PERI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY (AUTONOMOUS)

Department of Science and Humanities

PHYSICS LABORATORY

SEMESTER-I

Name of the student:

Registration number:

Branch :

Year :
 SEMESTER I
(2024 – 2025)

PHYSICS LABORATORY

Register No. ______________________________

Certified that this is a bonafide observation of work done by

___________________________________ of _________ year / semester ______________ Branch

for the year Academic Year 2024 - 2025 .

Staff In charge Head of the Department

24CS03103 PHYSICS LABORATORY L T P C

0 0 2 2
OBJECTIVES
To make the student conversant with the
❖ To learn the proper use of various kinds of physics laboratory equipment
❖ To learn how data can be collected, presented and interpreted in a clear and concise manner
❖ To learn problem solving skills related to physics principles and interpretation of
experimental data.
❖ To determine error in experimental measurements and techniques used to minimize such
error.
❖ To make the student an active participant in each part of all lab exercises.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS (Any Seven Only)
1. Determination of Rigidity Modulus – Torsion Pendulum.
2. Determination of Young’s Modulus by Non – Uniform bending method.
3. Simple harmonic oscillations of cantilever.
4. Determination of Young’s Modulus by Uniform bending method
5. Determination of viscosity of the given liquid using Poiseuille‟s method.
6. Determination of Thermal conductivity of a bad conductor – Lee’s Disc method.
7. Determination of Velocity of ultrasound and compressibility of given liquid – Ultrasonic
interferometer.
8. a) Optical fibre -Determination of Numerical Aperture and acceptance angle
b) Compact disc- Determination of width of the groove using laser.
9. Determination of thickness of a thin wire – Air wedge method.
10. Determination of the wavelength of Laser and using grating.
11. Post office box -Determination of Band gap of a semiconductor.
12. Experiment with lattice dynamics kit.
TEXT BOOKS
1. Engineering Physics Lab Manual by Dr.Y. Aparna & Dr.K.Venkateswarao (V.G.S.Book
links).
2. Physics Practical Manual, Lorven Publications
3. S. Balasubramanian , M.N. Srinivasan “ A Text book of Practical Physics”- S Chand
Publishers, 2017.
COURSE OUTCOMES
Upon completion of the course, students will be able to
CO1 - Understand the functioning of various physics laboratory equipment.
CO2 - Use graphical models to analyze laboratory data.
CO3 - Use mathematical models as a medium for quantitative reasoning and describing physical
reality.
CO4 - Access, process and analyze scientific information.
CO5 - Solve problems individually and collaboratively.
 CONTENTS

S. No EXPERIMENTS

1 Torsional pendulum – Determination of rigidity modulus of wire

and moment of inertia of regular objects

2 Uniform bending method- Determination of Young’s modulus

3 Non-uniform bending method- Determination of Young’s

modulus

4 Laser-Determination of wavelength of the laser using grating

5 Air wedge-Determination of thickness of a thin wire/sheet

6 Ultrasonic interferometer – Determination of the velocity of

sound and compressibility of liquids

7 Optical fibre - Determination of Numerical Aperture and

Acceptance angle
Compact Disc - Determination of width of the groove using
Laser
 PHYSICS LABORATORY

CONTENTS

S. Page Marks
Date Name of the Experiments Sign.
No No. Obtained

7
L

Fig.1.1. Torsional Pendulum

To find the time period of oscillations

Length of suspension wire L = ............ x 10-2 m

Time for 10 oscillations

Position of equal masses Time period
for 1
Trial 1 Trail 2 Mean oscillation

Second second second Second

Without masses To =

Masses at closest
distance.
d1 = ………….. x 10-2 m T1 =

Masses at maximum
distance.
d2 =…........ ……x 10-2 m T2 =
Expt.No. R

Date : TORSIONAL PENDULUM

AIM

To determine the rigidity modulus of wire and moment of inertia of regular given
disc by using Torsional pendulum.

APPARATUS

Torsional pendulum, Stop clock, Meter scale, Two symmetrical mass, Screw gauge.

