Chapter 75

Even and odd functions and

half-range Fourier series
Why it is important to understand: Even and odd functions and half-range Fourier series
It has already been noted in previous chapters that the Fourier series is a very useful tool. The Fourier
series has many applications; in fact, any field of physical science that uses sinusoidal signals, such as
engineering, applied mathematics and chemistry will make use of the Fourier series. Applications are
found in electrical engineering, such as in determining the harmonic components in a.c. waveforms, in
vibration analysis, acoustics, optics, signal processing, image processing and in quantum mechanics. If
it can be found ‘on sight’ that a function is even or odd, then determining the Fourier series becomes an
easier exercise. This is explained in this chapter, together with half-range Fourier series.

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

• define even and odd functions

• determine Fourier cosine series and Fourier sine series
• determine Fourier half-range cosine series and Fourier half-range sine series

of odd functions are y = x 3 and y = sin x as shown in

75.1 Even and odd functions Fig. 20.26, page 226.
Many functions are neither even nor odd, two such
Even functions examples being shown in Fig. 20.27, page 226.
A function y = f (x) is said to be even if f (−x) = f (x) See also Problems 3 and 4, pages 226 and 227.
for all values of x. Graphs of even functions are always
symmetrical about the y-axis (i.e. a mirror image). Two
examples of even functions are y = x 2 and y = cos x as 75.2 Fourier cosine and Fourier
shown in Fig. 20.25, page 226. sine series

Odd functions (a) Fourier cosine series

A function y = f (x) is said to be odd if f (−x) =
− f (x) for all values of x. Graphs of odd functions are The Fourier series of an even periodic function
always symmetrical about the origin. Two examples f (x) having period 2π contains cosine terms only (i.e.

Higher Engineering Mathematics. 978-0-415-66282-6, © 2014 John Bird. Published by Taylor & Francis. All rights reserved.
 Even and odd functions and half-range Fourier series 779

contains no sine terms) and may contain a constant (i.e. the series contains no sine terms.)
term.
∞ f (x)
Hence f (x) = a0 + an cos nx
n=1
π  2
1
where a0 = f (x) dx
2π −π

1 π
= f (x) dx
π 0 ⫺3␲/2 ⫺␲ ⫺␲/2 0 ␲/2 ␲ 3␲/2 2␲ x
(due to symmetry)

1 π ⫺2
and an = f (x) cos nx dx
π −π

2 π
= f (x) cos nx dx Figure 75.1
π 0
(b) Fourier sine series From para. (a),

The Fourier series of an odd periodic function f (x) 1 π
a0 = f (x) dx
having period 2π contains sine terms only (i.e. contains π 0
no constant term and no cosine terms).  π/2  π
1
∞ = 2 dx + −2 dx
 π 0 π/2
Hence f (x) = bn sin nx
1 π/2
n=1
= [2x]0 + [−2x]ππ/2
 π π
1
where bn = f (x) sin nx dx 1
π −π = [(π) + [(−2π) − (−π)] = 0
 π
π
2
= f (x) sin nx dx 
π 0 2 π
an = f (x) cos nx dx
π

Section L
0
 π/2  π
Problem 1. Determine the Fourier series for the 2
= 2 cos nx dx + −2 cosnx dx
periodic function defined by: π 0 π/2
⎧ π π/2 π 
⎪
⎪ −2, when −π < x < − 4 sin nx −sin nx
⎪
⎪ = +
⎪
⎨
2
π n n
π π 0 π/2
f (x) = 2, when − < x <
⎪ 2 2  
⎪
⎪ 4 sin(π/2)n
⎪
⎪ π = −0
⎩ −2, when <x <π π n
2
 
