Thermal Physics

Pre-Medical : Physics
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Common Lecture Notes Nurture Course (11th Appearing)
Topic : Heat and Thermo Total Lectures / Hours allotted : 30L/45H
LECTURE # 01
A branch of science which deals with the measurement of temperature of a substance is known as thermometry
Temperature
Temperature is defined as the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.
v It is a scalar physical quantity with S.I. unit Kelvin.
Example: Normal temperature of human body is 310. 15 K = 37°C = 98.6°F
NTP or STP implies 273.15K = 0°C = 32°F
Optional:
According to kinetic theory of gases, temperature (macroscopic physical quantity) is a measure of average
translational kinetic energy of a molecule (microscopic physical quantity).
Thermal Equilibrium
Two bodies are said to be in thermal equilibrium, when no (net) heat flows from one body to the other i.e. when
both the bodies are at the same temperature.
Zeroth law of thermodynamics
If systems A and B are each in thermal equilibrium with a third system C, then A and B are in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
A B
Measurement of Temperature
A thermometer is a device used to measure the temperature of a body. Property of a material which changes
with the change in temperature is called thermometric property like expansion of liquid or gas.
Thermometric properties
(i) Length of liquid in capillary
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(ii) Pressure of gas at constant volume.

(iii) Volume of gas at constant pressure.
(iv) Resistance of a given platinum wire
Optional:
In old thermometry, freezing point (0°C) and steam point (100°C) are taken to define the temperature scale.
So if the thermometric property at temperature 0°C, 100°C and t°C are x0, x100 and x respectively then
t -0 x - x0 x - x0
= Þ t °C = ´ 100°C
100 - 0 x100 - x0 x100 - x0
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In modern thermometry instead of two fixed points only one reference point is chosen (triple point of water
273.16 K) the other is itself 0 K where the value of thermometric property is assumed to be zero.
Scale of Temperature
Scale Symbol LFP UFP Number of divisions

on the scale
Celsius °C 0°C 100°C 100
Fahrenheit °F 32°F 212°F 180
Kelvin K 273.15 K 373.15 K 100
*LFP = Lower Fixed Point *UFP = Upper Fixed Point
212°F 100°C 373.15k

Boiling point
of water
32°F 0°C 273.15 k
Freezing point
of water
Fahrenheit Celsius Kelvin
Relation between different scale:
Temperature on one scale can be converted into other scale by using the following identity.
Reading on any scale - LFP

= Constant for all scales
UFP - LFP
All these temperatures are related to each other by the following relationship
C -0 F - 32 K - 273.15
= =
100 212 - 32 373.15 - 273.15
or
C F - 32 K - 273
= =
5 9 5
Note: The Celsius and Kelvin scales have different zero points but the same sized degrees. Therefore any
temperature difference is the same on the Celsius and Kelvin scales
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(t2 – t1)°C = (T2 – T1) K.

Difference in temperature:
DC DF DK
= =
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Q.1 On which of the following scales of temperature, the temperature is never negative
(a) Celsius (b) Fahrenheit (c) Kelvin (d) none
Ans. (C)
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Q.2 The temperature on Celsius scale is 25°C. What is the corresponding temperature on the Fahrenheit
scale?
(a) 40°F (b)77°F (c) 50°F (d)45°F
C F - 32 25 F - 32
Sol. = Þ = Þ F = 77° F .
5 9 5 9
Q.3 The temperature of a body on Kelvin scale is found to be x K. When it is measured by Fahrenheit
thermometer, it is found to be x°F, then the value of x is
(a) 40 (b) 313 (c) 574.25 (d) 301.25
F - 32 K - 273 x - 32 x - 273
Sol. = Þ = Þ x = 574.25
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Q.4 A centigrade and a Fahrenheit thermometer are dipped in boiling water. The water temperature is
lowered until the Fahrenheit thermometer registers 140°. What is temperature as registered by the
Centigrade thermometer ?
(a) 30° (b) 40° (c) 60° (d) 80°
C F - 32 C (140 - 32)
Sol. = Þ = Þ C = 60°
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Q.5 At what temperature the centigrade (Celsius) and Fahrenheit, readings are the same ?
(a) – 40° (b) + 40° (c) 36.6° (d) – 37°
C F - 32 t t - 32
Sol. = Þ = Þ t = - 40°
5 9 5 9
Q.6 The absolute zero temperature (0 kelvin )in Fahrenheit scale is
(a) – 273°F (b) – 32°F (c) – 460°F (d) – 132°F
F - 32 K - 273 F - 32 0 - 273
Sol. = Þ =
9 5 9 5
Þ F = -459 .4° F » -460 ° F
Q.7 If a thermometer reads freezing point of water as 20°C and boiling point as 150°C, how much
thermometer read when the actual temperature is 60°C ?
(a) 98°C (b) 110°C (c) 40°C (d) 60°C
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x - LFP
Sol. Temperature on any scale can be converted to other scale by = Constant for all scales
UFP - LFP
x - 20 60
= Þ x = 98°
150 - 20 100
Q.8 If temperature of an object is 104°F, then its temperature in centigrade is
(a) 100°C (b) 60°C (c) 40°C (d) 20°C
C F - 32 C 104 - 32
Sol. = Þ = Þ C = 40°C
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Q.9 On centigrade scale the temperature of a body increases by 30 degrees. The increase in temperature
on Fahrenheit scale is
(a) 50° (b) 40° (c) 30° (d) 54°
Sol. Difference of 100°C = difference of 180°F
180
\ Difference of 30° = ´ 30 = 54°
100
Q.10 The correct value of 0°C on Kelvin scale will be
(a) 273.15 K (b) 273.00 K (c) 273.05 K (d) 273.63 K

Ans. (1)
Q.11 If temperature of a body is changed by 10º C. Find this temperature change in Fahrenheit and Kelvin
scales.
Sol. F = 18°F
K = 10 K
Q.12 Write down the temperatures 10° F, 10° C and 10K in increasing order
Sol. 10K< 10° F < 10° C
Q.13 Draw the graph between of temperature of a body in degree Celsius and degree Fahrenheit and mention
its slope .
C F - 32 5 160 5
Sol. = Þ C= F= Þ slope = .
5 9 9 9 9
100°C B
Centigrade
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32° F 212°F
Fahrenheit
A
Optional question:
Q.14 A constant pressure air thermometer gave a reading of 40 units of volume when immersed in ice cold
water, and 60 units in boiling water. If it give 67 units in a boiling liquid then the boiling point of the
liquid will be?
(a) 135°C (b) 125°C (c) 112°C (d) 100°C
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C P - PL
Sol. =
100 PU - PL
C = 135°C
Q.15 A constant volume gas thermometer shows pressure reading of 50cm and 90cm of mercury at 0°C and
100°C respectively. When the pressure reading is 60 cm of mercury, the temperature is
(a) 25°C (b) 40°C (c) 15°C (d) 12.5°C
( Pt - P0 ) (60 - 50)
Sol. t= ´ 100°C = ´ 100 = 25°C
( P100 - P0 ) (90 - 50)
HOMEWORK (Module - 2019-20)