FORMULA

−
Moment of inertia of the circular disc, I = kgm2
−

Rigidity modulus of the material of the wire, Ƞ= Nm- 2

Symbol Explanation Unit

I Moment of inertia of the disc kgm2

M mass of one cylinder placed on the disc Kg

Closest distance ( minimum) between suspension wire and the centre
d1 m
of mass of the cylinder

Farthest distance ( maximum) between suspension wire and the

d2 m
centre of mass of the cylinder

T0 Period of oscillation without any mass on the disc Sec

Period of oscillation when equal masses are placed on the disc at a
T1 Sec
distance d1

Period of oscillation when equal masses are placed on the disc at a

T2 Sec
distance d2

Ƞ Rigidity modulus of the material of the wire Nm- 2

L length of the suspension wire m

r Radius of the wire m
L
LEAST COUNT OF THE SCREW GAUGE:

Distance moved by the head scale on the pitch scale.

Pitch =
Number of rotations given to the head scale.

Pitch = mm/ = mm

Pitch
Least count (LC) =
Total number of divisions on the head scale

LC = mm/ = mm.

To find the radius (r) of the specimen using screw gauge

Z.E = +…..div

LC =………..mm Z.C = + Z.E x LC

Z.C =………………..mm

=…………………mm

Correct
HSR= HSC xLC Observed Reading Reading
S. No. PSR HSC
OR = PSR+ HSR CR = OR+ ZC
(d)
10-3 m Div 10-3 m 10-3 m 10-3 m

Mean (d) =-------------------------- x 10-3 m

Radius of the specimen wire (r) = d/2 = ……………….. x 10-3 m

= ……………….. x 10-3 m
PRINCIPLE R

The suspension wire is twisted by the circular disc fixed at the bottom of the wire and the
wire undergoes shearing strain which leads to torsional oscillations. The angular
acceleration of the disc is proportional to its angular displacement and is always directed
towards its meanposition and the motion of the disc is simple harmonic.
PROCEDURE

• When the suspension wire is twisted by the circular disc fixed at the bottom of the
wire, the wire undergoes shearing strain. This is called torsion. Because of this
torsion, the disc executes oscillation called torsional oscillation.
• The Torsional pendulum consists of a circular disc suspended by a thin suspended wire,
as shown in Fig. (1.1), whose rigidity modulus is to be noted. The top end of the wire
is fixed by a chuck. The circular disc is attached to the other end of the wire.

Calculation of T0

• Adjust the wire so that its length is fixed value say 50 cm. Make a vertical chalk mark
on the disc when it is rest as a reference. By making a small twist to the circular
disc, set up Torsional oscillations. After the first few oscillations, just as the mark on
the disc passes the equilibrium positions, a stop clock is started. The time taken for 10
complete oscillations is noted. The experiments are repeated for second trial and mean
value is calculated. The mean value of the period is noted as T0.

Calculation of T1

• The two identical cylindrical masses are placed at equal distance on either side of the
central chuck as close as possible. The distance d1 is measured between the wire and
the centre of the cylindrical mass. By twisting the disc, the time taken for 10 complete
oscillations is noted. The mean value of the time period is noted as T1.

Calculation of T2

• The identical masses are arranged symmetrically as far away from the axis of the
rotation as possible. The distance d2 is measured between the centre of the cylindrical
mass of the time taken for 10 complete oscillations is calculated in the same manner as
that of the calculation of T0 and T1.

Calculation of Moment Of Inertia and Rigidity Modulus

• The mean value of the radius and length of the wire is measured accurately by a screw
gauge and meter scale respectively. The moment of the inertia of the circular disc
and the rigidity modulus of the suspension wire are calculated by substituting the
values in the equations respectively.
• Moment of Inertia can also be determined theoretically I = MR2, where M= Mass of
the Disc, R= radius of the Disc.
L
CALCULATION

Mean radius of the wire r =…………........... x 10-3 m

Length of the wire l =…………........... x 10-2 m

Mass of the identical cylinder m = … … … … … … x 10-3 kg

Closest distance between suspension wire & the centre of symmetrical mass

d1 = … … … … … … x 10-2m

Farthest distance between suspension wire& the centre of symmetrical mass

d2 = … … … … … … x 10-2m

Period of oscillations (without masses) T0 = ………………… sec

Period of oscillations with masses at ‘d1’ distance T1 = ………………… sec

Period of oscillations with masses at ‘d2’ distance T2 = ………………… sec

−
The moment of inertia of the circular disc, I = kgm2
−
Rigidity modulus of them wire, Ƞ= Nm- 2
R

RESULT

(i) Moment of inertia of the circular disc I = kg m²

(ii) Rigidity modulus of the given wire η = N/m2

L
 R
Expt.No.
TORSION PENDULUM
Date
AIM:

To determine the moment of inertia of an irregular object by torsional oscillation

APPARATUS REQUIRED

torsion pendulum in the form of a cradle, regular object, irregular object, stopwatch etc.