and has a period of 2π −sin(π/2)n
+ 0−
n
 
The square wave shown in Fig. 75.1 is an even function 4 2 sin(π/2)n 8  nπ 
since it is symmetrical about the f (x) axis. = = sin
π n πn 2
Hence from para. (a) the Fourier series is given by:
∞
 When n is even, an = 0
f (x) = a0 + an cos nx 8
When n is odd, an = for n = 1, 5, 9, . . .
n=1 πn
 780 Higher Engineering Mathematics
 π
−8 2
and an = for n = 3, 7, 11, . . . From para. (b), bn = f (x) sin nx dx
πn π 0
 π
8 −8 8 2
Hence a1 = , a3 = , a5 = , and so on. = 2 sin nx dx
π 3π 5π π 0
Hence the Fourier series for the waveform of Fig. 75.1 
is given by: 4 −cos nx π
 =
8 1 1 π n 0
f (x) = cos x − cos 3x + cos 5x    
π 3 5 4 −cosnπ 1
 = − −
1 π n n
− cos 7x +· · ·
7 4
= (1 − cosnπ)
πn
Problem 2. In the Fourier series of Problem 1 let
x = 0 and deduce a series for π/4. When n is even, bn = 0
4 8
When x = 0, f (x) = 2 (from Fig. 75.1). When n is odd, bn = (1 − (−1)) =
πn πn
Thus, from the Fourier series,
 8 8 8
8 1 1 Hence b1 = , b3 = , b5 = ,
2= cos 0 − cos 0 + cos 0 π 3π 5π
π 3 5
 and so on.
1
− cos 0 + · · ·
7 Hence the Fourier series is:
2π 1 1 1 
Hence = 1 − + − + ··· 8 1 1
8 3 5 7 f (x) = sin x + sin 3x + sin 5x
π 3 5
π 1 1 1 
= 1− + − +··· 1
i.e.
4 3 5 7 + sin 7x +· · ·
7
Problem 3. Obtain the Fourier series for the
square wave shown in Fig. 75.2. Problem 4. Determine the Fourier series for the
f (x) function f (θ ) = θ 2 in the range −π < θ < π. The
function has a period of 2π.
Section L

A graph of f (θ ) = θ 2 is shown in Fig. 75.3 in the range

2␲ 0 ␲ 2␲ 3␲ x −π to π with period 2π. The function is symmetrical
about the f (θ ) axis and is thus an even function. Thus
22 a Fourier cosine series will result of the form:
∞

Figure 75.2 f (θ ) = a0 + an cos nθ
n=1
The square wave shown in Fig. 75.2 is an odd function
since it is symmetrical about the origin.
Hence, from para. (b), the Fourier series is given by: f (␪)
∞
 f (␪) 5 ␪2
f (x) = bn sin nx ␲2
n=1

The function is defined by: 22␲ 2␲ 0 ␲ 2␲ ␪

−2, when −π < x < 0
f (x) =
2, when 0 < x < π Figure 75.3
 Even and odd functions and half-range Fourier series 781

From para. (a), 2π 2 1 1 1 1

  i.e. = 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ···
1 π 1 π 2 (3)(4) 2 3 4 5
a0 = f (θ )dθ = θ dθ
π 0 π 0 π2 1 1 1 1 1
π i.e. = 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ···
1 θ3 π2 6 1 2 3 4 5
= =
π 3 0 3 Hence
 π
2 ∞

and an = f (θ ) cos nθ dθ 1 π2
π 0 =
n2 6
 n=1
2 π 2
= θ cosnθ dθ
π 0
Now try the following Practice Exercise
π
2 θ 2 sin nθ 2θ cos nθ 2 sin nθ
= + −
π n n2 n3 0 Practice Exercise 261 Fourier cosine and
by parts Fourier sine series (Answers on page 871)
   1. Determine the Fourier series for the function
2 2π cos nπ
= 0+ − 0 − (0) defined by:
π n2 ⎧ π
⎪
⎪ −1, −π < x < −
4 ⎪
⎪ 2
= cos nπ ⎨ π π
n2 f (x) = 1, − < x <
−4 −4 ⎪
⎪ 2 2
⎪
When n is odd, an = 2 . Hence a1 = 2 , ⎩ −1, π < x < π
⎪
n 1 2
−4 −4
a3 = 2 , a5 = 2 , and so on.
3 5 which is periodic outside of this range of
4 4 4 period 2π.
When n is even, an = 2 . Hence a2 = 2 , a4 = 2 , and
so on. n 2 4
2. Obtain the Fourier series of the function
Hence the Fourier series is: defined by:

π2 1 1 t + π, −π < t < 0
f (θ ) = θ 2 = − 4 cos θ − 2 cos 2θ + 2 cos 3θ
3 2 3 f (t) =
 t − π, 0<t <π
1 1

