has resulted in power quality challenges related to voltage reg-
ulation, voltage and current unbalance and to a lesser extent harmonic
distortion.

Applied Power Quality Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Inc.

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85467-2.00006-8 All rights reserved. 1
2 Applied power quality

25,000,000.00

20,000,000.00
Installed Capacity (kW)

15,000,000.00

10,000,000.00

5,000,000.00

0.00
2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020
Year

Fig. 1.1 Trend of installed solar PV capacity in Australia. (Data from Australian PV
Institute (APVI), Solar Map, Funded by the Australian Renewable Energy Agency,
Webpage (Last Accessed 7 April 2021).)

• Solar inverters and/or associated monitoring systems provide an indica-

tion of network voltage levels and in some cases, inverter systems are dis-
connecting from the network due to overvoltage protection settings.
This has increased consumer awareness and visibility of network power
quality and in turn resulted in a requirement for electricity network
operators to take action to improve power quality.
• There has been a significant increase in the number of large renewable
generators. These generators present power quality management chal-
lenges for the following reasons:
 The location of the renewable energy resources that they capture is
often in remote locations, and as such, there is limited transmission
or subtransmission infrastructure. Consequently, many of these gen-
erators are being connected to weaker parts of networks making
management of power quality more difficult.
 The technologies used to integrate these generators with electricity
transmission and distribution networks have performance and char-
acteristics that are different to more traditional loads and generators.
For example, inverters for large solar farms may inject harmonic
orders which are atypical.
• There has been a continual shift in the characteristics of consumer appli-
ances towards all devices being supplied by power electronics. The main
reason for this shift is energy efficiency. Many devices which incorporate
induction motors, for example, air conditioners, washing machines and
 Introduction to power quality in modern power systems 3

refrigerators, which once may have been direct-online start, are now
more and more likely to include an inverter as the interface between
the supply and the motor. In the case of air conditioners, it is now dif-
ficult to find a model that is not of the inverter type.
• The characteristics of lighting systems have completely changed over the
past decade. In many countries, incandescent lamps, which are a linear
load with few power quality implications, are being phased out. This is
again for reasons of energy efficiency. In the first instance, incandescent
lamps were replaced with compact fluorescent lamps (CFL); however,
these have been replaced in turn by LED lighting systems. Whilst there
is no argument that CFLs and LEDs use less energy than equivalent incan-
descent lamps, they are electronic devices which do emit harmonic dis-
tortion. These electronic lighting systems have also been observed to be
more susceptible to power quality disturbances than incandescent lamps.
In addition to the changes to loads and generators specified above, it is highly
likely that the number of electric vehicles and battery energy storage systems
will increase over the coming years. Both of these technologies are inter-
faced with the wider electricity supply network through electronics and
as such have the potential to both impact network power quality levels
and/or be susceptible to power quality disturbances. Depending on their
implementation, these technologies also have the potential to improve
power quality.

1.2 What is power quality?

There are many definitions for power quality. The International Electro-
technical Commission (IEC) defines power quality as “characteristics of
the electricity at a given point on an electrical system, evaluated against a
set of reference technical parameters” [1] whilst the Institute for Electrical
and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) defines power quality as “the concept
of powering and grounding electronic equipment in a manner that is suitable
to the operation of that equipment and compatible with the premise wiring
system and other connected equipment” [2].
In simple terms, any deviations from a sinusoidal waveform of nominal
voltage and frequency may be considered as a manifestation of a power qual-
ity disturbance. Power quality covers a wide range of phenomena that may
be observed in power systems. The impacts of power quality range from rel-
atively benign to catastrophic. By way of terminology, power quality phe-
nomena are often called disturbances; however, the IEC also terms power
4 Applied power quality

quality phenomena parameters. For the purposes of this book, the term dis-
turbance has been adopted.
Power quality disturbances can manifest in either voltage or current. In
many cases, voltage disturbances are a result of the interaction between cur-
rent and network impedance. For example, harmonic voltage distortion is
caused by the interaction between the distorted current drawn by nonlinear
loads and network impedance whilst voltage sags are caused by the interac-
tion between fault current and network impedance. As a general principle,
particularly under the IEC power quality management philosophy, network
operators are responsible for maintaining acceptable power quality levels in
voltage waveforms whilst customers are responsible for managing their
power quality emissions at a level whereby they do not have an unacceptable
impact on voltage.