FORMULA

Moment of Inertia of the Irregular object I’ = I kgm2

Symbol Explanation Unit

I moment of inertia of the regular object (known value) kgm2

T time period of the cuddle Sec

Time period, when the regular object is placed over the cuddle
T1 Sec
time period ,when the irregular object is placed over the cradle
T2 Sec
 L

To find the time period of oscillations for various objects

Moment of inertia of the regular object I =

Time for 10 oscillations

Time period
for 1
objects Trial 1 Trail 2 Mean oscillation

second second Second Second

Cradle alone T=

Cradle along with regular T1 =

object

Cradle along with irregular T2 =

object
 R

DESCRIPTION
The torsion pendulum consist of a cradle, which is in the form of a horizontal circular disc
fixed to a rectangular metallic frame. The cradle is suspended from a fixed end with the help of a
wire as shown in fig.
There is concentric circular groove at the centre of the disc. So that any object for which
the moment of inertia has to be found can be placed over it.

PROCEDURE

The moment of inertia of an irregular object shall be determined by adopting the following
steps.
• Keep some distance (say 70 cm)between the chuck & cradle.
• Initially , the cradle alone is rotated and is set into torsional oscillations.
• With cradle alone, the time taken for 1 oscillations are found for trial -1 and trial -2 and
hence the time period of oscillation (T) i.e., the time taken for one oscillation is found.
• A regular object is placed over the cradle as shown in fig ,and is allowed to produce
torsional oscillations.
• With cradle and regular object together, the time taken for 10 oscillations are found for
trial -1 and trial -2 and hence, the time period of oscillation (T1) is found.
• The regular object is removed from the cradle and an irregular object is placed over the
cradle as shown in fig. and is allowed to produce torsional oscillations.
• With cradle and irregular object together, the time taken for 10 oscillations are noted for
trial -1 and trial-2 and hence, the time period of oscillation (T2) is found.
• Now by substituting the value of the time period T, T1 ,T2 and the moment of inertia of the
regular object in the given formula, the moment of inertia of the irregular object (I/)can be
calculated.
L
CALCULATION

Moment of Inertia of the Irregular object I’ = I kgm2

 R

Result
The moment of inertia of the irregular object (I/) = ……………………… Kgm2
 L

DIAGRAM - Young’s Modulus by Uniform Bending

a l a

To find the breadth of the beam using Vernier Caliper (b):

LC = 0.001cm OR = MSR + (VSC x LC)

MSR VSC VSR = (VSC X LC) OR = MSR + VSR

S.No.
x10-2 m division x10-2 m x10-2 m
1
2
3
4
5
Mean (b) = x10-2 m

To find the thickness of the beam using Screw gauge

LC = 0.01 mm ZE = ± ----- mm, ZC=± -------- mm
Pitch scale Head scale
Observed reading = Correct reading =
reading Reading
S.No PSR+(HSC x LC) OR ± ZC
(PSR) (HSC)
x 10-3m x 10-3m
x 10-3m Division
1
2
3
4
5
Mean Thickness of the beam (b) = x 10-3m
Expt.No.

Date :
YOUNG’S MODULUS R

AIM:

To determine the young’s modulus of the material of the beam by

uniform bending method.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

A uniform rectangular beam, knife edges, weight hangers with slottedweights,

Vernier microscope, pin, Screw gauge, vernier caliper.

