STATISTICS IN PSYCHOLOGY 5

PRESENTATION OF DATA
Before applying any statistical technique on the raw data, we must arrange and
classify the data in the systematic form. So that the statistical work become simple and easy.
This is called presentation of data.
Usually following four methods are used for the presentation of data.
(i) Classification (ii) Tabulation
(iii) Diagrammatical (iv) Graphical
CLASSIFICATION:
The process of arranging data into classes or categories according to some common
characteristics present in the data is called as classification.
OR
The process of arranging the huge amount of values into homogeneous groups or
classes is called classification.
For example, the process of sorting letters in a post office, the letters are classified according
to cities first and then arranged according to sectors and streets.
The Basis of Classification:
There are four important bases for classification of data.
(i) Qualitative base (ii) Quantitative base
(iii) Geographical base (iv) Chronological base
(i) Qualitative Base:
The classification is called Qualitative when the data are classified by qualities or
attributes such as gender, marital status, employment status, religion, beauty etc.
(ii) Quantitative Base:
The classification is called Quantitative when the data are classified by quantitative
characteristics such as heights, age, weight, distance, length, income etc.
(iii) Geographical Base:
The classification is called Geographical when the data are classified by geographical
regions or locations. For example, the population of country may be classified by provinces,
division, districts, tehsils or towns etc.
(iv) Chronological Base:
The classification is called Chronological when the data are arranged by successive
time periods. For example, the monthly sale of a departmental store, yearly enrollment of
students in M.A.O. College, hourly temperature recorded by weather bureau etc.
Types of Classification:
Some important types of classification are;
(i) One way classification. (ii) Two way classification.
(iii) Three way classification. (iv) Many way classification.
(i) One Way Classification:
When the data are classified by one characteristic, then the classification is said to be
one way.
For example, the population of country may be classified by religions as Muslims, Christians
and Sikhs.
(ii) Two Way Classification:
When the data are classified by two characteristics simultaneously (at a time), then
classification is said to be two way.

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For example, the students of Punjab University, Lahore may be classified by Age and
Height.
(iii) Three Way Classification:
When the data are classified by three characteristics simultaneously, then
classification is said to be three way.
For example, the population of city Lahore may be classified by Religion, Sex and Literacy
rate.
(iv) Many Way Classification:
When the data are classified by many characteristics simultaneously, then the
classification is said to be many way.
For example, the population of city Lahore may be classified by Religion, Sex, age, height,
Literacy rate etc.
TABULATION:
The process of systematic arrangement of data into rows and columns is called
tabulation.
Main Parts of Table and its Construction:
A statistical table has at least four major parts as;
(i) The title (ii) The box head
(iii) The stub (iv) The body of table
In addition some tables have some other minor parts as;
(v) Prefatory Note or Head Note (vi) Foot Note
(vii) Source Note
…………………………….TITLE…………………………...
(Prefatory Notes)
Column Captions (BOX HEAD)
Row Captions
STUB

......... …….. ...B O D Y… …….. ……..

Foot note………..
Source note……..
…………………………………………….
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION:
A tabular arrangement of data into classes with corresponding class frequencies is
called as frequency distribution.
Data which has classified in various categories or groups is called as Grouped data while
Data which have not been arranged in a systematic order are called Raw data or Ungrouped
data.
…………………………………………….

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Example# 1: The weights recorded to the nearest grams of 60 apples picked out at random
from a consignment are given below;
106 107 76 82 109 107 115 93 187 95
123 125 111 92 86 70 126 68 130 129
139 119 115 128 100 186 84 99 113 204
111 141 136 123 90 115 98 110 78 185
162 178 140 152 173 146 158 194 148 90
107 181 131 75 184 104 110 80 118 82
(i) Construct a grouped frequency distribution with suitable size of class interval.
(ii) Also find the class boundaries and class marks.
Solution:
(i)
Step I: Minimum value = 68 Maximum value = 204
Range = Maximum value – Minimum vale
Range = 204 – 68 = 136
Step II: Suitable number of classes = 1 + 3.3 log N
= 1 + 3.3 log (60)
= 1 + 3.3 log (1.7782)
= 1 + 5.8681
= 6.8681  7
Range 136
Step III: Class interval = h = =  20
Number of classes 7
Step IV: FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHTS OF 60 APPLES
(ii)
Weight (grams) Frequency
Tally Class marks
C − I f C − B
X
65 – 84 IIII, IIII 9 64.5 – 84.5 74.5
85 – 104 IIII, IIII 10 84.5 – 104.5 94.5
105 – 124 IIII, IIII, IIII, II 17 104.5 – 124.5 114.5
125 – 144 IIII, IIII 10 124.5 – 144.5 134.5
145 – 164 IIII 5 144.5 – 164.5 154.5
165 – 184 IIII 4 164.5 – 184.5 174.5
185 – 204 IIII 5 184.5 – 204.5 194.5
TOTAL 60
NOTE: (i) It must be noted that for finding the class boundaries, we take the half
of the difference between the lower-class limit of one class and upper-
85 − 84
class limit of the preceding class i.e., = 0.5 , then this value be
2
subtracted from lower class limit and added in upper class limit to
obtain the class boundaries.