BB-1 : 1, 2, 3
Ex. 1 : 1 to 7
Ex. 2 : 8
BB-1 : 1, 2, 3
Ex. 1 : 1 to 7
Ex. 2 : 8
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LECTURE # 02
When matter is heated without any change in its state, it usually expands. With rise in temperature the
amplitude of vibration and hence energy of atoms increases, hence the average distance between the atoms
increases. So the matter as a whole expands.
v The expanded object is like a photographic enlargement.
v That is the hole expands in the same proportion as the metal, it does not get smaller.
Almost all solids and liquids expand as their temperature increases. Gases also expand if allowed. Solids
can change in length, area or volume, while liquids change in their volumes.
Potential
energy
r0 r1
r2
r
E2
E1
Thermal expansion arises because the well is

not symmetrical about the equilibrium position r0.
As the temperature rise the energy of the atom increases.
The average position when the energy is E2 is not
the same as that when the energy is E1.
v Thermal expansion is minimum in case of solids but maximum in case of gases because intermolecular
force is maximum in solids but minimum in gases.
v Solids can expand in one dimension (linear expansion), two dimension (superficial expansion) and
three dimension (volume expansion) while liquids and gases usually suffers change in volume only.
1. Linear expansion : When a solid is heated and its length increases, then the expansion is called linear
expansion.
L0 L 0 + DL = L
(A) Before heating (B) After heating

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v Change in length D L = L0aDT
(L0 = Original length, DT = Temperature change)
v Final length L = L0 (1 + aDT)
DL
v Co-efficient of linear expansion a =
L0DT
v Unit of a is °C -1 or K -1 . It’s dimension is [q -1]
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Q.1 An iron bar of length 10 m is heated from 0°C to 100°C. If the coefficient of linear thermal expansion
of iron is 10 ´ 10–6 /°C, the increase in the length of bar is
(A) 0.5 cm (*B) 1.0 cm (C) 1.5 cm (D) 2.0 cm
Sol. Increase in length DL = L0 a Dq
= 10 ´ 10 ´ 10–6 ´ (100 – 0) = 10–2 m = 1 cm
Q.2 The length of a metallic rod is 5m at 0°C and becomes 5.01 m, on heating upto 100°C. The linear
expansion coefficient of the metal will be
(A) 2.33 ´ 10–5 /°C (B) 6.0 ´ 10–5 /°C
(C) 4.0 ´ 10–5 /°C (*D) 2.0 ´ 10–5 /°C
DL 0.01
Sol. a= = = 2 ´ 10-5 / °C
L 0 ´ Dq 5 ´ 100
2. Superficial (areal) expansion: When the temperature of a 2D object is changed, it’s area changes, then
the expansion is called superficial expansion.
Change in area is DA = A0bDT L0
(A0 = Original area, DT = Temperature change)
v Final area A = A0(1 + bDT) L0
DL
DA
v Co-efficient of superficial expansion b =
A0DT DL
v Unit of b is °C–1 or K–1.

3. Volume or cubical expansion: When a solid is heated and it’s volume increases, then the expansion
is called volume or cubical expansion.
v Change in volume is DV = V0gDT
(V0 = Original volume, DT = change in temperature) L0 L0
v Final volume V = V0 (1 + gDT )

L0 V
DV
v Volume co-efficient of expansion g =
V0 DT
v Unit of g is °C–1 or K–1.

NOTE : The co-efficient a, b and g for a solid are related to each other as follows
b g
a= = Þ a : b :g = 1: 2 : 3
2 3
Q.3 A metal rod of silver at 0°C is heated to 100°C. It’s length is increased by 0.19 cm. Coefficient of cubical
expansion of the silver rod is

(*A) 5.7 ´ 10–5/°C (B) 0.63 ´ 10–5/°C (C) 1.9 ´ 10–5/°C (D) 16.1 ´ 10–5/°C
DL 0.19
Sol. a= = = 1.9 ´ 10- 5 / °C
L0 (Dq ) 100 (100 - 0)
Now g = 3a = 3 ´ 1.9 ´ 10–5/°C = 5.7 ´ 10–5/°C

Q.4 The volume of solid decreases by 0.6% when it is cooled through 50ºC. Its coefficient of linear expansion
is –
(A) 4 × 10–6 K (B) 5 × 10–5 K (C) 6 × 10–4 K (*D) 4 × 10–5 K
Note: Some rubber like substances contract with rising temperature, because transverse vibration of
atoms of substance dominates over longitudinal vibration which is responsible for expansion.
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Q.5 A rectangular plate has a circular cavity as shown in the figure. If we increase its temperature then which
dimension will increase in following figure.
Sol. Distance between any two point on an object increases with increase in temperature. So, all dimension
a,b, c and d will increase
Q.6 A cylindrical metal rod of length L0 is shaped into a ring with a small gap as shown.On heating the system
X
(A) x decreases, r and d increase
(B) x and r increase, d decreases r
(*C) x, r and d all increase
(D) Data insufficient to arrive at a conclusion d
Q.7 In the given figure, when temperature is increased then which of the following increases
(A) R1 (B) R2 (C) R2 – R1 (*D) All of these

Sol. All of these
Q.8 What is the percentage change in length of 1m iron rod if its temperature changes by 100ºC. a for iron
is 2 × 10–5/ºC.
Sol. Percentage change in length due to temperature change
Dl
´ 100 = aDq ´ 100
l0
= 2 × 10–5 × 100 × 100

= 0.2% Ans.
Q.9 If I is the moment of inertia of a solid body having a -coefficient of linear expansion then the change in I
corresponding to a small change in temperature DT is
(A) a I DT (B) a I DT (*C) 2 a I DT (D) 3 a I DT

Q.10 A liquid with coefficient of volume expansion g is filled in a container of a material having the
coefficient of linear expansion a .If the liquid overflows on heating, then –
(*A) g>3a (B) g<3a (C) g=3a (D) none of these
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Q.11 The co-efficient of linear expansion of crystal is one direction is a1 and other two directions is a2 then
co-efficient of volume expansion will be:-
æ a + a2 ö
(1) 2a1 + a2 (2) 3a1 (*3) a1 + 2a2 (4) 3 ç 1 ÷
è 2 ø
Q.12 The volume thermal expansion coefficient of an ideal gas at constant pressure is
(A) T (B) T2 (*C) T-1 (D) T-2
Q.13 When a metal ball is heated, the largest percentage increase will occur in its
(A) Diameter (B) Area (*C) Volume (D) Density
Sol. When a copper ball is heated, it’s size increases. As Volume µ (radius)3 and Area µ ((radius)2, so
percentage increase will be largest in it’s volume. Density will decrease with rise in temperature.