Section L
− 2 cos 4θ + 2 cos 5θ − · · ·
4 5 which is periodic of period 2π. Sketch the
given function.
Problem 5. For the Fourier series of Problem 4,
3. Determine the Fourier series defined by
∞ 1 π2
let θ = π and show that 2
= 1 − x, −π < x < 0
n=1 n 6
f (x) =
1 + x, 0 < x < π
When θ = π, f (θ ) = π 2 (see Fig. 75.3). Hence from the
Fourier series: which is periodic of period 2π

π2 1 1 4. In the Fourier series of Problem 3, let x = 0
π2 = − 4 cos π − 2 cos 2π + 2 cos 3π and deduce a series for π 2 /8
3 2 3

1 1 5. Show that the Fourier series for the triangular
− 2 cos 4π + 2 cos 5π − · · · waveform shown in Fig. 75.4 is given by:
4 5 
8 1 1
i.e.   y = 2 sin θ − 2 sin 3θ + 2 sin 5θ
π2 1 1 1 1 π 3 5 
π −
2
= −4 −1 − 2 − 2 − 2 − 2 − · · · 1
3 2 3 4 5 − 2 sin 7θ + . . .
7
 
2π 2 1 1 1 1 The function is periodic of period 2π .
= 4 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ···
3 2 3 4 5
 782 Higher Engineering Mathematics

(c) If a half-range sine series is required for the func-

y tion f (x) = x in the range 0 to π then an odd peri-
odic function is required. In Fig. 75.6, f (x) = x
1 is shown plotted from x = 0 to x = π. Since an
odd function is symmetrical about the origin the
line CD is constructed as shown. If the sawtooth
waveform produced is assumed to be periodic of
0 ␲ 2␲ ␪ period 2π outside of this range, then the waveform
is as shown in Fig. 75.6. When a half-range sine
series is required then the Fourier coefficient bn is
21
calculated as in Section 75.2(b), i.e.
Figure 75.4
∞

f (x) = bn sin nx
n=1
 π
75.3 Half-range Fourier series 2
where bn = f (x) sin nx dx
π 0
(a) When a function is defined over the range say 0
to π instead of from 0 to 2π it may be expanded f(x)
f(x )5x
in a series of sine terms only or of cosine terms ␲
only. The series produced is called a half-range
Fourier series. C
22␲ 2␲ 0 ␲ 2␲ 3␲ x
(b) If a half-range cosine series is required for the
function f (x) = x in the range 0 to π then an 2␲
even periodic function is required. In Fig. 75.5, D
f (x) = x is shown plotted from x = 0 to x = π.
Since an even function is symmetrical about the Figure 75.6
f (x) axis the line AB is constructed as shown.
If the triangular waveform produced is assumed Problem 6. Determine the half-range Fourier
to be periodic of period 2π outside of this range cosine series to represent the function f (x) = 3x in
then the waveform is as shown in Fig. 75.5. When the range 0 ≤ x ≤ π
Section L

a half-range cosine series is required then the

Fourier coefficients a0 and an are calculated as From para. (b), for a half-range cosine series:
in Section 75.2(a), i.e.
∞

f (x) = a0 + an cos nx
∞
 n=1
f (x) = a0 + an cos nx
When f (x) =3x,
 n=1
1 π  
where a0 = f (x) dx 1 π 1 π
π 0 a0 = f (x)dx = 3x dx
π π 0 π 0
2
and an = f (x) cos nx dx π
π 0 3 x2 3π
= =
π 2 0 2
f (x)  π
2
f(x)5x an = f (x) cos nx dx
B ␲ π 0

2 π
A = 3x cos nx dx
π 0
22␲ 2␲ 0 ␲ 2␲ x

6 x sin nx cos nx π
= + by parts
Figure 75.5 π n n2 0
 Even and odd functions and half-range Fourier series 783
   
6 π sin nπ cos nπ cos 0 Hence the half-range Fourier sine series is given by:
= + − 0+ 2
π n n2 n 
  1 1
6 cosnπ cos 0 f (x) = 3x = 6 sin x − sin 2x + sin 3x
= 0+ − 2 3
π n2 n2 
1 1
− sin 4x + sin 5x − · · ·
6 4 5
= (cos nπ − 1)
πn 2