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(ii) For finding the class marks we divide the sum of the lower and upper
65 + 84
class boundaries (or limits) by 2, i.e. = 74.5 and so on.
2
…………………………………………….
Example# 2: Construct a frequency distribution using a class interval of 0.5 from the
following data representing the lives of 40 similar car batteries recorded to the nearest tenth
of a year. The batteries were guaranteed to last three years. Also make the class boundaries
and class marks.
2.6 2.2 4.1 3.5 4.5 3.2 3.7 3.0 3.7 3.4
1.6 3.1 3.3 3.8 3.1 4.7 3.1 2.5 4.3 3.4
3.6 2.9 3.3 3.9 3.4 3.3 3.1 3.7 4.4 3.2
4.1 1.9 3.5 4.7 3.8 3.2 2.6 3.9 3.0 4.2
Solution: Given h = 0.5
Step I Minimum value = 1.6 Maximum value = 4.7

Step II FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF BATTERY LIVES

C − I Tally f C − B X
1.5 – 1.9 II 2 1.45 – 1.95 1.7
2.0 – 2.4 I 1 1.95 – 2.45 2.2
2.5 – 2.9 IIII 4 2.45 – 2.95 2.7
3.0 – 3.4 IIII, IIII, IIII 15 2.95 – 3.45 3.2
3.5 – 3.9 IIII, IIII 10 3.45 – 3.95 3.7
4.0 – 4.4 IIII 5 3.95 – 4.45 4.2
4.5 – 4.9 III 3 4.45 – 4.95 4.7
TOTAL 40
…………………………………………….
Example# 3: The marks received by 50 students in an examination are given below;
104 121 166 75 65 149 59 81 114 122
159 153 136 119 147 131 168 69 57 81
109 118 143 94 158 191 79 76 150 89
92 156 179 73 93 139 85 105 138 109
102 165 95 142 81 103 88 89 106 82
(a) Make a frequency distribution taking a suitable class interval.
(b) Also make the class boundaries and class marks.
Example# 4: The following table shows percentage returns over five years of 55 corporate
bond funds. Construct a frequency distribution of the percentage returns using appropriate
class interval;
78.3 83.1 57.5 98.1 78.2 78.6 83.6 85.6 93.4
71.5 88.3 97.1 99.7 83.5 63.8 96.8 75.4 79.2
77.4 83.8 63.0 69.5 75.6 92.3 94.4 95.5 93.7
81.7 92.0 81.5 62.6 46.9 73.8 92.3 69.0 82.7
88.3 83.2 85.3 82.1 84.2 86.3 79.6 90.3 77.6
94.3 83.6 83.4 74.2 94.7 90.4 121.3 86.5 77.5
86.4
D.Y.S.

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Example# 5: The following table shows the weights recorded to nearest pound of 40
students at a university.
138 164 150 132 144 125 149 157 161 145
146 158 140 147 136 148 152 144 150 156
168 126 138 176 163 119 154 165 135 142
146 173 142 147 135 153 140 135 145 128
(a) Tabulate the data into a frequency distribution taking a class interval of size 9.
(b) Make a relative frequency (R.f.), percentage relative and cumulative frequency
(c.f.) distribution.

Solution: (a) Given h = 9

Step I
Minimum value = 119 Maximum value = 176

Step II

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION (b)

f Percentage relative
R.f. =
C − I Tally f f f C. f.
freq. =  100
f
118 – 126 III 3 0.075 7.5%  8% 3
127 – 135 5 0.125 12.5%  12% 8
136 – 144 , IIII 9 0.225 22.5% = 23% 17
145 – 153 , , II 12 0.30 30% 29
154 – 162 5 0.125 12.5%  12 34
163 – 171 IIII 4 0.100 10% 38
172 – 180 II 2 0.05 5% 40
TOTAL: 40 1.00 100
…………………………………………….
Example# 6: The data given below shows the diameter in inches of ball bearings
manufactured by a company;
73.1 78.3 56.6 78.5 84.9 74.7 63.1 73.8 74.7 70.8
84.2 84.1 80.1 86.4 66.9 64.2 61.3 58.4 67.8 78.0
64.5 84.0 71.2 56.3 74.2 72.4 83.4 94.2 58.2 70.4
84.6 77.2 93.7 82.1 39.3 74.6 84.7 72.1 72.0 54.1
48.1 78.1 64.2 94.0 78.3 66.0 77.5 71.5 70.4 51.0
Prepare a frequency distribution using the following groups 35 – 39.9, 40 – 44.9, ………..
Also make class boundaries and class marks.