FORMULA:

2
3 M g a l Nm -2
The Young’s modulus of the material E = 3
2bd y

Symbol Explanation Unit

E Young’s modulus of the material of the beam Nm-2

M Load producing the elevation Kg

Acceleration due to gravity

G ms-2

Distance between the two knife edges

L m

Distance between the weight hanger and any one of the adjacent knife edge
A m

Breadth of the beam

B m

Thickness of the beam

D m

Elevation produced for a load

Y m
 L

To find the Depression of the beam (y)

LC = 0.001 cm TR = MSR + (VSC x LC)

Traveling Microscope Reading

Load x Mean Depression of ‘y’for M kg
Increasing load Decreasing load
S.No 10-3 kg x10-2 m
MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR 10 -2m
10 -2m div 10 -2m 10 -2m div 10 -2m
1 W

2 W+50

3 W+100

4 W+150

5 W+200

Mean Depression of the beam (y) = x10-2 m

PROCEDURE
R

The given beam is symmetrically supported on two knife edges. Two weight hangers
are suspended at equal distance from the knife edges. A pin is fixed vertically at C by some
wax. The length of the beam (l) between the knife edges is set for 60 cm. A traveling
microscope is focused on the tip of the pin such that the horizontal cross wire coincides with
the tip of the pin.

The reading in the vertical traverse scale is noted for dead load. In equal steps of m Kg
added to the weight hangers , the corresponding readings for loading are noted. Similarly
readings are noted while unloading. The breadth and the thickness of the beam are measured
with a vernier calipers and screw gauge respectively. From the data Young’s modulus of the
beam is calculated
 L

CALCULATION:

Load applied at mid point m = 50 x 10-3 kg

Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.8 ms-2.
Breadth of the beam b = ---------------- x 10-2 m
Thickness of the beam d = ---------------- x 10-3 m

Distance between the point of application

of load and nearest knife edge a= 10 x 10-2 m

Length of the beam between the knife edges l = 60 x 10 -2 m

2
3Mg al -2

Young’s modulus of the beam E= Nm

2 b d3 y
 R

RESULT:
Young’s modulus of the material of the given beam E =------------------------- Nm-2
L

Figure 2.1 Young’s modulus of the material – Non-uniform bending

DETERMINATION OF LEAST COUNT OF TRAVELLING MICROSCOPE

20 MSD = 1cm
Value of 1MSD = = 0.05 cm

Least count =
!"

. $
= cm = 0.001 cm
$
Expt.No.
YOUNG’S MODULUS R
Date :

AIM
To determine the young’s modulus of the material of a uniform bar by non uniform bending method.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Traveling microscope, Weight hanger with slotted weights, Two knife edges, Pin, Wooden bar,
Vernier caliper, Screw gauge.

FORMULA

The Young’s Modulus of the beam,

Symbol Explanation Unit

M Load applied kg
L Distance between the two knife edges m

B Breadth of the beam (meter scale) m

D Thickness of the beam (meter scale) m

Y Depression produced for ‘M’ kg of load m

G Acceleration due to gravity ms-2

Page | 5
 L

To find the Elevation of the beam (y)

LC = 0.001 cm TR = MSR + (VSC x LC)

Traveling Microscope Reading

Load x Mean Elevation ‘y’for M kg
Increasing load Decreasing load
S.No 10-3 kg x10-2 m
MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR 10 -2m
10 -2m div 10 -2m 10 -2m div 10 -2m
1 W

2 W+50

3 W+100

4 W+150

5 W+200

Mean elevation of the beam (y) = x10-2 m

PRINCIPLE
R
When a beam symmetrically supported on two knife edge is loaded at its centre, the bent beam
would not form an arc of circle. This type of bending is called non uniform bending. The maximum
depression is produced at its mid point.
PROCEDURE

The weight of the hanger is taken as the dead load ‘w’. The wooden bar is brought to elastic
mood by loading and unloading it, a number of times with slotted weights. With the dead load w
suspended from the midpoint, the microscope is adjusted such that the horizontal cross-wire coincides
with the image of thetip of the pin. The reading in the vertical scale is taken.

The experiment is repeated by adding weights in steps of 50 gm each. Every time the microscope
is adjusted and the vertical scale reading is taken. Then the load is decreased in the same steps and the
readings are taken. From the readings, the mean depression of the mid-point for a given load can be
found. The length of the wooden bar between the knife edges is measured (l).