BB-1 : 4, 5, 6
Ex. 1 : 8 to 12
BB-1 : 4, 5, 6
Ex. 1 : 8 to 12
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LECTURE # 03
Application of Thermal Expansion in Solids
1. Bi-metallic strip: Two strips of equal lengths but of different materials (different coefficient of linear
expansion) when join together, it is called “bi-metallic strip”, and can be used in thermostat to break or
make electrical contact. This strip has the characteristic property of bending on heating due to unequal
linear expansion of the two metals. The strip will bend with metal of greater a on outer side i.e. convex
side.
ON OFF
Steel Brass Bimetallic
strip
Higher temperature At room temperature At high temperature

Room temperature
(C) (D)
(A) (B)
2. Effect of temperature on the time period of a simple pendulum: A pendulum clock keeps proper time
at temperature q. If temperature is increased to q ¢(> q ) then due to linear expansion, length of pendulum
and hence its time period will increase.
DT 1
Fractional change in time period = a Dq
T 2
v The clock will lose time i.e. will become slow in summer and will gain time i.e. will become fast in winter.
v Since coefficient of linear expansion (a) is very small for invar, hence pendulums are made of invar to
show the correct time in all seasons.
Q.14 A uniform metal rod is used as a bar pendulum. If the room temperature rises by 10°C, and the coefficient
of linear expansion of the metal of the rod is 2 ´ 10–6 per °C, the period of the pendulum will have percentage
increase of
(A) – 2 ´ 10–3 (B) – 1 ´ 10–3 (C) 2 ´ 10–3 (D) 1 ´ 10–3
Sol. Fractional change in period
DT 1 1
= aDq = ´ 2 ´ 10 - 6 ´ 10 = 10 -5
T 2 2
DT
% change = ´ 100 = 10 - 5 ´ 100 = 10 -3 %
T
Q.15 Length v/s Temperature graph of A & B is given below. Find the relation between aA & aB.
Length
B
Temp.
(1) aA > aB (2) aA = aB (*3) aA < aB (4) can't say
Dl
Sol. a = = slope
Dq
Þ Slope µ a
So Ans. (3)
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3. Thermal stress in a rigidly fixed rod : When a rod whose ends are rigidly fixed such as to prevent
expansion or contraction, undergoes a change in temperature, due to thermal expansion or contraction,
a compressive or tensile stress is developed in it. Due to this thermal stress the rod will exert a large force
on the supports. If the change in temperature of a rod of length L is Dq then
DL é DL 1 ù
Thermal strain = = aDq ê As a = L ´ Dq ú
L ë û
é stress ù
So Thermal stress = YaDq ê As Y = strain ú
ë û
or Force on the supports F = YAa Dq
(A) Heating (B) Cooling

Q.16 A steel rod 25 cm long has a cross-sectional area of 0.8 cm2. Force required to stretch this rod by the
same amount as the expansion produced by heating it through 10ºC is:
(Coefficient of linear expansion of steel is 10-5/ºC and Young’s modulus of steel is 2 × 1010 N/m2.)
Sol. F = YAa Dq
Q.17 A composite bar of length L = L1 + L2 is made up from a rod of material 1 and of length L1 attached to
a rod of material 2 and of length L2 as shown. If a1 and a2 are their respective coefficients of linear
expansion, then equivalent coefficient of linear expansion for the composite rod is :
1 2
a1L 2 + a 2 L1 a1L 2 + a 2 L 2 a1L1 + a 2 L 2 (

a1a 2 L21 + L 2 )
(1) (2) (*3) (4)
L L L ( a1L1 + a 2 L 2 )
Sol. When it has been given a temperature change DT, the new length of the composite bar is the sum of
the individual final lengths (Let 'a' be required coefficient of linear expansion)
L ' = L'1 + L'2

L (1 + aDT) = L1 (1 + a1DT) + L2(1 + a2DT)
Þ L + LaDT = L1 + a1DT + L2 + L2a2DT
Þ L + LaDT = L + L1a1DT + L2a2DT

(Q L1 + L2 = L)
Þ LaDT = L1a1DT + L2a2DT
L1a1 + L 2a 2
Þ a=
L
4. Expansion of cavity : Thermal expansion of an isotropic object may be imagined as a photographic
enlargement. So if there is a hole A in a plate C (or cavity A inside a body C), the area of hole (or volume
of cavity) will increase when body expands on heating, just as if the hole (or cavity) were solid B of the
same material. Also the expansion of area (or volume) of the body C will be independent of shape and
size of hole (or cavity), i.e., will be equal to that of D.
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r a
a A r B D
C
b b
Expansion of A = Expansion of B Expansion of C = Expansion of D
Q.18 There is a rectangular metal plate in which two cavities in the shape of rectangle and circle are made, as shown
with dimensions. P and Q are the centers of these cavities. On heating the plate, which of the following
quantities increase?
b
P
a
R
Q
r
(A) p r2 (B) ab (C) R (D) b

Sol. All of these
Some other application
v When rails are laid down on the ground, space is left between the ends of two rails.
v The transmission cable is not tightly fixed to the poles.
v Test tubes, beakers and crucibles are made of pyrex-glass or silica because they have very low value of
coefficient of linear expansion.
v The iron rim to be put on a cart wheel is always of slightly smaller diameter than that of wheel.
v A glass stopper jammed in the neck of a glass bottle can be taken out by warming the neck of the bottle
Thermal Expansion in Liquids
v Liquids do not have linear and superficial expansion but these only have volume expansion.
v Since liquids are always to be heated along with a vessel which contains them so initially on heating the
system (liquid + vessel), the level of liquid in vessel falls (as vessel expands more since it absorbs heat
and liquid expands less) but later on, it starts rising due to faster expansion of the liquid.
PQ ® represents expansion of vessel R

