COMPUTER NETWORKS

UNIT - 1
Introduction

Computer Network: A computer network is a collection of interconnected devices that can

communicate and share resources with each other. These devices, also known as nodes,
can include computers, servers, networking hardware, and other specialized devices. The
primary purpose of a computer network is to enable data sharing and communication
between these devices.

Key Components
Nodes: Any device connected to the network (e.g., computers, printers, routers).
Transmission Media: The physical or wireless pathways that connect nodes and
facilitate data transfer (e.g., cables, fiber optics, radio waves).
Protocols: Standardized rules that govern data communication and ensure proper
data exchange (e.g., TCP/IP, HTTP).
Key Terms and Concepts

1. Bandwidth: Maximum data transfer rate of a network.

2. Latency: Time it takes for data to travel from source to destination.
3. IP Address: Unique identifier for devices on a network (e.g., IPv4, IPv6).
4. MAC Address: Hardware identifier for network interfaces.
5. Subnet: Subdivision of an IP network for better management.
6. Router: Device that forwards data between networks.
7. Switch: Connects devices within a LAN, using MAC addresses to forward data.
8. Firewall: Security device controlling network traffic.
9. Protocol: Rules for communication between devices (e.g., TCP/IP, HTTP).
10. Packet: Small unit of data transmitted over a network.
Uses of Computer Networks

Personal Communication
Email: Send and receive messages quickly.
Social Media: Connect with friends and family.
Instant Messaging: Real-time text communication (e.g., WhatsApp, Messenger).
Video Calls: Face-to-face communication via the internet (e.g., Zoom, Skype).
Business Operations
Remote Work: Access company resources and collaborate from anywhere.
Data Sharing: Share files and documents easily within the organization.
Cloud Services: Store and access data and applications online (e.g., Google Drive, AWS).
E-Commerce: Online buying and selling of goods and services.
Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP): Integrated management of business processes (e.g.,
SAP, Oracle).
Types of Cables
i) Coaxial Cable
Structure: Central conductor, insulating layer, metallic shield, and outer cover.
Uses: Cable TV, internet connections.
Advantages: High bandwidth, good noise resistance.
Disadvantages: Bulky, limited flexibility.

ii) Twisted Pair Cable

Structure: Pairs of wires twisted together.
Types:
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): Common in Ethernet networks.
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Extra shielding for better noise protection.
Uses: Telephone lines, LANs.
Advantages: Inexpensive, easy to install.
Disadvantages: Limited bandwidth and distance.
Types of Cables
Contin....

iii) Fiber Optic Cable

Structure: Glass or plastic fibers, cladding, protective outer jacket.
Uses: High-speed data transmission, long-distance communication.
Advantages: Very high bandwidth, immune to electromagnetic interference, long-distance
capability.
Disadvantages: Expensive, requires specialized equipment for installation and
maintenance.
Networking Devices

Router: A router is essential for connecting different networks, such as linking a home or
business network to the internet. It forwards data packets based on IP addresses, ensuring
that data reaches its correct destination. Routers often come with built-in security features
and support for various network protocols.

Switch: Operating at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model, switches connect
devices within a local area network (LAN). They use MAC addresses to forward data to
the appropriate device, reducing data collisions and improving network efficiency.
Switches are vital for managing data traffic in a network.
Networking Devices
Contin...

Hub: A hub is a basic networking device that connects multiple devices in a LAN by
broadcasting data to all connected devices. Operating at the physical layer (Layer 1) of the
OSI model, hubs are simple and inexpensive but less efficient than switches, as they do not
filter data.

Access Point (AP): An access point provides wireless connectivity to devices within a
network, extending the range of wireless coverage. APs can be standalone or integrated
into routers, making them crucial for establishing wireless networks and ensuring
mobility.
Networking Devices
Contin...

Modem: A modem modulates and demodulates signals for data transmission over
telephone or cable lines, allowing network access to the internet. It converts digital data
from computers to analog signals for transmission and vice versa, bridging the gap
between home networks and internet service providers.

Firewall: Firewalls are critical for network security, monitoring and controlling incoming
and outgoing traffic based on predefined security rules. They can be hardware-based,
software-based, or both, and protect networks from unauthorized access and cyber
threats.
OSI Model

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model describes seven layers that computer
systems use to communicate over a network. It was the first standard model for
network communications, adopted by all major computer and telecommunication
companies in the early 1980s.