The wooden bar is removed and its mean breadth ‘b’ and mean thickness ‘d’are determined with
a Vernier caliper and a screw gauge respectively.

From the observations, Young modulus of the material of the beam is calculated by using the
given formula.
L
To find the thickness (d) of the beam using screw gauge

LC = 0.01 mm Z.E =± ….. …….div

Z.C = ±Z.E x LC

Z.C = ……………………

Z.C = ………………………

Observed Reading Correct Reading

S. No. PSR HSC HSR = HSC x LC
= PSR +HSR = OR + ZC
Mm div Mm Mm Mm

Mean (d) = x10-3 m

To find the breadth (b) of the beam using Vernier Calipers

LC = 0.01 cm Z.E =± ….. div

Z.C = ±…… cm

Observed Reading Correct Reading

S. No. MSR VSC VSR = VSC x LC
= MSR +VSR = OR +ZC
Unit Cm div Cm Cm Cm

Mean (b) = --------------------------- x10-2 m

R
L
CALCULATION

Acceleration due to gravity g= 9.8 ms-2

Distance between the two knife edges .....x 10-2m

l = …………....................

Breadth of the beam b= ………………... ….. x 10-2m

Thickness of the beam d = ………………….….. x 10-3m

-2
Depression produced for ‘M’ kg of load y = …………………........ x 10 m

Load to calculate depression M = ………………........... x 10-3kg

The Young’s modulus of the given material of the beam

-2
Y=
 R

RESULT
The Young’s Modulus of the given wooden bar

E = ........................................................ ……..Nm
L

Fig 1

Fig 2
Determination of wavelength of Diode Laser:
Number of lines per meter in the grating =

Order Distance Distance between the

of the between the pattern and center of
tanθ = θ
pattern Grating and the diffraction θ= λ= A°
screen X x 10-2 m
(n) D x 10-2 m
Left Right Mean

Mean (λ) =
 Expt.No.
LASER R
Date :

Aim:
To determine the Wavelength of the given laser source using diode laser.

Apparatus Required:
Diode Laser, Grating, stand, screen,

Formula:

Wavelength of the laser source using grating

λ = A°

Symbol Explanation Unit

λ Wavelength of the spectrum Meter

θ Distance between the pattern and central spot Meter

N Number of lines per metre in the grating No Unit
n Order of the Pattern No unit
Procedure:
Determination of the wavelength of the laser source: R

• The laser source and the laser grating are mounted on separate stands as in fig 1.

• A fixed distance (D) is kept between the laser grating and the screen.

• The laser source is switched ON and the beam of laser is allowed to fall on the laser grating.

• The grating produces a diffraction pattern as dots of varying intensity on a screen which is kept at
the other side of the grating.

• The distance between the screen and grating (D) is measured.

• From fig 2, the intensity of the irradiance is found to decrease from zeroth order to higher orders
which are noted as X1,X2,X3…….Xm on either side of the central maximum are marked on the
screen and is noted.

• The experiment is repeated for various values of D and the position of the spots are noted. Using
the equation the wavelength of the laser source can be calculated and the mean is taken.
 R

Result:

Wavelength of the laser source (λ) = ------------------Å

L
 Expt.No. R
THE AIR WEDGE
Date :

Aim:
To determine the thickness of a thin wire by using air wedge.

Apparatus required:
Traveling microscope, sodium vapour lamp, two optically plane glass plates, given wire , etc.,

Formula:

Thickness of the given wire

λ
t= m

Symbol Explanation Unit

l Distance between point of contact and paper meter
Wavelength of the monochromatic source meter
λ (5893 Å)
β Bandwidth meter
 Length of the air column l = …………... cm LC=0.001 cm
L

Total = MSR + (VSC x LC)