Solution: Minimum value = 39.3 Maximum value = 94.2

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STATISTICS IN PSYCHOLOGY 10

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF DIAMERTER IN INCHES

C − I Tally f C − B X
35 – 39.9 I 1 34.95 – 39.95 37.45
40 – 44.9 - - 39.95 – 44.95 42.45
45 – 49.9 I 1 44.95 – 49.95 47.45
50 – 54.9 II 2 49.95 – 54.95 52.45
55 – 59.9 IIII 4 54.95 – 59.95 57.45
60 – 64.9 IIII 5 59.95 – 64.95 62.45
65 – 69.9 III 3 64.95 – 69.95 67.45
70 – 74.9 IIII, IIII, IIII 14 69.95 – 74.95 72.45
75 – 79.9 IIII, II 7 74.95 – 79.95 77.45
80 – 84.9 IIII, IIII 9 79.95 – 84.95 82.45
85 – 89.9 I 1 84.95 – 89.95 87.45
90 – 94.9 III 3 89.95 – 94.95 92.45
TOTAL 50
…………………………………………….
Example# 7: The following are the lengths of 20 maize plants recorded to the nearest inch.
Construct a frequency distribution taking classes as 118 – 123, 124 – 129,………,
172 – 177.
132 140 152 144 126 176 119 154 165 138
150 128 150 142 135 145 135 140 147 142
Example# 8: The data given below shows the diameters in inches of ball bearings
manufactured by a company;
64.5 84.2 73.1 74.7 64.2 84.6 74.6 72.4 41.0
63.1 48.1 66.0 78.3 83.4 84.0 61.3 77.5 84.7
77.2 78.1 73.8 56.6 58.4 80.1 64.2 78.5 74.7
71.5 72.1 94.2 71.2 93.7 58.2 72.0 82.1 44.3
94.0 86.4 67.8 56.3 70.4 54.1 39.3 78.0 74.2
84.9 70.8 66.9 51.0 78.3
(a) Prepare a frequency distribution using the following classes 35.0 – 39.9, 40.0
– 44.9, 45.0 – 49.9, ……….
(b) Also make class boundaries.
Example# 9: the following data represent the length of life in minutes, measured to the
nearest tenth, of a random sample of 50 black flies subjected to a new spray in a
controlled laboratory experiment. Make a frequency distribution taking class interval
of 0.8 with the lowest starting at 0.1;
2.4 0.7 3.9 2.8 1.3 1.6 2.9 2.6 3.7 2.1
3.2 3.5 1.8 3.1 0.3 4.6 0.9 3.4 2.3 2.5
0.4 2.1 2.3 1.5 4.3 1.8 2.4 1.3 2.6 1.8
2.7 0.4 2.8 3.5 1.4 1.7 3.9 1.1 5.9 2.0
5.3 6.3 0.2 2.0 1.9 1.2 2.5 2.1 1.2 1.7
D.Y.S.
…………………………………………….

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STATISTICS IN PSYCHOLOGY 11

DISCRETE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION:

In case of a discrete data, the repeated observations are written once with the number
of times it occurs in a tabular form in ascending order, is known as discrete frequency
distribution. The number of observations is denoted by “X” and the number of times it occurs
i.e. frequency is denoted by “f”.
…………………………………………….
Example# 10: The following are the number of flowers on different branches of a tree. Make
a frequency distribution taking a class interval of size one.
2 4 6 1 3 3 5 7 8 6 4 7 6 4 4
2 1 5 0 1 5 9 9 10 3 4 6 2 5 7
9 6 1 2 10 4 0 9 2 3 1 8 4 10 1
1 2 2 2 3 4 4 4 6 6 5 5 4 5 3
3 2 1 8 6 9
Solution: Minimum value = 0 Maximum value = 10
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF THE NUMBER OF FLOWERS
Number of Flower No. of Branches
Tally
X f
0 II 2
1 IIII, III 8
2 IIII, IIII 9
3 IIII, II 7
4 IIII, IIII, I 11
5 IIII, II 7
6 IIII, III 8
7 III 3
8 III 3
9 IIII 5
10 III 3
TOTAL 66
…………………………………………….
Example# 11: The following are the number of flowers on different branches of a tree. Make
a discrete frequency distribution.
2 4 6 1 3 3 5 7 8 6 4 7
6 4 4 2 1 5 0 5 9 9 10 3
6 4 2 5 7 9 6 1 2 10 4 8
9 2 3 1 0 4 10 1 1 2 2 2
3 4 4 4 6 6 7 7 4 5 8 5
4 3 3 2 1 8 6 9 10 10
Example# 12: The following figures give the number of children born to 50 women;
2 6 1 5 4 3 3 8 3 1
4 3 3 0 5 2 1 4 3 3
5 3 3 6 3 3 2 2 7 3
1 4 2 4 4 4 6 8 10 7
7 5 6 5 3 2 3 9 2 2
Construct an ungrouped frequency distribution of these data taking a class interval
one. D.Y.S.
…………………………………………….