P
QR ® represents the real expansion of liquid Q
PR ® Represent the apparent expansion of liquid
v The actual increase in the volume of the liquid =
the apparent increase in the volume of liquid + the
increase in the volume of the vessel.
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Liquids have two coefficients of volume expansion.
1. Co-efficient of apparent expansion (ga) : It is due to apparent (that appears to be, but is not) increase
in the volume of liquid if expansion of vessel containing the liquid is not taken into account.
Apparent expansion in volume ( DV)a
ga = =
Initial volume ´ Dq V ´ Dq
2. Co-efficient of real expansion (gr) : It is due to the actual increase in volume of liquid due to heating.
Real increase in volume ( DV)r
gr = =
Initial volume ´ Dq V ´ Dq
( DV) Vessel
(iii) Also coefficient of expansion of flask g Vessel =
V ´ Dq
(iv ) éë g Re al = g Apparent + g Vessel ùû
(v) Change (apparent change) in volume in liquid relative to vessel is
DVapp = V g app Dq = V( g Real - g Vessel )Dq = V( g r - 3a )Dq
a = Coefficient of linear expansion of the vessel.
Q.19 On heating a liquid of coefficient of cubical expansion g in a container having coefficient of linear expansion
g, the level of liquid in the container will
(A) Rise (B) Fall (*C) Will remain almost stationary (D) It is difficult to say
Sol. As coefficient of cubical expansion of liquid equals coefficient of cubical expansion of vessel, the level of
liquid will not change on heating.
Anomalous expansion of water:
Generally matter expands on heating and contracts on cooling. In case of water, it expands on heating
if its temperature is greater than 4°C. In the range 0°C to 4°C, water contracts on heating and expands
on cooling, i.e. g is negative. This behavior of water in the range from 0°C to 4°C is called anomalous
expansion.
This anomalous behavior of water causes ice to form first at the surface of a lake in cold weather. As
winter approaches, the water temperature increases initially at the surface. The water there sinks
because of its increased density. Consequently, the surface reaches 0°C first and the lake becomes
covered with ice. Aquatic life is able to survive the cold winter as the lake bottom remains unfrozen
at a temperature of about 4°C.
At 4°C, density of water is maximum while its specific volume is minimum.
max
min
Anomalous
behaviour
Anomalous
behaviour
vol/mass
Density
0°C 4°C Temperature 0°C 4°C Temperature
(A) (B)
Q.20 When water is heated from 0°C to 10°C, its volume –
(A) increases (B) decreases
(*C) does not change (D) first decreases and then increases
Optional :
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Variation of Density with Temperature
Most substances (solid and liquid) expand when they are heated, i.e., volume of a given mass of a
æ 1ö 1
substance increases on heating, so the density should decrease ç as r µ ÷ . For a given mass r µ
è Vø V
r¢ V V V 1 r
Þ r = V ¢ = V + DV = V + gVDq = 1 + g Dq Þ r ¢ = 1 + g Dq = r (1 + g Dq )-1 = r (1 - g Dq )
Q.21 The variation of density of a solid with temperature is given by the formula
d1 d1
(*A) d 2 = (B) d 2 =
1 + g (t 2 - t1 ) 1 - g ( t 2 - t1 )
d1 d1
(C) d 2 = (D) d 2 =
1 - 2 g (t 2 - t1 ) 2 + 2 g ( t 2 - t1 )
Q.22 Two spheres of the same radius are made from the same material. One is hollow (filled with air) and the
other is solid. If they are heated together from 20°C to 100°C.
(A) both will expand equally
(*B) hollow sphere will expand more
(C) solid sphere will expand more
(D) the relative expansion of solid and hollow sphere depends on the material of sphere

Ex. 1 : 12 to 16
Ex. 2 : 63, 70
Ex. 1 : 12 to 16
Ex. 2 : 63, 70
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LECTURE # 04
Heat (Q)
When Two bodies at different temperature are made in contact, then energy will flow from higher
temperature body to lower temperature body, which is known as heat.
Note :
(i) For heat transfer, there must be temp. diff. b/wn bodies in contact.
(ii) Heat is a energy in transit.
Calorie
It is the amount of heat transfered to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1°C or 1 K.
SI unit : joule
CGS :- erg (1J = 107 erg)
Practical unit :- calorie
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat :
According to Joule, work may be converted into heat and vice–versa. The ratio of work done to the
W
heat produced is always constant.
Q
= constant (J) Þ W = J Q
W must be in joule and Q must be in calorie.
J is called mechanical equivalent of heat. It is not a physical quantity but simply a conversion factor.
It converts unit of work into that of heat and vice–versa.
J = 4.186 joule/cal or 4.186 × 10³ joule/kcal. For rough calculations we take J = 4.2 joule/cal
Specific Heat Capacity /Specific Heat
It is the specific amount of heat given to any substance to increase its temp. by 1º C or 1K having mass
cal
1 gram at normal pressure (1atm). Specific Heat Capacity of Water =1
g°C
Q = mSDT Q = Heat
Q
\ S= S = Specific Heat capacity
mDT
m = mass of substance
DT = Change in temperature
SI unit :-
J J cal cal
, , ,
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KgK Kgº C gk gº C
Note :-
(i) Sp. heat of solid & liquid are considered to be constant.
(ii) Sp. heat of gases are variable.
1cal
(iii) Specific heat capacity of water = = 4200 J/KgK
1gmº C
1 cal 4.2J
Specific heat capacity of Ice/steam = = = 2100 J/KgK.
2 gm°C 2 ´10–3 kgºC
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Q. 1 Find amount of heat required to Increase the temperature of 5g of water by 20ºC.
Sol. m = 5g
DT = 20º C
Q = mSDT
Q = 5 × 1 × 20 = 100 cal = 420 J
Q.2 Find the amount of heat evolved to convert 10 kg of steam at 180º C to steam at 100ºC
Sol. Q = msDT = 10 × 2100 × 80 = 168 × 104 J
Note :- Mechanical energy to heat.
1 mv2
· = mSDT
2 J
mgh
· = mSDT
J
1 Iw2
· = mSDT
2 J
Q.3 A lead ball at 25ºC is dropped from a height of 2 kms. It is heated due to air resistance and it is
assumed that all of its K.E. is converted into heat and it ses the temperature of the ball.
(Slead=126 J kg–1 ºC–1 ) find final temp.
Sol. mgh = mSDT
Þ 10 × 2 × 103 = 126 × (T –25)
2 ´ 10 4
Þ ( T–25) = = 158.73
126
\ T – 25 = 158.73
T = 158.73 + 25 = 183.73ºC
Q.4 A wooden block of mass = 20 kg is dropped from a height of 100m. find the temperature rise in the
block. If 25% of energy is lost in the sorroundings.
(Sblock = 100 J/ kg–1 ºC)
3
Sol. mgh = msDT
4
3 gh
Þ = DT
4 S
3 10 ´ 100 30
Þ DT = ´ = = 7.5º C
4 100 4
16 E
ALLEN
Q. 5 A bullet of mass 10 kg is fired with velocity = 10 m/s and stop after hitting the target. If 50% of its K.E.
goes in sing the tmperature of the bullet then find raise in temperature. (Sbullet= 50 J Kg–1 ºC–1)
1 æ mv 2 ö
Sol. ç ÷ = msDT
2è 2 ø
V2 V 2 10 ´ 10
= sDT Þ DT = = =0.5ºC.
4 4s 4 ´ 50
Q.6 A person eats 5 slices of bread, each having 400 cal. Efficiency of the person is 40 %. Find the Hmax
upto which the person can jump ? (mass = 50 kg)
Sol. Total cal 400 × 5 = 2000 cal.
40
mgh = 2000 × × 4.2
100
8
Þ 50 × 10 × h = 20 × 40 × 4.2 Þ h = ´ 4.2 = 1.6 ´ 4.2 = 6.72 m
5
Thermal Capacity (Heat Capacity) :-