Order of Microscope Reading Width of

Band width(β)
Band 3 bands
M.S.R. V.S.C. TOTAL
-2 -2 -2 -2
Unit x 10 m div. x 10 m x 10 m x 10 m

n+3

n+6

n+9

n+12

n+15

n+18

n+21

n+24

n+27

n+30

Mean bandwidth =………..…..….. x 10-2 m

 R
Procedure:
• Take two optically plane glass plates and using a rubber band keep them in contact at one of their edges
and insert the given wire near the other end parallel to the edges of contact place this plane glass plates
with inserted wire on the horizontal plate of the traveling microscope.
• The light from the sodium lamp is made to fall vertically on the air wedge film formed between the glass
plate and a lens as shown in fig. Alternate dark and bright bands are seen through the microscope and are
parallel to the edge of contact.
• The microscope is focused on the bands.
• The centre of bright band near the edge of contact of the plane glass plate is made to coincide with the
vertical crosswire.
• Let it be nth band.
• The reading of the microscope is noted.
• The microscope is moved without disturbing the position of the glass plates and the vertical crosswire is
made to coincide with the centre of every third bright band and the corresponding readings are noted.
• Take the readings up to ( n+30) th band . The mean bandwidth is calculated from these reading.
• Finally the distance of the wire from the edge of contact is measured using the traveling microscope.
• Assuming the wavelength of sodium light as 5893 x 10 -10m the diameter of the wire is calculated.
• Repeat the same experiment for the determination of the thickness of the paper by inserting the sheet of
paper between the plates.
L
Calculation:

For thin wire,

Wavelength of incident light “λ” = 5893 x 10 -10m

Mean band width “β” = …………………..….. x 10 -2m

Thickness of the given wire l λ / 2 β = ……………….… x 10 -6m

 R

Result:

The thickness of the given wire = ……………………. meter

L

Ultrasonic interferometer

Fig 2
 R
Expt.No.
ULTRASONIC INTERFEROMETER
Date :

Aim:
To determine the velocity of ultrasonic waves in a given liquid and also to determine the
compressibility of the liquid
Apparatus required:

Ultrasonic interferometer, measuring cell, frequency generator, given liquid.

Formula:
Velocity of ultrasonic waves in the given liquid, v = λf m/ s

Compressibility of the given liquid, K= m2/N

! "

Symbol Explanation Unit

λ The wavelength of the Ultrasonic wave in m f is Hz
the Frequency of Ultrasonic waves in
d Distance moved by the micrometer screw m

n The number of oscillations p is the density of the

kgm-3
given liquid
L

TO FIND THE VELOCITY OF ULTRASONIC WAVES IN LIQUID

Type of liquid = Frequency of the generator =

Density of liquid = Least count = 0.01mm

TR = PSR + (HSC X LC)
Micrometer reading

No.of R1 R2 d = R1- R2 λ= V=fλ

oscillations No.of
(n) PSR HSC TR oscillations PSR HSC TR
(n)
10-3 m Div 10-3 m 10-3 m Div 10-3 m 10-3 m 10-3 m ms-1
 Theory R

An Ultrasonic Interferometer is a simple and direct device to determine the velocity of

Ultrasonic waves in liquid with a high degree of accuracy. Here the high frequency
generator generates variable frequency, which excites the Quartz crystal placed at the bottom
of the measuring cell (Fig.). The excited Quartz crystal generates Ultrasonic waves in the
experimental liquid. The liquid will now serve as an acoustical grating element. Hence
when Ultrasonic waves passes through the rulings of grating, successive maxima and minima
occurs,satisfying the condition for diffraction.
Initial adjustments:
In high frequency generator two knobs are provided for initial adjustments. One is
marked with `Adi (set) and the other with 'Gain' (Sensitivity). With knob marked `Adj' the
position of the needle on the ammeter is adjusted and with the knob. marked 'Gain', the
sensitivity of the instrument can be increased for greater deflection, if desired.
Procedure
The measuring cell is connected to the output terminal of the high frequency generator
through a shielded cable. The cell is filled with the experimental liquid before switching ON
the generator. Now, when the frequency generator is switched ON, the Ultrasonic waves
move normal from the Quartz crystal till they are reflected back by the movable reflector
plate. Hence, standing waves are formed in the liquid in between the reflector and the quartz
crystal.The distance between the reflector and crystal is varied using the micrometer
screw such that the anode current of the generator increases to a maximum and then
decreases to a minimum and again increases to a maximum. The distance of separation between
successive maximum or successive minimum in the anode current is equal to half the
wavelength of the Ultrasonic waves in the liquid. (see Fig.2). Therefore, by noting the initial
and final position of the micrometer screw for one complete oscillation (maxima—minima—
maxima) the distance moved by the reflector can be determined
To minimize the error, the distance (d) moved by the micrometer screw is noted for 'n'
number of oscillations (successive maxima), by noting the initial and final reading in the
micrometer screw and is tabulated. From the total distance (d) moved by the micrometer
screw and the number of oscillations (n), the wavelength of ultrasonic waves can be determined
using the formula λ = 2d/n. from the value of k and by noting the frequency of the
generator (f). The velocity of the Ultrasonic waves and compressibility of the given liquid can
be calculated using the given formula.