1.2.1 Main power quality disturbances

This section provides a brief overview of the definition and impact of the
main power quality disturbances. A comprehensive definition of each power
quality disturbance is provided in the individual chapters dedicated to each
disturbance.

1.2.1.1 Steady-state voltage variation

Voltage variation may be considered to be the most basic of power quality
disturbances. The steady-state voltage magnitude is generally accepted to be
the root-mean-square (RMS) value of the voltage waveform. This voltage
magnitude will vary over time due to a range of factors including loading and
network operation (e.g. transformer tap changer positions, connection or
disconnection of capacitor banks).
The magnitude of the supply voltage is a key parameter for equipment
operation. If voltage magnitudes are too low, equipment may not operate as
intended or at all. If voltage magnitudes are too high, equipment may expe-
rience loss of life, consume additional energy or may fail.

1.2.1.2 Steady-state frequency variation

Frequency is another basic network operation parameter. In large intercon-
nected networks, frequency is generally bound within tight limits and con-
trolled through complex control strategies for generators. With the increase
in nonsynchronous generation as well as movement towards higher numbers
of stand-alone power supplies, maintenance of very tight frequency limits is
becoming more challenging.
 Introduction to power quality in modern power systems 5

The main impact of variation in frequency appears to be implications for

devices which count zero crossings. For these devices, variation in frequency
can cause clocks to run fast or slow depending on whether the frequency is
above or below the nominal value.

1.2.1.3 Unbalance
Unbalance, also termed imbalance, is defined by the IEC as a “condition in a
polyphase system in which the rms values of the line voltages (fundamental
component), and/or the phase angles between consecutive line voltages, are
not all equal” [1]. Fig. 1.2 shows a visualisation of unbalance.
The impact of unbalance is mainly on three-phase devices. Perhaps the
best known impact is that of voltage unbalance inducing counter-rotating
magnetic fields in induction motors leading to additional heating which
sometimes requires derating of the motor. Voltage unbalance may also cause
three-phase devices to emit atypical harmonic distortion. In three-phase
supply networks, unbalance will cause current to flow in the neutral conduc-
tor. In some cases, before unbalance was well understood, this was an issue if
the neutral conductor was not sized appropriately. However, this issue is
now well understood and wiring rules ensure that the neutral conductor
is now appropriately sized.

1.2.1.4 Harmonic distortion

Harmonics are sinusoidal waveform components with frequencies that are
integer multiples of the fundamental frequency. When harmonics are com-
bined with the fundamental frequency the outcome is a distorted waveform.
Harmonics distort the voltage or current waveform identically for each
cycle. Some types of equipment (e.g. power electronic converters) will
intrinsically draw distorted current made up of harmonics. The interaction

Phase A Phase C
Phase B

Fig. 1.2 Visualisation of unbalance.

6 Applied power quality

Fig. 1.3 Example of waveform containing harmonic distortion.

between this distorted current and network impedance is the cause of dis-
torted voltage waveforms and voltage harmonics. Fig. 1.3 shows an example
of a waveform containing harmonic distortion.
Interharmonics are waveforms with frequency components that are not
integer multiples of the fundamental frequency and originate from devices
such as static frequency converters, cycloconverters and arc furnaces. The
waveform distortion they produce is different for each half-cycle. Interhar-
monics are generally not of sufficient magnitude to be of concern. Fig. 1.4
shows an example of a waveform containing interharmonic distortion.
The impact of harmonic distortion can be quite wide and varied and
includes
• Additional heating and losses in equipment and supply networks.
• Interference with control and communication systems.
• Catastrophic failure of equipment.

Fig. 1.4 Example of waveform with interharmonic distortion.

Another random document with
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of The deadly
ones
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
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you are located before using this eBook.