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STATISTICS IN PSYCHOLOGY 12

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION:
The numerical facts and figures as such do not catch our attention unless they are
presented in an interesting way. Graphical representation of data is one of the most
commonly used method of presentation. Graphical representation of data may be defined as
“A visual display of statistical data in the form of points, lines, areas and other geometrical
forms and symbols”.
Graphs cannot only be made attractive, but they are also easy to comprehend and do
not take much time to read.
The advantages of graphical representations of data are as; it makes the reading more
interesting, less time consuming and easily understandable. The disadvantage of graphical
representation is that it gives lack details and is less accurate.
Graphical representation can be divided into two main groups as diagrams and
graphs.
DIAGRAMS OR CHARTS:
A diagram is any one, two or three-dimensional form of graphical representation. The
commonly used diagrams or charts are as;
(i) Simple Bar Chart (ii) Multiple Bar Chart
(iii) Component Bar Chart or Sub-divided Bar Chart
(iv) Percentage Component Bar Chart
(v) Pictogram (vi) Pie chart
(i) Simple Bar Chart or Diagram:
Simple Bar Chart is used to represent the data having a single variable. The vertical or
horizontal bars are made to represent the data when the difference between different
quantities is usually small. The width of the bars always uniform and has no significance. The
length of the bars is proportional to the size of quantities. The space between the bars should
not be more than the width of bars and should not be less than half of its width. The vertical
bars are used to represent time series or quantitative data while horizontal bars are used to
represent qualitative or geographical data. A data which do not belong to time should be
arranged in ascending or descending order before drawing chart.
Example# 13: The following table shows the production of wheat in Pakistan during the year
2001 to 2006. Represent the data by a Simple Bar Chart.
Years 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Production (Lakh tons) 64 68 73 75 71 81
Solution:
SIMPLE BAR CHART SHOWING PRODUCTION OF WHEAT IN PAKISTAN FOR
THE YEARS 2001 TO 2006

100

80
Production

60

40

20

0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Years

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STATISTICS IN PSYCHOLOGY 13

Example# 14: Represent the following information by Simple Bar Chart;

Years 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Students 1140 1300 1210 1299 1330
D.Y.S.
…………………………………………….
(ii) Multiple Bar Chart or Diagram:
A Multiple Bar Chart indicates two or more characteristics corresponding to the
values of a common variable in the form of grouped bars. Simply it is extension of Simple
Bar Chart and used for comparison between more than one phenomena. In Multiple Bar
Chart, grouped bars are used to represent related set of data e.g. imports and exports etc. One
set of bar is distinguished from the other by suitable space and different colors, shades or dots
are used to separate different phenomena. To understand the different bars key must be used.
…………………………………………….
Example# 15: The following data gives the imports and exports of Pakistan for the years
1970 to 1974. Represent the data by a Multiple Bar Chart.
Imports Exports
Years
(Corer of Rs.) (Corer of Rs.)
1970 370 200
1971 350 337
1972 840 855
1973 1483 1016
1974 2092 1029

Solution:
MULTIPLE BAR CHART SHOWING IMPORTS & EXPORTS OF PAKISTAN FROM
1970 TO 1970

…………………………………………….
Example# 16: Draw a Multiple Bar Chart to represent the male and females’ population from
the following data;

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STATISTICS IN PSYCHOLOGY 14

Years Male Females

2001 40,000 38,000
2002 35,000 45,000
2003 20,000 25,000
2004 23,000 27,000
Example# 17: Represent, the distribution of the students in first year class in a certain college
for the five years is given below, by the Multiple Bar Chart.

Years Science Arts Commerce

2000 – 2001 300 450 350
2001 – 2002 350 600 400
2002 – 2003 400 650 500
2003 – 2004 500 750 550
2004 – 2005 600 800 650
D.Y.S.
…………………………………………….
(iii) Component Bar Chart or Sub-divided Bar Chart:
A component Bar Chart is a method in which each bar is sub-divided into two or more
sections having different shading, proportional in size to the components parts of a total. Each
bar represent the total of the some components and each component is shown as proportional
section of the bar. The bars are separated by suitable space between them.
…………………………………………….
Example# 18:The following table gives the value added in the Agriculture Sector of Pakistan
for the years 2001 to 2005. Represent the data by a Component Bar Chart.
Years Major Crops Minor Crops Others Total
2001 1007 241 545 1793
2002 1235 283 672 2190
2003 1533 378 897 2808
2004 1827 490 1047 3364
2005 2072 569 1218 3859
Solution:

…………………………………………….