L
Calculation
Density of given liquid =
Frequency of ultrasonic wave =

Velocity of Ultrasonic waves in the given liquid,

v= λxf
=

Compressibility of the given liquid, K= 1/v2 ρ m2/ N

 R

Result
1. Velocity of ultrasonic waves in the given liquid, v =
2. Compressibility of the given liquid, K =
L

Fig. 7.1 Experimental setup for numerical aperture measurement

Fig. 7.2 Numerical Aperture Measurement Jig

 R

7(a). OPTICAL FIBER – DETERMINATION

OF NUMERICAL APERTURE AND
ACCEPTANCE ANGLE

Expt. No: Date:

AIM
To determine acceptance angle and numerical aperture of an optical fiber.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Laser light source 2. Laser power meter 3. Optical fibre cables of various length
4. Optical fibre connectors 5. Numerical aperture jig 6. Mandrel for optical fibre.

FORMULA

 r
Acceptance angle o  tan 1   radians
 d 


Numerical aperture NA  sin o

Symbol Explanation Unit

r Radius of the circular image metre

d Distance from fibre end to circular image metre

PROCEDURE
Using laser, we can find the numerical aperture of the fibre optic cable. The given
laser source is connected to the optical fibre cable. The other end is exposed to the air
medium in the dark place. The emerging light is exposed on a plain paper. (Fig. 7.1)

Now, we get illuminated circular patch on the screen. The distance from the fibre
end to circular image (d) is measured using metre scale. The radius of the circular image
is also measured (Fig.7.2). Thus, the acceptance angle is calculated. From the acceptance
angle, the numerical aperture of the cable is found by using the given formula.
 L

Fig 7.3

r  r 
tan o  o  tan 1  
d  d 

Determination of acceptance angle and numerical aperture

Distance from the Radius of Acceptance

fibre end to the circular angle
S.No. NA  sin o
 r
circular image (d) image o  tan 1  
(r)  d

cm mm

Mean
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Result
(i) Acceptance angle of the optical fibre = radian

(ii) Numerical aperture of the optical fibre =

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Fig. 7(b).1
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7.(b). COMPACT DISC – DETERMINATION OF

WIDTH OF THE GROOVE USING LASER

Expt. No: Date:

AIM
To determine groove width of CD using LASER.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
(i) CD (ii) Laser source (iii) Stand to hold CD and screen (iv) Ruler.

FORMULA
Width of the groove (or) track width is

n 
d metres
sin n

n – Order of diffraction – metres

 – Wavelength of Laser light – metres

n – Angle of diffraction for n th order

Procedure
The laser light source is placed firmly and horizontally using a stand. Another
stand is used to position the CD in front of the laser for normal incident of laser light.
The CD is placed close to the laser source. A blank wall or a white board can be used
as a screen.

When a laser light is switched on, the diffraction pattern can be observed clearly
on the screen. The diffraction pattern consists of a central bright spot and first order
maxima on both sides of central bright spots. The second and third order spots may
also be observed on the screen. If the diffraction spots are not in horizontal on the
screen, the CD is rotated slightly until the images getting on a horizontal line.

The distances of the different orders of maxima from central bright on either sides
can be measured and tabulated. Finally, the distance of the CD to the screen D is
measured.

Using, D and Xn, the diffraction angle n and hence, groove width d can be
measured.

XL, XR distance between n th order maximum and central bright spot in left side
and right side respectively.
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Distance of maxima
from n n
Order  2 D d
central bright  10 m degree sin n
 10 2
m  X 
n  tan 1    10 6 m
XL XR D 
XL XR X
2

1.

2.

mean 


Calculation
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Result
The groove width of CD using Laser .................................. metres.