Title: The deadly ones

Author: F. L. Wallace

Release date: April 8, 2024 [eBook #73355]

Language: English

Original publication: New York, NY: King-Size Publications, Inc, 1954

Credits: Greg Weeks, Mary Meehan and the Online Distributed

Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DEADLY

ONES ***
 The deadly ones

By F. L. Wallace

He preyed on the nightmare fears of mankind,

and the dread food he craved was his in
abundance. Why, why did he have to go exploring?

F. L. Wallace is one of the

bright new stars of science
fiction. He is also a practicing
engineer who has designed
hydraulic presses, and gyro
instruments. Be warned!
When he starts weaving
sound science into the
homespun geography of his
native Illinois you may find
yourself caught up in a spatial
drive which will carry you
clear across the great curve of
the universe—on a journey
 guaranteed to chill and
surprise you!

[Transcriber's Note: This etext was produced from

Fantastic Universe July 1954.
Extensive research did not uncover any evidence that
the U.S. copyright on this publication was renewed.]
Rathsden. I'm sure the name means nothing to you. There are
legends, of course—from old Germany and the greater Reich,
colonial America even. But you can't prove anything very damaging
or concrete with legends. And even when the story is otherwise
correct, I've been careful to keep my name out of it. A clever person
shuns publicity, though it may involve tampering with history. For all
practical purposes the name Rathsden is unknown. I want it kept
that way.
I can't remember when the inspiration came. Probably it had lain for
a long time dormant in the back of my mind, like a mole hibernating
in mid-winter. Warmed by the proper circumstances, it emerged at
last in its full vigor to claim my attention.
I've always worked hard, but lately what I got out of my efforts you
couldn't call a living. The Red Cross was largely responsible. You
could never get me to say a good word for that agency—never.
Still, I have made use of them, and in this case they made their
contribution, though it was an unwitting one.
I gave the idea careful thought. From the beginning I knew I needed
help. I'm not superhuman, not in the strict sense, though I suppose
I could give a good account of myself against Wells's Invisible Man,
Homo Superior, or the new crop of mutants that will spring up some
day soon.
I needed help, and I carried the problem to a council of my fellows.
We discussed it thoroughly, and in the end, though they didn't give
me their blessing, they consented to aid me.
The problem was flying saucers, or rather how to force one to land.
We debated the matter for a long time, but there didn't seem to be
any way to do it. No jet could keep up with a saucer and present
rockets were equally inadequate. Besides, we didn't have access to
any of these machines.
Someone in the back of the council, whose name I didn't catch
suggested that, if we couldn't force one to land, perhaps we could
lure one down. It didn't matter how, as long as it remained on the
ground for an hour or so, with its ports open. The rest would be up
to me.
"Fine," I said. "What do you propose?"
"They're investigating, you know," he said, "in the western part of
the country. Rocket bases, atom bomb sites, anything that indicates
advanced technology. Let's give them another menace."
"Sounds good. What are they interested in?" He was a hard fellow to
locate and I didn't try to visualize his face. He came from Ireland I
believe.
"A spaceship," he said. "A very formidable creation, with an
incredible drive."
There was nothing wrong with the basic concept. The ship wouldn't
be real of course. It would merely seem real from the air. We could
accomplish that.
As for the drive, we could manage that too. In a little investigated
part of the spectrum we could create a low and steady output,