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STATISTICS IN PSYCHOLOGY 15

Example# 19: The table given below shows the quantity in hundreds of kilograms of Wheat,
Barley and Oats produced on a certain farm during the year 1971 to 1974. Construct a
Component Bar Chart to illustrate these data.
Years Wheat Barley Oats
1971 34 18 27
1972 43 14 24
1973 43 16 27
1974 45 13 34
Example# 20: Draw a Component Bar Chart for the following population (in Lakh) of Male
and Female in different cities of Pakistan.
Division Both Sexes Male Female
Peshawar 64 33 31
Rawalpindi 40 21 19
Sargodha 60 32 28
Lahore 65 35 30
D.Y.S.
…………………………………………….
(iv) Percentage Component Bar Chart or Percentage Sub-divided Bar Chart:
Component Bar Chart may also be drawn on percentage basis. The given components
are expressed in percentages of their respective totals. To draw the Percentage Component
Bar Chart, firstly bars of length equal to 100 are drawn for each class and then sub-divided
according to the proportion of the percentages of their components. Percentage Component
Bar Chart is also known as Percentage Staked Bar Chart.
…………………………………………….
Example# 21: The prices (in rupees) of different commodities from the Year 2001 to 2004
are given below. Represent the following data by a Percentage Component Bar Chart.
Years Wheat Rice Ghee Total
2001 800 3000 6500 10300
2002 1000 3200 6800 11000
2003 1150 3500 7000 11650
2004 1200 3800 7150 12150
Solution:
Years Ghee Rice Wheat Total
800
2001  100 = 7.8% 29.1% 63.1% 100%
10300
1000
2002  100 = 9.1% 29.1% 61.8% 100%
11000
1150
2003  100 = 9.9% 30.0% 60.1% 100%
11650
1200
2004  100 = 9.9% 31.3% 58.8% 100%
12150

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Example# 22: The following table gives the value added (in Crore) in the Agriculture Sector
of Pakistan. Draw Percentage Component Bar Chart to represent the data. (D.Y.S.)
Major Minor
Years Others Total
Crops Crops
1972-73 1235 283 672 2190
1973-74 1533 378 897 2808
1974-75 1827 490 1047 3364
1975-76 2072 569 1218 3859
(D.Y.S.)
…………………………………………….
iv) Pictogram:
A Pictogram is a chart that uses pictures or symbols to represent data so you don’t
have to look at lots of numbers.
You have to read Pictograms carefully so you understand what the symbols mean.
All Pictograms should have a key. A key shows you what each symbol represents.
Example# 23: Take a look at this pictogram. It shows how many cars a salesman sold during
a week.

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(v) Pie Chart:

Pie Chart has the same function as sub-divided rectangular chart. The only difference
between them is that “in Pie Chart the circles are used instead of rectangles”. A Pie Chart is
consisting of a circle divided into different sectors or pie shaped pieces whose areas are
proportional to the various parts into which whole quantity is divided. The sectors are shaded
differently to show the relationship of parts with the whole. A pie Chart is also known as
Sector Diagram.
To construct the Pie Chart, draw a circle of any convenient radius. The whole quantity
to be displayed is equal to 360 because a total angle of circle is 3600. So the angles for each
component are calculated and these angles are used to show different components. The angles
are calculated by the following formula;
Component part
Angle =  3600
Whole Quantity
Then divide the circles into different sectors by constructing angles at the center with
the help of a protractor.
…………………………………………….
Example# 24: The following table gives expenditures in rupees of a Family on different
commodities or items. Represent the data by a Pie Chart.

Items Expenditure in Rs.

Food 190
Clothing 64
Rent 100
Medical Care 46
Other items 80
Solution:
Expenditure
Items Angles of the Sectors
in Rs.
190
Food 190  360 = 142.50
480
64
Clothing 64  360 = 480
480
100
Rent 100  360 = 750
480
46
Medical Care 46  360 = 34.50
480
80
Other items 80  360 = 600
480
TOTAL 480 3600

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STATISTICS IN PSYCHOLOGY 18

PIE CHART SHOWING EXPENDITURES IN RUPEES OF DIFFERENT

COMMODITIES OF A FAMILY

…………………………………………….
Example# 25: The areas of the various Continents/countries of the world in millions of
square kilometers are given below. Prepare a Pie Chart of the data given below;
Continent/C

U.S.S.R.
America

America
Oceania
ountry

Europe
Africa

South
North
Asia

Area 30.3 26.9

24.3 4.9
8.5 17.9 20.5
D.Y.S.
…………………………………………….
GRAPHS:
Diagrams fail to represent a statistical series spread over a time, or a frequency
distribution, or two related variables in visual form. So Graphs are used for such
representations.
A Graph consists of a straight line or a curve and presents the data in a simple and
effective manner. Graphs are used to make comparison between two or more than two
statistical series. Sometime Graphs may also be used to make predication and forecasts.
Some Important Rules for drawing Graphs:
For the construction of graphs, the following points should be kept in mind.
(i) Every graph must have a comprehensive title.
(ii) A suitable scale and the form of representation is to be selected for the true
impression of the data, is given by the graph.
(iii) The source of data, key and footnote should be given when necessary.
(iv) The independent variable & time variable should always be marked along X-axis
(horizontal axis) and the dependent variable along the Y-axis (vertical axis).
(v) The Y-axis should always start from zero. If first value of the data is very large, a
scale break should be shown between zero and the next number.
(vi) The X-axis does not have to begin with zero unless the independent variable or the
lower limit of the first class interval is zero.
(vii) If two or more data are presented on the same graph, the corresponding curves should
be clearly distinguished by different colors or lines.

