Quantum Computing Terms Cheat Sheet

Bit flips and phase flips

In classical computing, bit flip errors occur when a binary digit or bit
inadvertently switches from a zero to one or vice versa. Quantum
computers experience this error as well as phase flips. Both errors cause
qubits to lose their quantum state – or decoherence. Classical computers
get around this by cloning data to correct errors. However, this method
does not work in quantum computing.

Break-even
As noted above, creating logical qubits, and applying quantum error
correction codes can add errors into a quantum system. The breakeven is
the point at which the error rate that occurs after logical qubits are created
and quantum error correction cycles are applied is lower than the error
rate that exists before they are.

Codes
Once a logical qubit is formed, researchers apply codes to detect and
correct errors, which reduces noise. This is not the same as writing
software code. These are mathematical protocols or processes that help
protect quantum information. Some of the more popular quantum error
correction codes are the colour code and surface code.

Coherence
In quantum computing, coherence refers to qubits being entangled in the
quantum state necessary to complete a calculation. Maintaining this
quantum state longer is essential for running more complex calculations.

https://info.qa.com/thecyberpulse
Entanglement
Generally, it is impossible to be in two places at once - except in quantum
physics. Thanks to a phenomenon called entanglement, quantum
particles can link across large distances and share a quantum state.
Changing the state of one quantum particle automatically changes the
state of the other. Quantum computers utilize this phenomenon by
entangling qubits and then encoding them with information to run
calculations while they share a quantum state.

Fault-tolerant computing
Fault tolerance is a design principle that prevents errors from cascading
throughout a system and corrupting circuits. Today’s supercomputers are
fault-tolerant and quantum computers must be as well to handle complex
calculations.

Fidelity
Computers perform calculations by manipulating the states of bits –
changing the bits from 0s to 1s and 1s to 0s, like flipping a switch.
Quantum computers must similarly be able to manipulate qubits from 0s
to 1s, and so on. The accuracy of the calculation depends on our ability to
perform these “bit-flips” with very high success rate, or “fidelity.” Fidelity is
the measure of how often an attempted flip results in the correct qubit
state. The higher the fidelity the better.

Logical qubit
To get around these issues, researchers create “logical” qubits. A logical
qubit is a collection of entangled physical qubits on which quantum
information is distributed, stored, and protected. Logical qubits are
structured in such a way that researchers can detect errors on outlying
physical qubits known as ancillas without disrupting the qubits encoded
with information and that are running calculations.

https://info.qa.com/thecyberpulse
Magic state
The process of quantum error correction is essential to initializing and
creating what is known in quantum computing as a magic state. Magic
states are what enable quantum computers to do things or run the
complex calculations that classical computers can’t. It’s like the secret
sauce or special ingredient in a recipe except that it’s hard to define. We
can’t see it. We just know it’s there and that it is essential to quantum
computing. Yes, it’s abstract. But what is important is that applying
quantum error correction and reducing noise are necessary for creating
magic states.

Mid-circuit measurement
With this feature, qubits can be selectively measured at a point other than
the end of a quantum circuit. The quantum information of a measured
qubit collapses to a classical state (zero or one), but the non-measured
qubits retain their quantum state. Based on the measured qubit, users can
decide what actions to take further in the circuit, enabling much more
dynamic and flexible quantum computer programming than would
otherwise be possible. .

NISQ
Articles about quantum computing sometimes reference this current
phase of quantum computing as the “NISQ era.” Pronounced “nis-k,” this
acronym stands for Noisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum Computing. It
refers to near-term quantum computers on which full quantum error
correction cycles have not been applied. All commercial quantum
computers operating today are considered NISQ-era machines.

Noise
Quantum bits or qubits are the smallest unit of data in quantum
computers. Qubits are delicate and fragile and tend to interact with their
environment and one another, which creates “noise” or interference. This
noise causes errors to accumulate, corrupts information stored in and
between physical qubits, and disrupts the quantum state in which qubits
must exist to run calculations. This phenomenon is called decoherence.

https://info.qa.com/thecyberpulse
Post-processing
There are different methods of removing “noise” from quantum data. One
is called post processing where results from a quantum calculation are
compared against data from classical computers so “noise” can be
identified and removed after a computation is completed. This is a useful
technique during this early stage of quantum computing to verify and
validate calculations. But this will not be feasible as quantum computers
scale and begin tackling calculations too complex for classical computers.

Quantum error correction cycle

Quantum researchers have developed a multi-step process known as a
quantum error correction cycle to detect and correct errors and eliminate
noise as calculations are running. The QEC cycle starts with 1) measuring
what are known as syndromes to pinpoint errors; 2) sending these error
measurements to a decoder that identifies a mathematical correction; 3)
updating these syndromes and implementing corrections. Applying full
cycles of quantum error correction is tricky. This process can inject noise
into the system and applying this directly to physical qubits causes them
to lose their quantum state.

Quantum volume
Remember the old saying “you can’t judge a book by its cover?” The same
is true in quantum computing. You can’t judge a quantum computer
solely on the number of qubits it has. Other factors such as number of
operations, fidelity, and qubit connectivity also affect performance. The
Quantum Volume (QV) benchmark was developed to measure
performance in a comparable way across all quantum computing
technologies. QV is measured through a series of carefully designed tests.
The higher the quantum volume the more powerful the system.

https://info.qa.com/thecyberpulse
Qubit
In classical computing, the smallest unit of data is a binary digit or bit. A bit
is a stream of electrical pulses that each exist in either a “0”- off – or “1” -on-
position. A quantum bit or qubit is the smallest unit of data in quantum
computing. Qubits can exist as 0s and 1s simultaneously, a phenomenon
called superposition, or anything in between. This ability to be in multiple
positions at once is one of the reasons quantum computing is potentially
so powerful.

Trapped-ion technology
Honeywell Quantum Solutions developed trapped-ion quantum
technologies. These systems “trap” charged ytterbium atoms (ions) with
electromagnetic fields so they can be manipulated and encoded with
information using microwave signals and lasers.

https://info.qa.com/thecyberpulse