It is the amount of heat required to se the temp. of whole body by 1ºC.
Heat capacity = mass ® specific heat capacity = (m × 5)
or
Q
Hc =
DT
J
SI Unit : - or JK–1 or JºC–1
K
Note :-(1) Thermal capacity of a body depends upon mass of the substance & nature of the substance.
(2) The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of the body by 1°C is called heat capacity.
HC depends on
1. Property of material
2. Mass of the body
(HC)vapour > (HC)liquid > (HC)solid
Svapour > Sliquid > Ssolid (not for water)
é cal ù
Specific heat is maximum in gases = H2 ê3.5 ú
ë gm-°C û
E 17
ALLEN
Molar Sp. Heat :-
It is amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of substance by 1ºC !
Mole specific heat = MW × S
Q æ Q ö
= MW ´ çQ S = ÷
mDT è mDT ø
1æ Q ö
= ç ÷
m è DT ø
Unit :- J mol–1 K–1 or J mol–1ºC–1 or cal mol–1 K–1

BB-2 : 1
Ex. 1 : 19, 24, 25, 27, 33, 35, 22
BB-2 : 1
Ex. 1 : 19, 24, 25, 27, 33, 35, 22
18 E
ALLEN
LECTURE # 05
Phase Conversion (Heating curve) :-
During the phase change, there will be no change in temperature.
Whatever heat you provide, will go in changing the phase of the substance.
Melting

Solid
liquid
freezing
Vaporization

Liquid
Gas
condensation
Latent heat or Hidden heat

When phase of a body changes, change of phase takes place at constant temperature [melting point
or boiling point] and heat released or absorbed is Q = mL where L is latent heat. Heat is absorbed
if solid converts into liquid (at melting point) or liquid convert into vapours (at boiling point) and
heat is released if liquid converts into solid or vapours convert into liquid.
l Latent heat of fusion
It is the quantity of heat (in kilocalories) required to change 1 kg mass of a substance from solid
to liquid state at its melting point. Latent heat of fusion for ice : 80 kcal/kg = 80 cal /g.
(Lf) water = 80 cal g–1 ¾® 80 × 4.2 × 10 +3
Q = mLf
l Latent heat of vaporization
The quantity of heat required to change its 1 kg mass from liquid to vapour state at its boiling point.
Latent heat of vaporisation for water : 536 kcal/kg = 536 cal/g ; 540 cal/g
(LV) water = 540 cal g–1
Q = mLV
Q
LV =
m
Heating of Solid (Heating curve)
q temperature (°C)
o ur e
v ap
f
go
tin
ea
c vaporisation H g BP
BP id
qu d
li
of
g
atin
a melting He b
MP MP
id
sol b
o f Latent heat of latent heat of
n g
ati fusion vaporisation
He (Qb-Qa) (Qd-Qc)
a
O heat (Q)
(mS1Dq) Qa (MLF) Qb (mS2Dq) Qc (MLV) Qd (mS3Dq)
E 19
ALLEN
a® super heated solid
b® absolute liquid
c ® super heated liquid
d ® absolute vapour
a ® Gives specific heat of solid
b ® Gives specific heat of liquid
g ® Gives specific heat of vapour
Order of slope :
dy dT
slope = =
dx dQ
a>b>g
Heat dQ = mSdT
V
S L
dT 1
= = slope
dQ mS
1
\ mS =
slope
Q.7 According to the graph , find whose specific heat is high?
T A
B
TA aA
Sol. aA > ab
TB aB
Q1 Q
tan(aA) > tan(aB)

(slope)A > (slope)B
1
Sa
Slope
(S)A < (SB)

Q.8 For the same mass. Find the ratio of SA : SB .
T A
60º
30º
Q
20 E
ALLEN
Sol. Q = mSDt ; y = mx
1
slope =
MS
1 ( Slope )A SB 3
Q Slope µ = = =
S ( Slope )B SA 1
\ SA : SB = 1 : 3
Q.9 Find the amount of heat required to change 10 g of water at 100ºC to steam at 100ºC
Sol. Q Q = mLV = 540 × 10 = 5400 cal.
Q.10 If 20 gm of ice absorb 160 cal heat at 0ºC. find final content of the mixture.
Sol. Q = mL
= 20 × 80 = 1600 cal
Required to convert complete ice into water.
Here, 160 = m × 80
m = 2g
\ 2g water, remaining 18 gm is ice ¾® final content.
Q.11 Find amount of heat required to convert 100 gm of ice from – 20º C to steam at 100º C.
100gm
Sol. ice ice water water
–20ºC 0ºC 0ºC 100ºC 100ºC
Q1 = msD T
1
= 100 × ´ 20 = 1000 cal.
2
Q2 = mL = 100 × 80 = 8000 cal

Q3 = msDT= 100 × 1 × 100 = 10000 cal.
Q4 = mL = 100 × 540 = 54000 cal.
\ Total heat = 1000 + 8000 + 64000 = 73000 cal.
T
steam
100ºC
ter
wa
water
0ºC
ice Q3 Q4 Q
ice Q2
Q1
–20ºC
Q.12 Find the amount of heat required to convert 10 gm of ice at –20ºC to steam at 120ºC
ice ice water water

Sol.
–20ºC Q1 0ºC Q2 0ºC Q3 100ºC Q 4 100ºC Q 5 120ºC
E 21
ALLEN
1
Q1 = msD T = 10 × × 20 = 100 cal
2
Q2 = mL = 10 × 80 = 800 cal
Q3 = msDT = 10 × 1× 100 = 1000 cal.
Q4 = mL = 540 × 10 = 5400
1
Q5 = msD T = 10 × × 20 = 100
2
Total = 5400 + 100 + 800 + 1000 + 100 = 7400 Cal.
120ºC
100ºC
0ºC
Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5
Q1
–20ºC
Q.13 A mixture of 10 gm of ice and 20 gm water at 0ºC find the amount of heat required to se the
temp. by 20ºC
Sol. ice water
0ºC 0ºC
10gm 20 gm
Q = mL Þ 10 × 80 = 800 cal. Q = 20 × 1 × 20 = 400.
Water Water
0ºC 20 g, 20ºC
10 gm
Q = 1 × 10 × 20 = 200 cal
water
10gm, 20ºC
\ Total Heat = 400 + 200 + 800
= 1400 cal.
Q.14 5g ice at –20ºC absorb heat 500 cal. find the final temperature.
Sol. m = 5g
T = –20ºC
Q = 500
ice (5g,–20ºC) Total Q = 500