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STATISTICS IN PSYCHOLOGY 19

(viii) The graph should not be marked with too many curves
GRAPHS OF FREQUNCY DISTRIBUTION:
The important graphs of frequency distributions are;
(i) Histogram (ii) Frequency Polygon
(iii) Frequency Curve (iv) Cumulative frequency Curve or Ogive.
(i) Histogram:
A Histogram consists of a set of adjacent rectangles in which class boundaries are
marked along X-axis and frequencies are taken on Y-axis. When the class intervals are equal
then the rectangles all have the same width and the heights of rectangles are directly
proportional to the respective class frequencies. If the class intervals are not equal, then the
heights of the rectangles have to be adjusted accordingly. To adjust the heights of the
rectangles in frequency distributions, each class frequency is divided by its class interval size.
…………………………………………….
Example# 26: Construct Histogram for the following frequency distribution.

Classes 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44

f 4 12 25 30 25 15 6
Solution:

C–B 9.5-14.5 14.5-19.5 19.5-24.5 24.5-29.5 29.5-34.5 34.5-39.5 39.5-44.5

f 4 12 25 30 25 15 6

HISTOGRAM

…………………………………………….
Example# 27: Construct Histogram for the following frequency distribution.
Classes 10-11 12-14 15-19 20-29 30-34 35-39 40-42
f 4 12 25 60 25 15 6

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STATISTICS IN PSYCHOLOGY 20

Solution:
Class Interval Adjusted
C–I frequency C–B
Size frequency
4
10 – 11 4 9.5 – 11.5 2 =2
2
12
12 – 14 12 11.5 – 14.5 3 =4
3
25
15 – 19 25 14.5 – 19.5 5 =5
5
60
20 – 29 60 19.5 – 29.5 10 =6
10
25
30 – 34 25 29.5 – 34.5 5 =5
5
15
35 – 39 15 34.5 – 39.5 5 =3
5
6
40 – 42 6 39.5 – 42.5 3 =2
3

HISTOGRAM FOR UN-EQUAL CLASS INTERVALS

…………………………………………….
Example# 28: Draw a Histogram to illustrate the following data;
Age nearest
birth day

20 – 24

25 – 29

30 – 39

40 – 44

45 – 49

50 – 54

55 – 64

Number
1 2 26 22 20 15 14
of men
Example# 29: Draw a Histogram, frequency polygon and Cumulative frequency polygon of
the following distribution;

SUBJECT CODE: APSY-357

STATISTICS IN PSYCHOLOGY 21

105 – 124

125 – 144

145 – 164

165 – 184

185 – 204
85 – 104
Classes

65 – 84
frequency 9 10 17 10 5 4 5
Example# 30: Draw a Histogram and frequency polygon from the following data;

Weight 122 131 140 149 158 167 176

Frequency 3 5 9 12 5 4 2
D.Y.S.
…………………………………………….
(ii) Frequency Polygon:
A second useful way of presenting a frequency distribution in graphic form is
frequency polygon. A frequency polygon is a line graph obtained by plotting class
frequencies against class marks and then joining the consecutive points by a straight line. A
frequency polygon can also be obtained by joining the mid points of the tops of the rectangles
in the Histogram. The ends of the graphs do not meet the X-axis. Because a polygon is a
many sided closed figure, we, therefore, add extra classes on both ends of the frequency
distribution with zero frequencies. In this way we get the frequency polygon.
We used frequency polygon instead of Histogram, when two frequency distributions
are to be compared.
A frequency polygon gives rough idea about the mode, skewness and kurtosis of the
curve.
…………………………………………….
Example# 31: Draw a frequency polygon for the following frequency distribution.
Classes 60-62 63-65 66-68 69-71 72-74 75-77 78-80
f 4 9 14 18 12 7 3
Solution:
C – B 59.5-62.5 62.5-65.5 65.5-68.5 68.5-71.5 71.5-74.5 74.5-77.5 77.5-80.5
f 4 9 14 18 12 7 3
X 61 64 67 70 73 76 79