suggesting that the drive was idling, ready for instant takeoff.
None of this was impossible for us.
We? Have I said that we're not human? We've existed for a long
time on earth beside Homo Sapiens, and he has only dimly guessed
that we are here. The ordinary limitations of men don't apply to us.
A few of us working together could create an illusionary spaceship,
and an intriguing drive to go with it. This was something flying
saucers couldn't resist. They'd come down when they found they
couldn't investigate from their customary high level flights.
I nodded at the fellow I couldn't see. "Excellent. However, when the
saucer lands you'll have to maintain the illusion. Logistics are
involved too."
"That's easy," he said. "But what if it isn't manned by robots as
you've assumed? You can get inside all right, but a living creature
will discover you."
I looked at the blank spot where I thought he might be. "Really now.
It has to be a robot. No living creature, except us, can stand the
accelerations we've observed."
"But what if we're wrong?" he persisted.
"In that case we'll have time for one quick look," I said. "If it is living
and we're no match for it, we'll run like hell."
There was general laughter and the fellow raised no further
objections. For all I know, he went home. The meeting broke up and
everyone except a few volunteers left. We continued to discuss ways
and means.
When the plans seemed fool-proof, I got up. "Just a minute."
Another fellow I didn't recognize interposed. "Suppose everything
works the way you say it will. The saucer lands, and you succeed in
getting inside. What makes you think it will go back to the home
planet?"
"Don't overlook our fake spaceship," I said. "If the robot investigator
from the saucer found a real spaceship, that would be important
information. It would be important enough to warrant a quick trip
back to the local base, wherever that may be situated.
"But when the robot can't locate anything, in spite of the evidence
on the instruments, it will be dealing with top priority stuff. Logically
it will have to report back to the prime evaluation center, on the
home planet. I think I'm safe in anticipating a short journey."
"I hope so." He shook his head dubiously. "But what about us? We
don't have to worry about humans, and probably those things out
there haven't come close enough to learn about us. But they're
pretty advanced. What if they should?"
"You think they can detect us when we're dematerialized?" I smiled.
"Don't be naive. Anyway, nothing risked, you know."
I shouldn't have said that. I talk too much. "Nothing gained." He
completed the sentence for me. He didn't look altruistic. "Just what
do we stand to gain?"
The others hadn't thought of it, and neither had I, from that angle. I
ad-libbed. "It's not been good here lately. There's too many factors
against us, agencies that I don't have to mention.
"Feast or famine, mostly the last. And what are we going to do after
an atomic war, when mutants come along? Are you sure we can
compete with them? As bad as it is now, it can get worse." I paused
to let the dire predictions sink in.
"Someone has to do it, and I intend to be the one to find new
worlds for us," I said.
My confidence impressed the others, but not the heckler. "I can see
that you'll find it for yourself. But how are you going to let us know?"
"Just now I can't communicate from here to Philadelphia," I said.
"It's a harassing business, merely trying to stay alive. Here I haven't
had time to practice mental communication. But there conditions will
be ideal and I expect to develop myself so that I can reach out
anywhere in the galaxy."
Objectively that was true. Subjectively I could have changed my
mind about sharing my prize. They didn't think of that and I didn't
mention it.
The last objection was silenced. They went about their preparations
and I about mine.