1
Q= 5 × ×20 = 50 cal.
2
ice (5g, 0ºC) 50 = msDT
50 = 5 × 1 × (DT)
Q = mL = 5 × 80 = 400 cal.
water (5g,0ºC) DT = 10ºC
22 E
ALLEN
Q.15 20 gm ice at –40ºC. find the heat required to melt 8 gm ice.
Sol. ice (20g, –40ºC)
1
Q = 20 × × 40 = 400 cal .
2
ice (20 gm, 0ºC) Q = 1040 cal.
Q = mL = 8 × 80 = 640 cal.
Water (8 gm, 0ºC)

Q.16 If the height of Niagra fall is 50 m, the difference between the temperature of water at the top and
the bottom of the fall is :
(A) 117 °C (B) 11.76 °C (C) 1.17 °C (*D) 0.117 °C
Sol. msDq = mgh
gh ( 9.8)( 50 )
Þ Dq = =
s ( 4200 ) = 0.117 °C
BB-2 : 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Ex. 1 : 28, 29, 32
Ex. 2 : 26

BB-2 : 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Ex. 1 : 28, 29, 32
Ex. 2 : 26
E 23
ALLEN
LECTURE # 06
Principle of calorimetry :-
If 2 substance at different temperature are mixed in a calorimeter then heat given by substance at
high temperature must be equal to heat absorbed by substance at lower temperature.
T1 > T2 Heat given = heat absorbed
+ m1 s1 D T = m2 s2 DT
s 1T s 2T
1 2
m 1
m 2
(i) m1 s1 (T1 – Tmix ) = m2s 2 (Tmix –T2 )
(ii) T1 > Tmix > T2 .
Tmix (s = specific heat)
Calorimeter
Water Equivalent :-
l As the specific heat of water is unity so the thermal capacity of a body (ms) represents its water equivalent also.
l Mass of water having the same thermal capacity as the body is called the water equivalent of the body
l The water equivalent of a body is the amount of water (in gram) that absorbs or gives out the same amount
of heat as is done by the body when heated or cooled through 1°C.
(HC)substance = (HC)water
MSSS = MWSW
MSSS = W × 1 cal/g°C
Unit of W : gram
Q.17 10 g of ice at 0°C is kept in a calorimeter of water equivalent 10 g. How much heat should be supplied to the
apparatus to evaporate the water thus formed? (Neglect loss of heat)
(1) 6200 cal (2) 7200 cal
(3) 13600 cal (*4) 8200 cal
Sol. DQ = mL + msDT + mL + WDT
= 10 × 80 + 10 × 1 × 100 + 10 × 540 + 10 × 100
= 8200 cal
Q.18 100 gm water at 20ºC is mixed with 200 gm water at 80ºC. Find the final temperature of mixture.
Sol. Heat gain = Heat lost.
100 × 1 × (Tmix – 20) = 200 × 1 × (80 – Tmix )
Tmix –20 = 160 –2T mix
3T mix = 180
Tmix = 60ºC.
(water = 300 gm)
Q.19 Liquid A(m1,s 1,T 1) is mixed with liquid B (m2,s 2,T 2). Find the temperature of mixture.
Sol. T1 > T2
m1 s1 (T 1–T mix ) = m 2 s2 (Tmix – T 2 )
m1 s1 T 1 – m 1 s1 T mix = m 2 s2 T mix – m 2 s2 T 2
m1 s 1T 1 + m2 s 2T 2 = m1 s1 Tmix + m 2s 2 Tmix .
m1s1T1 + m2s 2T2

= Tmix
m1s1 + m 2s2
If s1 = s2 , then
m1T1 + m2 T2
Tmix =
m1 + m 2
24 E
ALLEN
Q.20 10g Ice at 0ºC is mixed with 10 g water at 60ºC . Find the final temperature of mixture.
10g ice at 0°C 10g water at 60°C
Sol. Q = mL = 800 Cal. Q = msDT = 10 × 60 × 1 = 600 cal.
10 g water, 0ºC 10 g water, 0ºC

Ice receive 600 cal from water while it require 800 cal .
so ice remaining is and water is
200 = mL = 10 + 7.5
200
Þ m = = 2.5g = 17.5 g
L
Final temp = 0ºC

water = 17.5 g
Ice = 2.5 g
Q.21 In each questions find final mixture constant & temperature :-
Sol. (1) 10g ice, 0ºC + 10 g water 100ºC.
Q = m × L= 800Cal. Q = msDT = 10 × 1 × 100 = 1000 cal.
10g water, 0ºC 10g water 0ºC

Total mass 20 g water, 0ºC
some heat is remining :- 200 cal which increase the temperature of mixture.
200 cal = msDT
200 = 20 × 1 × DT
\ DT = 10ºC
(2) 10g ice 0ºC + 1g steam 100ºC
mL = 800 cal 540 cal
10g, 0ºC (water) (1g, 100ºC) water
1 × 1×100= 100 cal

water
(1g,0ºC)
required heat = 800 cal
available heat = 640 cal .
so some ice is not melt.
640 = m × 80
Þ m = 8g ice is melt and 2g ice remain.
E 25
ALLEN
Q.22 Steam at 100°C is passed into 1.1 kg of water contained in a calorimeter of water equivalent 0.02
kg at 15°C till the temperature of the calorimeter and its contents rises to 80°C. What is the mass
of steam condensed? Latent heat of steam = 536 cal/g.
Solution
Heat required by (calorimeter + water)
Q = (m1c1 + m2c2) Dq = (0.02 + 1.1 × 1) (80 – 15) = 72.8 kcal
If m is mass of steam condensed, then heat given by steam
Q = mL + mc Dq = m × 536 + m × 1 × (100 – 80) = 556 m \ 556 m = 72.8
72.8
\ Mass of steam condensed m = = 0.130 kg
556

BB-2 : 8, 9, 10
Ex. 1 : 20, 23, 26
Ex. 2 : 73, 74

BB-2 : 8, 9, 10
Ex. 1 : 20, 23, 26
Ex. 2 : 73, 74
26 E
ALLEN
LECTURE # 07
Q.23 10gm ice, –20ºC + 40 gm , water 30ºC.
1
MSDT = 10 × × 20= 100 cal MSDT = 40 × 1 × 30 = 1200 cal.
2
ice
(10 gm , 0ºC) water
mLf = 10 × 80 = 800 cal (40gm. 0ºC)
required heat = 900 cal.

whole 10 g ice melt and remaining heat incerease the temperature of mixture.
300 = 50 × DT
DT = 6ºC
50g, water , 6ºC
Q.24 10 gm ice , –40 ºC + 10 gm water , 30ºC
Sol. 10 gm ice, – 40°C + 10 gm water, 30°C
1
MSDT = 10 ´ ´ 400 = 200 cal MSDT = 10 × 1 × 30 = 300 Cal.
2
10 gm ice 0°C Water (10g, 0°C)
MLf = 800 cal.
required heat 1000 cal. Available heat = 300 cal.