FREQUENCY POLYGON

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STATISTICS IN PSYCHOLOGY 22

Alternative Method
FREQUENCY POLYGON

…………………………………………….
(iii) Frequency Curve:
If the curve of the frequency polygon is smoothed, it is called as frequency curve or if
in the frequency polygon, the plotted points are joined by a freehand drawing method instead
of joined by a straight line, we get the frequency curve. A frequency curve should not touch
the X-axis.
Example# 32: Draw a frequency polygon for the following frequency distribution.
Classes 60-62 63-65 66-68 69-71 72-74 75-77 78-80
f 4 9 14 18 12 7 3
Solution:
C – I 60-62 63-65 66-68 69-71 72-74 75-77 78-80
f 4 9 14 18 12 7 3
X 61 64 67 70 73 76 79

FREQUENCY CURVE

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STATISTICS IN PSYCHOLOGY 23

Cumulative frequency polygon or Ogive:

A cumulative frequency polygon also known as Ogive is a graph obtained by plotting
the cumulated frequencies of a distribution against the upper or lower class boundaries and
then the points are joined by straight line segments.
The graph corresponding to a “less than” and or “more than” cumulative frequency
distribution are called “less than” and or “more than” Ogives respectively. A smoothed Ogive
is called an Ogive Curve, which is often used to locate the values of median, quartiles,
deciles, percentiles etc. of a frequency distribution.
…………………………………………….
Example# 33: Draw a “less than” cumulative frequency polygon from the following data.

Age 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54

f 1 2 26 22 20 15 14
Solution:
Age Less than Class
f C–B c.f
C–B Boundaries
- - - Less than 19.5 0
20 – 24 1 19.5 – 24.5 Less than 24.5 1
25 – 29 2 24.5 – 29.5 Less than 29.5 3
30 – 34 26 29.5 – 34.5 Less than 34.5 29
35 – 39 22 34.5 – 39.5 Less than 39.5 51
40 – 44 20 39.5 – 44.5 Less than 44.5 71
45 – 49 15 44.5 – 49.5 Less than 49.5 86
50 – 54 14 49.5 – 54.5 Less than 54.5 100
TOTAL 100 - - -

“LESS THAN” TYPE CUMULATIVE FREQNEUCY POLYGON

…………………………………………….
Example# 34: Draw a “more than” cumulative frequency polygon from the following data.
Age 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54
f 1 2 26 22 20 15 14

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STATISTICS IN PSYCHOLOGY 24

Solution:
Age More than Class
f C–B c.f
C–B Boundaries
- - - More than 19.5 100
20 – 24 1 19.5 – 24.5 More than 24.5 100-1=99
25 – 29 2 24.5 – 29.5 More than 29.5 99-2=97
30 – 34 26 29.5 – 34.5 More than 34.5 97-26=71
35 – 39 22 34.5 – 39.5 More than 39.5 71-22=49
40 – 44 20 39.5 – 44.5 More than 44.5 49-20=29
45 – 49 15 44.5 – 49.5 More than 49.5 29-15=14
50 – 54 14 49.5 – 54.5 More than 54.5 14-14=0
TOTAL 100 - - -

“MORE THAN” TYPE CUMULATIVE FREQNEUCY POLYGON

HISTOGRAM FOR DISCRETE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION:

Example# 35: Make a Histogram from the following discrete frequency distribution.
Number of flowers 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of branches 2 8 9 7 11 7 8 3 3 5 3
Solution:

…………………………………………….

SUBJECT CODE: APSY-357

STATISTICS IN PSYCHOLOGY 25

TYPES OF FREQUENCY CURVE:

(i) The symmetrical Distributions

(ii) The Moderately Skewed or Asymmetrical Distributions:

(iii) The Extremely Skewed or J-shaped Distributions:

(iv) The U-shaped Distributions:

…………………………………………….

SUBJECT CODE: APSY-357

STATISTICS IN PSYCHOLOGY 26

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

► Each statement has four possible answers. Tick () the correct answer;
(i) The process of arranging the huge amount of observations into homogeneous classes
is called;
(a) Tabulation (b) Classification
(c) Frequency distribution (d) None of these.
(ii) There are__________ important bases of classification;
(a) Three (b) Six (c) Five (d) Four
(iii) Data classified by qualities or attributes is called;
(a) Quantitative data (b) Geographical data
(c) Qualitative data (d) None of these
(iv) Data classified by three characteristics at a time is called;
(a) One-way classification
(b) Two-way classification
(c) Three-way classification
(d) Many fold classification
(v) The process of systematic arrangement of data into rows and columns is called;
(a) Classification (b) Tabulation
(c) Frequency distribution (d) None of these.
(vi) Data classified by quantities is called;
(a) Quantitative data (b) Geographical data
(c) Qualitative data (d) None of these
(vii) Data classified by two characteristics at a time is called;
(a) One-way classification
(b) Two-way classification
(c) Three-way classification
(d) Many fold classification
(viii) When the data are arranged by successive time periods, is called;
(a) Geographical data (b) Chronological data
(c) Qualitative data (d) None of these
(ix) The population of city Lahore may be classified by Religion, Sex, age, height,
Literacy rate is an example of;
(a) One-way classification
(b) Two-way classification
(c) Three-way classification
(d) Many fold classification
(x) Data classified by geographical locations is called as;
(a) Quantitative data (b) Geographical data
(c) Qualitative data (d) None of these.
(xi) Tabulation of data with two criterion of classification simultaneously is called;
(a) Single Tabulation (b) Double Tabulation
(c) Manifold Tabulation (d) None of these