We set up the decoy in Illinois. No real reason I suppose, except that

most of us are allergic to desert, the logical place to build spaceport
and ships. Deserts are hot, dry and bright, and there are few
humans there. In our own way we're fond of men, though they may
not think so.
Illinois it was, and if there was a note of incongruity in it, so much
the better. A spaceship looked strange in the middle of the flat
cornfields? Very well, it did. Let the robot investigator find out why it
was there.
The creation was not difficult. There was a haze in the air and the
fields were green, and the spaceship pointed a sleek nose toward
the sky. It was impalpable from below. A farmer plowed right
through the stern tubes without knowing they were there. An
inconvenience only; we blacked him out as seen from above. The
farmhouse we converted into a control tower and the barn became a
disembarkation structure.
There were side manifestations of course. Dogs growled uneasily
and barked, then ran away and hid in the woods. Roosters could not
crow nor hens lay eggs. Milk curdled, in cows and cans, and all the
butter turned rancid. Unfortunately we don't often use our entire
minds—and when we do there are peripheral effects. However, no
human in the area noticed us, and life went on pretty much as usual.
Radio reception was poor over all North America, and television was
disrupted for a thousand miles. The disruption was deliberately
planned. We had to attract the attention of the saucers, and that
was the easiest way to do it. The radiation was supposed to
represent a power leak from our hypothecated interstellar drive.
They came the second night and it was good they did. The strain
was telling on everyone in the project. It's not easy to keep up such
a big illusion.
The flight of saucers wheeled across the sky, lights out and
undoubtedly ready for action. They had located us all right, and they
wanted to see just what it was we had. But they couldn't find out
from the air no matter how many times they passed over.
It must have been quite a jolt. They had earth all pegged down to
the last improvement in a self locking nut. And suddenly here was
something new which didn't belong.
Toward midnight, with five of them still skimming the clouds, the
sixth came down. I was ready, and had everything I needed with
me. The saucer landed in a field a half mile away. The vegetation
burned invisibly where it settled. A section of the saucer opened,
and a much littler saucer came out.
The little saucer was a robot. I was sure of that the instant I saw it,
mostly because it had wheels. There is nothing to indicate that a life
form can't have wheels, but it does pose a nice problem of what a
living creature will use for bearings. It was a robot then, and it came
out and headed for our ship, which was still holding together
splendidly, needle nose aimed at the sky.
It was time for me to go to work. I started toward the big saucer.
"It's coming closer." This was the thought of the individual who had
created the ship out of his own dematerialized atoms.
"Put out a force field and keep it away." He sounded shaky and I
thought a wry jest would help. The containers I was carrying were
heavy.
The ship snorted. "I wish I could. But seriously, how long do I have
to stay here?"
"Keep it up," I said. "I've got lots of supplies."
The terror in his voice was real. "I don't like that thing. It's snooping
around."
"Waken the farmer. Maybe he'll kick up a disturbance and the robot
will investigate."
With a shotgun the farmer couldn't do much, but a lucky shot might
put a wheel out of commission. The robot wouldn't like that.
"I can't make the farmer open his eyes. The saucer put him to sleep
and I can't touch his mind."
The saucers had a good brand of hypnotism, if that's what it was.
We knew they had space travel, and now it was evident that they
were equally advanced in other ways.
"Use your judgment," I told the ship. "Hold it as long as you can and
then pretend to go out into space, or forward in time. Anything that
will look good."
I needed time. I could have dematerialized where I stood, and
rematerialized inside the saucer. But if I did, I would have to leave
most of my supplies behind. A short journey, I had said. And that
was true—short as far as interstellar distances were concerned. But
it would be long by normal methods of reckoning, and I had to live
through it. I couldn't abandon my supplies.
I succeeded in transporting all the food to a place just outside the
large saucer before our ship disappeared. It didn't go out into space,
nor into time as I expected. Instead it sank rapidly into the ground,
and left no hole behind. This, I think, confused the robot. I heard it
thrashing around in the cornfield, possibly in bewilderment.
I gathered some of the containers and carried them inside the
saucer. It was lighted all right, and the lighting scheme was as weird
as the interior. They used the spectrum below the red, and above
the violet. Why this should be so I don't know. I merely report what
I found. Apparently they didn't react to what we consider visible
light.
I adjusted my eyes.
I found an empty space which I assumed was for the storage of
specimens. I put my food in there. Outside I went for more, and
then back again. I repeated my trips until everything was loaded.
Unpalatable food, of course, concentrated and not tasty, but it would
last until I stepped out on the planet at the opposite end. After that
there would be other problems.
I went outside for the last communication with my fellows. The ship
I could examine later. I looked around. The control tower and
disembarkation structure were still visible, though they were
wavering in the dim light.
"Are you there?" I thought.
"I am." The control tower thought back. "I wish I wasn't."
"It's just a robot," I said reassuringly. "It's not interested in a
building."
"Maybe not," conceded the control tower. "But it's inside, examining
sleeping people. I wish it would go away."
He was losing control of himself and that didn't suit my purpose.
"It's just a machine. Hold on for a little longer."
He held on.
The robot left the illusionary control tower and headed toward the
saucer. For a squat ungainly contrivance it covered the distance in an
amazing fashion. I had barely time to get inside before it rumbled
into the saucer. It was carrying something. We took off before I
could see what it was.
We left earth smoothly, though any kind of takeoff would have suited
me. Inertia had never been my problem. Neither was the possibility
that the robot would discover me. I was certain I didn't register on
light sensitive cells, and I had other tricks I could use if I had to.
The robot had tentacles I hadn't noticed before because they had
been retracted. They weren't retracted now, and they held a farmer.
He was unconscious.
The robot was monkeying around with the farmer, but it was hardly
the time to interfere. Needles stabbed the farmer in several places.
Withdrawing the blood and storing it, probably inside the robot.
The first needles were jerked out, and replaced by others. Again this
was logical: pumping a fluid into the farmer's veins with the intent of
suspending the life force until they reached the home planet.
The whole procedure made sense. When the robot couldn't find the
spaceship it had taken someone in the vicinity for questioning.
They'd be surprised what they'd learn from the farmer though.
Absolutely nothing! We had protected ourselves too well. The
farmer's ordeal had no bearing on the success of my enterprise.
Nevertheless I became slightly ill at the waste involved.
The robot dropped the farmer in a place similar to the one in which I
had hidden my supplies. Then it crouched down and became
motionless, waiting. There was nothing for it to do.
Nor for myself either. We were out of the atmosphere and on our
way.