Remaining heat : 700 cal = m × 80 Þ 8.75 gm ice and 1.25 melted.
11.25 gm water remains in mixture.
Q.25 3 liquids of equal masses having temperature10ºC, 20ºC, 30ºC. If A & B are mixed resultaing temp.
is 14ºC and if B & C are mixed rasultant temp is 22ºC. Find resultant temp. A & C mixed.
Sol. When A & B are mixed
mS A ( 14 –10) = mS B (20 –14)
SA 6 3
Þ = = .... (i)
SB 4 2
when B and C are mixed
mS B (22–20) = mS C (30 –22)
SB 8 4
Þ = = .... (ii)
SC 2 1
E 27
ALLEN
(i) × (ii)
SA 6
=
SC 1 Þ SA = 6S C
so when A & C are mixed
mS A (T –10) = mS C (30–T)
Þ 6 (T–10) = (30 – T)
90
Þ 7T = 90 Þ T = = 12.8º C
7
Q.26 10 gm ice at 0°C is mixed with 2 gm steam at 100°C then final temperature of mixture will
be :-
(1) 40°C
(2) 60°C
(3) 100°C
(4) None of these
Sol. 10 gm ice 0°C 2 gm steam 100°C

Q1= 10 × 80 = 800
Qgiven =2 × 540
10 gm Water 0°C =1080
Q2= 10 × 100 = 1000
10 gm Water 100°C 2 gm Water 100°C
Qgiven < Qtaken T < 100°C

Qextra = 1800 – 1080 = 720
720 = 12 × 1 × (100 – T)
60 = 100 – T
T = 40°C
B.B.-2 : 8, 9, 10
Ex. 2 : 45

B.B.-2 : 8, 9, 10
Ex. 2 : 45
28 E
ALLEN
LECTURE # 08
Phase diagram
l A phase diagram is a graph in which pressure (P) is represented along the y–axis and temperature (T) is
represented along the x–axis.
l Characteristics of Phase diagram
(i) Different phases of a substance can be shown on a phase diagram.
(ii) A region on the phase diagram represents a single phase of the substance, a curve represents equilibrium
between two phases and a common point represents equilibrium between three phases.
(iii) A phase diagram helps to determine the condition under which the different phases are in equilibrium.
(iv) A phase diagram is useful for finding a convenient way in which a desired change of phase can be
produced.
Phase diagram for water
The phase diagram for water consists of three curves AB, AC and AD meeting each other at the point A,
these curves divide the phase diagram into three regions.
B Normal melting point Normal boiling point C

P
101
P +ve
Positive –ve
Phase diagram for water Liquid
fusion curve
(Scale are not linear) or ice line
P(kPa)
At the triple point solid, Solid vaporisation curve

liquid and vapour phases or steam line
all are in equilibrium A
0.61 Vapour
Triple point
sublimation curve
D or hoar frost line
0.00 0.01 tc (°C) 100.00
(MP) (BP)
Region to the left of the curve AB and above the curve AD represents the solid phase of water ( ice). The
region to the right of the curve AB and above the curve AC represents the liquid phase of water. The region
below the curves AC and AD represents the gaseous phase of water (i.e. water vapour). A curve on the
phase diagram represents the boundary between two phases of the substance.
Along any curve the two phases can coexist in equilibrium
l Along curve AB, ice and water can remain in equilibrium.This curve is called fusion curve or ice line. This
curve shows that the melting point of ice decreases with increase in pressure.
l Along the curve AC, water and water vapour can remain in equilibrium. The curve is called vaporisation
curve or steam line. The curve shows that the boiling point of water increases with increase in pressure.
l Along the curve AD, ice and water vapour can remain in equilibrium.
This curve is called sublimation curve or hoar frost line.
Triple point of water
The three curves in the phase diagram of water meet at a single point A, which is called the triple point
of water. The triple point of water represents the co–existance of all the three phases of water ice water
and water vapour in equilibrium. The pressure corresponding to triple point of water is 6.03 × 10–3 atmosphere
or 4.58 mm of Hg and temperature corresponding to it is 273.16K.
E 29
ALLEN
l Significance of triple point of water
Triple point of water represents a unique condition and it is used to define the absolute temperature. While
making Kelvin's absolute scale, upper fixed point is 273.16 K and lower fixed point is 0 K. One kelvin of
1
temperature is part of the temperature of triple point of water..
273.16
Effect of change in pressure on M.P. and B.P. for water
If P ¾¾¾¾¾ ® M.P. ¯ & B.P.
then result
l
If P ¯ ¬¾¾¾¾ ¾ M.P. & B.P. ¯

then result
l
Phase digram for CO 2

Effect of change in pressure on M.P. and B.P. for CO2
If P ¾¾¾¾¾ ® M.P. & B.P.
then result
l
If P ¯ ¬¾¾¾¾ ¾ M.P. ¯ & B.P. ¯

then result
l
P
(atm)
A
73.0 C
56.0
S L
O
5.11
1.0 V
B–78.5–56.6 2031.1T(°C)
Example :
(1) A bottle is filled with water at 30°C on opening at moon then water will boil and vapourised
(2) At higher altitudes of mountain, food can not be cooked properly.
Special Points :
1. At triple point of water
Temperature = 0.01 °C ; 273.16 K
Pressure = 4.6 mm of Hg
2. Effect of pressure variation on melting point temperature and boiling point temperature can be anlysed
by phase indicator diagram.
dP JL
3. Slope = dT = T V - V [by Claussius]
( 2 1)
Ex. 1 : 31, 34, 36, 37 ; Remaining in questions in calorimatry section (17, 18, 21)
Ex. 2 : 31