The modern Internet is not based on OSI, but on the simpler TCP/IP model.
However, the OSI 7-layer model is still widely used, as it helps visualize and
communicate how networks operate, and helps isolate and troubleshoot networking
problems.
Advantages of OSI Model

Standardization: Ensures interoperability and compatibility across various devices

and software.
Modular Design: Allows isolation of layers for simplified troubleshooting and
updates.
Flexibility: Independent of specific technologies, supporting diverse protocols.
Educational Tool: Provides a clear framework for learning and understanding
networking.
Troubleshooting and Maintenance: Facilitates methodical diagnosis and problem
identification.
Vendor Neutrality: Encourages a competitive market and reduces vendor lock-in.
Enhanced Security: Supports layered security measures for comprehensive protection.
Scalability: Allows for easy network growth and integration of new technologies.
TCP/IP Model

The TCP/IP model is a fundamental framework for computer networking. It stands for
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, which are the core protocols of the
Internet.

This model defines how data is transmitted over networks, ensuring reliable
communication between devices. It consists of four layers: the Link Layer, the Internet
Layer, the Transport Layer, and the Application Layer.

Each layer has specific functions that help manage different aspects of network
communication, making it essential for understanding and working with modern
networks.
What Does TCP/IP Do?

The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a computer from one device to
another. The main condition of this process is to make data reliable and accurate so
that the receiver will receive the same information which is sent by the sender.

To ensure that, each message reaches its final destination accurately, the TCP/IP model
divides its data into packets and combines them at the other end, which helps in
maintaining the accuracy of the data while transferring from one end to another end.

The TCP/IP model is used in the context of the real-world internet, where a wide range
of physical media and network technologies are in use.
Difference Between TCP and IP
Difference Between TCP and IP
Internet Protocol

The Internet Protocol (IP) which is pivotal in computer network protocols is

responsible for the transmission of data packages from or to devices that are connected
to the Internet or any other network. Moreover, it provides the addressing and routing
mechanisms that the devices require for their communications. IP addresses represent
the unique identifiers given to each device on a network to be able to route data
packets to their receivers.

Types of IP Addresses
1. Public Address
2. Private Address
Public Address
The public media, sometimes called the external media outside the local area network, is
also known as the public address. The word ‘public address’ can also define a defile of talk
outside the network. This IP address is for the purpose of connecting to the internet.

Private Address
Address to the private is also referred to as a DAN (LAN), as LAN numbers are inserted
within the addresses. It is used for communication between the network. Listen to the given
audio and then select the most appropriate option. They are not public IP addresses that
have IP protocols for internet routing. The private address space is then use InterNIC
utility to ensure that the create network does not have address conflict.
Network Edge

The network edge the connection or interface between a device or local network and
the internet. The edge is close to the devices it is communicating with and is the entry
point to the network. The network edge is a crucial security boundary that network
administrators must provide solutions for.

Benefits of Computing at the Network Edge:

Increased speed and lower latency
Improved network traffic management
Greater reliability
Enhanced security features
Agility and scalability
Network Core

A network core contains more hops to its adjacent network than an network cdge. In
other words, the core network has more layer 2 and 3 devices and is the center of the
enterprise network. It’s also known as the backbone network. Furthermore, we design
core networks to transfer network traffic at high speeds. A core network uses both
wide-area networks (WAN) and local area networks (LAN).

A typical example of a core network would be a central office network connecting to

the edges via Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) such as Open Shortest Path First
(OSPF) and Border Gateway Protocol (BGP). Additionally, it also uses internet-based
technologies such as WAN LTE or virtual private network(VPN). Typically, a core
network connects devices further away from the edge network.
Difference between Network Core and Network Edge
Delays

The delays, here, means the time for which the processing of a particular packet takes
place. We have the following types of delays in computer networks:

1. Transmission Delay:
The time taken to transmit a packet from the host to the transmission medium is called
Transmission delay.

2. Propagation delay:
After the packet is transmitted to the transmission medium, it has to go through the
medium to reach the destination. Hence the time taken by the last bit of the packet to
reach the destination is called propagation delay.
Delays
Contin...

3. Queueing delay:
Let the packet is received by the destination, the packet will not be processed by the
destination immediately. It has to wait in a queue in something called a buffer. So the
amount of time it waits in queue before being processed is called queueing delay.