The journey was six months of monotony. Avoiding the robot was
easy because it didn't move. The ship was all mine but I couldn't
make use of it. I puttered around, but there was nothing much to
learn. The drive was in operation, and as long as it was, I couldn't
get close. I had no idea of what it was nor how it worked, but the
force that surrounded it was, for me at least, an absolute barrier.
The rest of the saucer was equally confounding. There were several
low ceilinged compartments which held instruments at whose
functions I could not guess. There were no star charts anywhere,
but I had to assume the ship knew where it was going.
Whatever our destination, we were approaching it faster than light.
Occasionally I looked out of the vision ports, and what I saw didn't
resemble suns, though of course they were. It was the light shaft
which changed their appearance.
One day the saucer gave a lurch and we were simultaneously below
the speed of light, and near our goal. Dead ahead was a multiple
star system. Where it lay with relation to Earth I don't know. Within
fifty to a thousand light years I suppose.
For the first time in months the robot stirred, went to the farmer and
began to work on him. I kept out of the way. It seemed the sensible
thing to do. No matter how often I looked, I couldn't determine the
location of the planet toward which we were bound. The ship knew,
but I was in ignorance.
From behind, in the next compartment, came the labored sounds of
the robot. Then there was another sound and it didn't come from
the robot. I looked in. The farmer sat up, gazed around, understood
some or little of what he saw. That understanding was enough for
him. He collapsed. He was still breathing, though; in spasmodic
gasps.
The revivification was a complete success. I decided to keep the
man in mind. He was an important source of reserve strength.
My hopes leapt high when I saw the planet. It was something less
than the size of Saturn, but much larger than Earth. It was large
enough to support a tremendous population. I hadn't bargained for
anything so good.
I had only a vague plan to go by. I had made the journey in
complete safety, and that was most important. My next move would
depend on circumstances. I could dematerialize myself off the ship,
and onto the planet. With an extreme expenditure of energy I could
even take the remainder of my food supply with me.
But it didn't seem worth the effort. I had done all right so far by
remaining quiet, and letting events occur as they would. I decided to
see it through on the same basis. I stayed in the ship, and let it
land.
That was not my first mistake, landing with the ship. If anything, the
error began a thousand years earlier, in my infancy, the first night I
saw the light of the moon. No one asked me to come. I did it
voluntarily, for reasons my total personality found acceptable. In my
own mind I added up the advantages in leaving Earth, and then
schemed until I found a way to do it.
I had been dissatisfied with the way things were going among men.
I objected to blood spilled uselessly. And so I had contrived an
escape. Greener pastures? Not exactly. I don't like salads. Still the
saying conveys something of the way I felt. Long before the ship
landed it was too late, though I didn't know it.

