Proving Methods

Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Chapter 2
Proving Methods
Discrete Structure for Computing (CO1007) Contents

Proof Methods

Homeworks and
Exercises

(Materials drawn from Chapter 2 in:

“Michael Huth and Mark Ryan. Logic in Computer Science: Modelling and
Reasoning about Systems, 2nd Ed., Cambridge University Press, 2006.”)

Nguyen An Khuong, Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Faculty of Computer Science and Engineering
University of Technology, VNU-HCM
2.1
 Proving Methods
Contents
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Contents

1 Proof Methods Proof Methods

Homeworks and
Exercises

2 Homeworks and Exercises

2.2
 Proving Methods
Introduction
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Contents

Definition Proof Methods

A proof is a sequence of logical deductions from Homeworks and

Exercises
- axioms, and
- previously proved theorems
that concludes with a new theorem.

2.3
 Proving Methods
Terminology
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Contents

Proof Methods

Homeworks and
Exercises

• Theorem (định lý ) = a statement that can be shown to be

true
• Axiom (tiên đề ) = a statement we assume to be true
• Hypothesis (giả thiết) = the premises of the theorem

2.4
 Proving Methods

Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Contents

Proof Methods

Homeworks and
Exercises

• Lemma (bổ đề ) = less important theorem that is helpful in

the proofs of other results
• Corollary (hệ quả ) = a theorem that can be established
directly from a proved theorem
• Conjecture (phỏng đoán) = statement being proposed to be
true, when it is proved, it becomes theorem

2.5
 Proving Methods
Proving a Theorem
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Contents
Many theorem has the form ∀xP (x) → Q(x)
Proof Methods

Goal: Homeworks and

Exercises
• Show that P (c) → Q(c) is true with arbitrary c of the domain
• Apply universal generalization
⇒ How to show that conditional statement p → q is true.

2.6
 Proving Methods
Methods of Proof
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Contents

• Direct proofs (chứng minh trực tiếp) Proof Methods

Homeworks and
• Proof by contraposition (chứng minh phản đảo) Exercises

• Proof by contradiction (chứng minh phản chứng )

• Mathematical induction (quy nạp toán học)

2.7
 Proving Methods
Direct Proofs
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Definition
A direct proof shows that p → q is true by showing that if p is Contents

true, then q must also be true. Proof Methods

Homeworks and
Exercises
Example

Ex.: If n is an odd integer, then n2 is odd.

Pr.: Assume that n is odd. By the definition, n = 2k + 1, k ∈ Z.
n2 = (2k + 1)2 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1 = 2(2k 2 + 2k) + 1 is an odd
number.

2.8
 Proving Methods
Proof by Contraposition
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Definition
p → q can be proved by showing (directly) that its contrapositive,
¬q → ¬p, is true. Contents

Proof Methods

Homeworks and
Example Exercises

Ex.: If n is an integer and 3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd.

Pr.: Assume that “If 3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd” is false; or n is
even, so n = 2k, k ∈ Z. Substituting
3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2 = 6k + 2 = 2(3k + 1) is even. Because
the negation of the conclusion of the conditional statement
implies that the hypothesis is false, Q.E.D.

2.9
 Proving Methods
Proofs by Contradiction
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Definition
p is true if if can show that ¬p → (r ∧ ¬r) is true for some
proposition r.
Contents

Proof Methods
Example
Homeworks and
√ Exercises
Ex.: Prove that 2 is irrational.
√
Pr.: Let p is the proposition
√ “ 2 is irrational”. Suppose
√ ¬p is true,
which means 2 is rational. If so, ∃a, b ∈ Z, 2 = a/b, a, b
have no common factors. Squared, 2 = a2 /b2 , 2b2 = a2 , so
a2 is even, and a is even, too. Because of that a = 2c, c ∈ Z.
Thus, 2b2 = 4c2 , or b2 = 2c2 , which means b2 is even and so
is b. That means 2 divides both a and b, contradict with the
assumption.

2.10
 Proving Methods
Problem
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Contents

Proof Methods

Homeworks and
Exercises

Assume that we have an infinite domino string, we want to know

whether every dominoes will fall, if we only know two things:
1 We can push the first domino to fall
2 If a domino falls, the next one will be fall
We can! Mathematical induction.

2.11
 Proving Methods
Mathematical Induction
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Definition (Induction)
To prove that P (n) is true for all positive integers n, where P (n) Contents

is a propositional function, we complete two steps: Proof Methods

Homeworks and
• Basis Step: Verify that P (1) is true. Exercises

• Inductive Step: Show that the conditional statement

P (k) → P (k + 1) is true for all positive integers k
Logic form:
[P (1) ∧ ∀kP (k) → P (k + 1))] → ∀nP (n)

What is P (n) in domino string case?

2.12
 Proving Methods
Example on Induction
Nguyen An Khuong,
Example Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Show that if n is a positive integer, then

n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + ... + n = .
2
Contents

Proof Methods
Solution Homeworks and
Let P (n) be the proposition that sum of first n is n(n + 1)/2 Exercises

1(1+1)
• Basis Step: P (1) is true, because 1 = 2
• Inductive Step:
k(k+1)
Assume that 1 + 2 + . . . + k = 2
.
Then:
k(k + 1)
1 + 2 + . . . + k + (k + 1) = + (k + 1)
2
k(k + 1) + 2(k + 1)
=
2
(k + 1)(k + 2)
=
2

shows that P (k + 1) is true under the assumption that P (k) is true.

2.13
 Proving Methods
Example on Induction
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Example
Prove that n < 2n for all positive integers n.

Contents
Solution
Proof Methods
Let P (n) be the proposition that n > 2n . Homeworks and
Exercises
• Basis Step: P (1) is true, because 1 > 21 = 2
• Inductive Step:
Assume that P (k) is true for the positive k, that is, k < 2k .
Add 1 to both side of k < 2k , note that 1 ≤ 2k .

k + 1 < 2k + 1 ≤ 2k + 2k = 2 · 2k = 2k+1 .

shows that P (k + 1) is true, namely, that k + 1 < 2k+1 ,

based on the assumption that P (k) is true.

2.14
 Proving Methods
Homeworks and Exercises
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

1 Cauchy inequality on means

2 Fibonacci in Pascal’s Triangle: Prove that Fn =
C(n, 0) + C(n − 1, 1) + C(n − 2, 2) + . . . + C(dn/2e, bn/2c),
where Fn is the nth Fibonacci number, F0 = F1 = 1. Notice Contents
that if C(a, b) = 0 for b > a, we can rewrite the desired result Proof Methods
as Homeworks and
Exercises
         
n n−1 n−2 1 0
Fn = + + + ... + +
0 1 2 n−1 n

in order to have a simpler version to work with, and avoid

considerations of whether n is even or odd.
3 Solve Exercises 7-11 in Huth and Ryan’s book
4 Solve exercises in the attachment
5 Try to solve as much as possible related exercises in Rosen’s
book.

2.15