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STATISTICS IN PSYCHOLOGY 27

(xii) A statistical table has at least;

(a) Six parts (b) Four parts
(c) Three parts (d) Two parts
(xiii) A heading written in capital letters at the top of the table which describes the material
of table is called;
(a) Stub (b) Box head
(c) Column caption (d) Title
(xiv) The heading of each column is called as;
(a) Stub (b) Row caption
(c) Column caption (d) Title
(xv) The portion of the table containing row captions is called;
(a) Title (b) Column caption
(c) Stub (d) None of these.
(xvi) The portion of the table containing column captions is called;
(a) Box head (b) Stub
(c) Prefatory note (d) Title
(xvii) The part of the table which contains the numerical information classified with respect
to row and column captions;
(a) Stub (b) Body
(c) Foot note (d) None of these.
(xviii) A tabular arrangement of data into classes with corresponding class frequencies is
called as;
(a) Frequency distribution (b) Relative frequency
(c) Ungrouped data (d) None of these.
(xix) The number of observations falling in a particular class is called as;
(a) Class Mark (b) Frequency
(c) Class interval size (d) Mid-point
(xx) Data which have not been arranged in a systematic order are called as;
(a) Ungrouped data (b) Grouped data
(c) Array data (d) None of these
(xxi) A median of each class “which is obtained by dividing the sum of the lower and upper
class boundaries (or class limits) by 2” is called:
(a) Class mark (b) Mid-point
(c) Class interval size (d) Both “a” & “b”
(xxii) The difference between the upper and lower class boundary of a class is called as;
(a) Class mark (b) class interval size
(c) Mid-point (d) None of these
(xxiii) If the given classes are 65 – 84, 85 – 104, 105 – 124,……,then the class interval size
is;
(a) 20 (b) 19 (c) 25 (d) 30
(xxiv) If the frequency of a class is divided by the total frequency then it is called;
(a) Cumulative frequency (b) Relative frequency
(c) Frequency (d) None of these.

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STATISTICS IN PSYCHOLOGY 28

(xxv) The cumulative frequency of the last class in less than cumulative frequency
distribution is always equal to;
(a) 100 (b) f
(c) 1 (d) Mean
(xxvi) The sum of the relative frequency is always equal to;
(a) 1 (b) f
(c) 100 (d) None of these
(xxvii) Simple Bar chart is used to represent the data having;
(a) Two variables (b) Single variable
(c) Three variables (d) None of these
(xxviii) A _________ indicates two or more characteristics corresponding to the values of a
common variable in the form of group;
(a) Multiple bar chart (b) Simple bar chart
(c) Component bar chart (d) None of these
(xxix) To draw the ________________, bars of length equal to 100 are drawn for each class
(a) Multiple bar chart
(b) Simple bar chart
(c) Percentage Component bar chart
(d) None of these
(xxx) Total angle of Pie Chart is;
(a) 1800 (b) 3600
(c) 3000 (d) 900
(xxxi) The graph of frequency distribution is called as;
(a) Histogram (b) Historigram
(c) Ogive (d) None of these
(xxxii) A graph of the cumulative frequency distribution is called;
(a) Histogram (b) Historigram
(c) Ogive (d) None of these
(xxxiii) The graph obtained by joining the mid-points at the tops of the adjacent rectangles in
the Histogram is called as;
(a) Frequency polygon (b) Historigram
(c) Ogive (d) None of these
(xxxiv) In case of paired observations, the classification of data in tabular form is known as a;
(a) Uni-variate frequency distribution
(b) Multivariate frequency distribution
(c) Bivariate frequency distribution
(d) None of these
(xxxv) If in a frequency distribution, the lower limit of first class or the upper limit of last
class is not fixed, then it is called;
(a) Closed ended frequency distribution
(b) Open ended frequency distribution
(c) Range
(d) None of these

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STATISTICS IN PSYCHOLOGY 29

ANSWERS
Q# Answer Q# Answer Q# Answer
i b xiii d xxv b
ii d xiv c xxvi a
iii c xv c xxvii b
iv c xvi a xxviii a
v b xvii b xxix c
vi a xviii a xxx b
vii b xix b xxxi a
viii b xx a xxxii c
ix d xxi d xxxiii a
x b xxii b xxxiv c
xi b xxiii a xxxv b
xii b xxiv b

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SUBJECT CODE: APSY-357