4. Processing delay:
Now the packet will be taken for the processing which is called processing delay.
Time is taken to process the data packet by the processor that is the time required by
intermediate routers to decide where to forward the packet, update TTL, perform header
checksum calculations.
Loss

Loss refers to the number of packets that are sent but never reach their destination. Packet
loss can be caused by several factors, including:
Network Congestion: When the network is overloaded with traffic, packets may be
dropped.
Faulty Hardware: Malfunctioning network devices can cause packet loss.
Transmission Errors: Errors in data transmission due to interference, noise, or other
factors can lead to packet loss.
Throughput
Throughput is the rate at which data is successfully transferred from one point to another
in the network. It is usually measured in bits per second (bps) or its multiples (e.g., Mbps,
Gbps). Throughput is influenced by several factors, including:
Bandwidth: The maximum rate at which data can be transmitted over a network path.
Network Congestion: High levels of traffic can reduce throughput due to increased
queuing delays and packet loss.
Protocol Overheads: Protocols like TCP have overheads (e.g., acknowledgments,
retransmissions) that can reduce the effective throughput.

Relationship Between Delay, Loss, and Throughput

High Delay: Can decrease throughput, especially in protocols like TCP that require
acknowledgments.
High Loss: Causes retransmissions, which increase delay and reduce throughput.
High Throughput: Can lead to congestion, increasing delay and loss.
Switching
Switching is the process of transferring data packets from one device to another in a
network, or from one network to another, using specific devices called switches.

Switch
A switch is a hardware device in a network that connects other devices, like computers
and servers. It helps multiple devices share a network without their data interfering
with each other.
A switch works like a traffic cop at a busy intersection. When a data packet arrives, the
switch decides where it needs to go and sends it through the right port.
A switch decides the port through which a data packet shall pass with the help of its
destination MAC(Media Access Control) Address.
Protocol Layers

Layer 1: Physical Layer

Function: Handles the transmission and reception of raw bit streams over a physical
medium.
Key Elements: Cables, switches, hubs, and other hardware components.
Role: Converts data into electrical, radio, or optical signals.

Layer 2: Data Link Layer

Function: Provides node-to-node data transfer and handles error correction from the
physical layer.
Key Elements: MAC addresses, switches, and bridges.
Role: Packages raw bits into frames and provides reliable transmission between two
physically connected devices.
Protocol Layers
Contin...
Layer 3: Network Layer
Function: Manages the routing of data packets between devices across different networks.
Key Elements: IP addresses, routers.
Role: Determines the best physical path for data to travel across the network.

Layer 4: Transport Layer

Function: Ensures complete data transfer and manages error recovery and flow control.
Key Elements: TCP, UDP protocols.
Role: Segments data and reassembles it into the correct sequence at the destination.
Protocol Layers
Contin...
Layer 5: Session Layer
Function: Manages sessions or connections between networked devices.
Key Elements: Session establishment, maintenance, and termination.
Role: Keeps different applications’ data separate, managing dialogues between
applications.

Layer 6: Presentation Layer

Function: Translates data between the application layer and the network format.
Key Elements: Data encryption, decryption, compression, and translation.
Role: Ensures that data is in a readable format for the application layer and handles
encryption for secure data transmission.
Protocol Layers
Contin...
Layer 7: Application Layer
Function: Provides network
services directly to end-users or
applications.

Key Elements: Protocols like

HTTP, FTP, SMTP, and DNS.

Role: Facilitates network

services such as file transfers,
email, and web browsing.
Basic Network Attacks in Computer Network

A network attack is any attempt to disrupt, compromise or gain unauthorized access

to a computer network or its resources. Network attacks can be classified into several
categories, depending on the method used, the target and the intent of the attacker.

One way to classify network attacks is by their intent. Some attacks are designed to
disrupt the normal operation of a network or its resources, while others are designed
to steal sensitive information or take control of network resources.

Another way to classify network attacks is by the method used. Some attacks involve
exploiting known vulnerabilities in network software or hardware, while others use
social engineering techniques to trick users into revealing sensitive information.
Examples of Network Attacks

Denial of Service (DoS) attacks

Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks

Phishing attacks

Sniffing attacks

Malware attacks

Remote code execution attacks