The robot scurried about the saucer, chirruping mechanically and

creaking. When it finished the duties it picked up the farmer, and
carried him out. The man was still unconscious, but he began to
scream.
Soon after it left, other robots came into the ship. Slightly different
from the kind I had seen, they must have been repair robots. They
went about tasks that were unfamiliar to me, and they talked.
This was new. I couldn't understand what they said until I found the
speech center of one, and let my mind reach out, lightly.
"A master says there is a stow-away on one of the ships."
It was unforeseen. Nothing I had encountered could detect my
existence without registering on my consciousness. These masters
were going to be tougher than humans. I waited while the other
replied:
"Do they know what ship he's on?"
My robot waved a tentacle. "There are ten thousand ships here,
each waiting for a checkover before reassignment. Would they
bother to search each ship?"
"Physically, you mean?" asked the other. "No. They will take him off
as the ship leaves."
Getting me off was going to take some doing, though the masters
didn't know it. They may have gauged humans correctly, but they
hadn't met me. Nevertheless I was uneasy.
"Why does he stay on the ship?" asked my robot.
The other chuckled. "Maybe he's changed his mind, and wants to go
home. He'll be surprised when he learns where he's bound for."
I'll admit I panicked then—because a robot chuckled. It's not the
friendly sound you might think. And also because of what it said. I
had no intention of going home, but I liked to think I could if I
wanted to. Now I saw that, due to their system of rotating
assignments, it was next to impossible to determine which ship was
going back to Earth. I made up my mind quickly.
Several things happened simultaneously. I dematerialized myself
where I was, and rematerialized tenuously inside the robot. At the
same time I took control of its motor and brain centers.
I forced it away from the job, and commanded it to go to the
storage space where the last of my food was hidden. The other
robot didn't notice. I surmised they didn't take orders from each
other but from someone above. For the moment I was above.
Out of the ship we went, and into the confusion of the repair shops.
Nothing but ships and robots, and I'd had enough of these.
I needed a hiding place to rest, and plan my forays against the
creatures of this planet. I rummaged hurriedly through the robot
brain, and learned that we were near the edge of a large city.
Without cataloguing all the information I received, I forced the robot
through obscure alleys toward the open plain that surrounded the
city.
It was cramped and uncomfortable inside the robot even though I
didn't exist as solid matter. And I had to operate blind. I couldn't
adjust my sight to that of the robot, and had to function once
removed from reality, through its incomplete senses.
The last alley we entered ended on the open plain. The robot rolled
down it—and stopped. I couldn't see what was in front of us, but I
could guess—one of the creatures of the planet, the things that
made the flying saucers. Without hesitation I directed the robot to
attack.
It didn't.
It's refusal was not unexpected. They would have been quite insane
to build robots without installing some safeguards. It meant,
however, that the next step was up to me. I took it.
I dematerialized out of the robot and rematerialized facing my
antagonist. On the average it takes me a few microseconds to
evaluate a foe, and find his weakness. I looked longer than that. It
was the first time I had seen anything that could destroy at a glance
my confidence in my own survival capacity.
And there was no weakness.

What I did then was not cowardice, it was pure survival, the reaction
of a nervous system shocked to the limits of endurance. I
dematerialized myself from where I stood and rematerialized far out
on the open plain. Twice I repeated the process until the city was
out of sight over the horizon. The creature didn't follow, though it
could have done so easily enough—if it had wanted to.
I know my strength. On Earth it's the source of legends—the
shadowy half-believed stories of werewolves and vampires. Fact and
fancy mixed together to chill the minds and hearts of men. For
myself, and others like me, it's a distinct advantage to have our
existence doubted. A victim paralyzed with fear, too shocked and
demoralized to cry out, is easier to subdue.
But the strength I was so confident of is meaningless here.
Crouched in the shadow of the boulder, the only shade on the arid
plain, it suddenly dawned on me that the creatures who rule this
planet knew about me from the beginning, when I thought I was
hidden. It amused them, I think.
I can't go back to the city and find the farmer. He's their meat. And I
have limitations. I can't dematerialize myself off this planet. A few
drops of fluid are left in the container with the Red Cross stamp on
it, my last link with Earth.
I was born knowing the facts of my life. For a thousand years I've
taken my food where, and how I could get it. But these creatures
are different, not only in body chemistry. They are tougher than
teflon skin and have hydrofluoric acid in their veins. I've always killed
for food, but they—kill for pleasure. And their appearance exactly
coincides with their character. I ought to know.
But there's one escape they forgot about, and I will take it. When
they come hunting, they won't find me. Self-destruction is preferable
to meeting those horrors face to face again.
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