When n is even, an = 0 Problem 8. Expand f (x) = cos x as a half-range

6 −12 Fourier sine series in the range 0 ≤ x ≤ π, and sketch
When n is odd, an = 2 (−1 −1) = the function within and outside of the given range.
πn πn 2
−12 −12 −12
Hence a1 = , a3 = , a5 = , and so on. When a half-range sine series is required then an
π π32 π52 odd function is implied, i.e. a function symmetrical
Hence the half-range Fourier cosine series is given by: about the origin. A graph of y = cos x is shown in
 Fig. 75.7 in the range 0 to π. For cos x to be symmetrical
3π 12 1 about the origin the function is as shown by the broken
f (x) = 3x = − cos x + 2 cos 3x
2 π 3 lines in Fig. 75.7 outside of the given range.

1
+ cos 5x + · · ·
52 f (x )

1 y 5 cos x
Problem 7. Find the half-range Fourier sine
series to represent the function f (x) = 3x in the
range 0 ≤ x ≤ π 2␲ 0 ␲ 2␲ x

21
From para. (c), for a half-range sine series:
∞
 Figure 75.7
f (x) = bn sin nx
n=1 From para. (c), for a half-range Fourier sine series:
∞

When f (x) = 3x, f (x) = bn sin nx dx

Section L
 π  π n=1
2 2
bn = f (x) sin nx dx = 3x sin nx dx
π 0 π 0
 π
π 2
6 −x cos nx sin nx bn = f (x) sin nx dx
= + by parts π 0
π n n2 0 
   2 π
6 −π cos nπ sin nπ = cos x sin nx dx
= + − (0 + 0) π
π n n2 0
 π
6 2 1
= − cos nπ = [sin(x + nx) − sin(x − nx)] dx
n π 0 2
6 π
When n is odd, bn = 1 −cos[x(1 + n)] cos[x(1 − n)]
n = +
π (1 + n) (1 − n) 0
6 6 6
Hence b1 = , b3 = , b5 = and so on.  
1 3 5 1 −cos[π(1 + n)] cos[π(1 − n)]
= +
6 π (1 + n) (1 − n)
When n is even, bn = −
n  
6 6 6 −cos 0 cos0
Hence b2 = − , b4 = − , b6 = − and so on. − +
2 4 6 (1 + n) (1 − n)
 784 Higher Engineering Mathematics

When n is odd, Now try the following Practice Exercise

 
1 −1 1
bn = +
π (1 + n) (1 − n) Practice Exercise 262 Half-range Fourier
  series (Answers on page 871)
−1 1
− + =0 1. Determine the half-range sine series for the
(1 + n) (1 − n)
function defined by:
When n is even, ⎧ π
  ⎨ x, 0 < x <
1 1 1 f (x) = 2
bn =
π
−
(1 + n) (1 − n) ⎩ 0, π < x < π
2
 
−1 1 2. Obtain (a) the half-range cosine series and
− +
(1 + n) (1 − n) (b) the half-range sine series for the function
 
1 2 2 ⎧ π
= − ⎪
⎨ 0, 0 < t <
π (1 + n) (1 − n) 2
f (t) = π
  ⎪
⎩ 1,
1 2(1 − n) − 2(1 + n) <t <π
= 2
π 1 − n2
3. Find the half-range Fourier sine series for
 
1 −4n 4n the function f (x) = sin2 x in the range
= = 0 ≤ x ≤ π. Sketch the function within and
π 1−n 2 π(n 2 − 1)
outside of the given range.
8 16 24
Hence b2 = , b4 = , b6 = and so on.
3π 15π 35π 4. Determine the half-range Fourier cosine series
Hence the half-range Fourier sine series for f (x) in the in the range x = 0 to x = π for the function
range 0 to π is given by: defined by:
8 16 ⎧ π
f (x) = sin 2x + sin 4x ⎪
⎪ 0<x <
3π 15π ⎨ x, 2
24 f (x) = π
+ sin 6x + · · · ⎪
35π ⎩ (π − x), 2 < x < π
⎪


Section L

8 1 2
or f (x)= sin 2x + sin 4x
π 3 (3)(5)

3
+ sin 6x + · · ·
(5)(7)

For fully worked solutions to each of the problems in Practice Exercises 261 and 262 in this chapter,
go to the website:
www.routledge.com/cw/bird