Ex. 1 : 31, 34, 36, 37 ; Remaining in questions in calorimatry section (17, 18, 21)
Ex. 2 : 31
30 E
ALLEN
LECTURE # 09
The transfer of energy from a body at higher temperature to a body of lower temperature is called
heat transfer.
Heat can be transfered in 3 different forms :-
* Conduction
* Convection
* Radiation
Heat is a form of energy which transfers from a body at higher temperature to a body at lower
temperature.
The transfer of heat from one body to another may take place by any one of the following modes :.
l Conduction
The process in which the material takes an active part by molecular action and energy is passed
from one particle to another is called conduction. It is predominant in solids.
l Convection
The transfer of energy by actual motion of particle of medium from one place to another is called
convection. It is predominant is fluids (liquids and gases).
l Radiation
Quickest way of transmission of heat is known as radiation. In this mode of energy transmission,
heat is transferred from one place to another without effecting the inter–venning medium.
Conduction Convection Radiation
Heat Transfer due to Heat transfer due to density Heat transfer without any
Temperature difference difference medium
Due to free electron or vibration Actual motion of particles Electromagnetic radiation
motion of molecules
Heat transfer in Heat transfer in fluids No medium required
solids and Hg (Liquid + gas)
Slow process Slow process Fast process (3 × 108 m/sec)
Irregular path Irregular path Straight line (like light)
Conduction : -
It is a process of heat transfer in which heat is transferred from high temperature to low temperature
without the actual motion of particles in a solid.
Let we heat a rod from its one end as shown in fig.
Z:\NODE02\B0AH-AI\TEACHING NOTES\PHYSICS\THERMAL PHYSICS\04-HEAT TRANSFER.P65
DQ = 0
dx (T1>T2)
T1 T2
T (T–dT)
L
When we continue heat up its one end than slowly, other parts also becomes hot as time passes. firstly
all parts of rod absorbs heat and after some time no heat is absorbed by any part. This is explained
under two states :-
E 31
ALLEN
(1) Variable state : - In this state temperature of each and every part of the rod increases with time.
(2) Steady state : - After some time a variable state comes when no heat is absobed by any part. So the temprature
of every part is constant and decreases uniformly from hotter end to colder end.
Rate of heat flow :-
æ dQ ö
In given diagram, in steady state the heat flow through the rod is constant. The rate of heat flow ç ÷
è dt ø
depends on :-
(1) Cross section Area (A) of rod
æ dT ö
(2) rate of change of temperature with distance ç - ÷ = temperature gradient
è dx ø
dQ
\ µA
dt
dQ æ dT ö
µ ç- ÷
dt è dx ø
On Combining the relations
dQ æ dT ö
µ Aç - ÷
dt è dx ø
dQ æ dT ö
Þ = -KA ç ÷
dt è dx ø
where K ® coefficient of conductivity
if we take the whole length of rod then
dQ æ T -T ö
Þ = -KA ç 2 1 ÷
dt è L ø
dQ KA
Þ = ( T1 - T2 ) Rate of heat flow
dt L
where K ® Coefficient of conductivity
A ® Cross section area
L ® Length of rod
T1 ® High temperature
T2 ® low temperature
32 E
ALLEN
Thermal conductivity (K) :
• It depends on nature of material.
Order of thermal conductivity Ag > Cu > Au > Al
• SI Unit : J s–1 m–1 K–1 Dimensions : M1 L1 T–3 q–1
• For an ideal or perfect conductor of heat the value of K = ¥
• For an ideal or perfect bad conductor or insulator the value of K = 0
• For cooking the food, low specific heat and high conductivity utensils are most suitable.
Application of Thermal Conduction
• In winter, the iron chairs appear to be colder than the wooden chairs.
• Cooking utensils are made of aluminium and brass whereas their handles are made of wood.
• Ice is covered in gunny bags to prevent melting of ice.
• We feel warm in woollen clothes and fur coat.
• Two thin blankets are warmer than a single blanket of double the thickness.
• Birds often swell their feathers in winter.
• A new quilt is warmer than old one.
Q.1 Find the rate of heat flow in the following figure. :-
Sol. K = 200 W , l = 2m
mº C
A = 10–2 m2
Q KA DT
iT = =
t l
200 ´10-2 ´ 100

=
2
Þ 100 J/sec.
Thermal resistance :-
It is the obstruction offered to the flow of heat through the conductor.
When we compare the flow of heat to the flow of electricity.
E 33
ALLEN
T1 > T2
T1 T2
dQ KA V1 - V2
iT = = ( T1 - T2 ) i=
dt L R
(iT = Thermal current)
L
On comparing we get that is the value of thermal resistance
KA
L
So R=
KA
W
Q.2 Find thermal resistance of a rod having area 10–3 m2, K = 200 m ºC , l = 2m
l Þ 2
Sol. R = = 10
KA 200 ´ 10-3

BB-3 : 1
Ex. 1 : 46, 54, 58, 60, 63, 47, 51
Ex. 2 : 15, 11

BB-3 : 1
Ex. 1 : 46, 54, 58, 60, 63, 47, 51
Ex. 2 : 15, 11
34 E
ALLEN
LECTURE # 10
Equivalent conductivity in series combination :-
Both rods have same cross sectional area, we know in series combination
Req = R1 + R2 Þ
( L1 + L2 ) =
L1 L
+ 2
K eq .A K1A K 2 A
K1 K2
l1 l2
Equivalent thermal conductivity is
L1 + L 2
K eq =
L1 L2
+
K1 K 2
If lengths of rod is same then
K1K 2
K eq =
K1 + K 2
Equivalent thermal conductivity in parallel combination :-

Length of both rod is same
In parallel combination
1 1 1
= +
R eq R1 R 2
K eq. ( A1 + A 2 ) K1 A1 K 2 A 2 K1A1 + K 2 A 2
Þ = + Þ K eq = A + A
L L L 1 2
if Area of both rod is same then
K1 + K 2
K eq =
2
Q.3 Find the equivalent conductivity (Keq )
K 3K
2l 2l
l1 + l 2
Sol. K eq =
l1 l 2
+
K1 K 2
4l1
=
2l 2l
+
K 3K
4 ´ 3K 12 3
= = KÞ K
6+2 8 2
E 35
ALLEN
Q.4 Find the equivalent conductivity (Keq)
K 2K K
l 4l 3l
L eq
Sol. K eq =
l1 l 2 l 3
+ +
K1 K 2 K 3
8l 16K
= Þ
l 4l 3l 2 + 4+6
+ +
K 2K K
4
= K
3
Q.5 Find equivalent thermal conductivity (Keq)
3A, L, 2K
TH TL
A, L, 2K
K1A1 + K 2 A 2
Sol. K eq =
A1 + A 2
2K ( 3A ) + 2K ( A )
=
4A
8KA
= = 2K
4A
Q.6 Find equivalent thermal conductivity (Keq)
A, L, 3K
TH TL
2A, L, 2K
3KA + 4KA
Sol. K eq =
3A
7K
=
3
36 E
ALLEN
Q.7 Find equivalent thermal conductivity in the given figure.
T1 K 3K T2 ;
l 2l
Area = A
l1 + l 2
Keq =
l1 l 2
+
k1 k 2
3L 9K
Keq = Þ .
L 2L 5
+
K 3K
(ii)
K1A1 + K 2 A 2
Keq = A2 = pr2 2 A1 = p(r 1 2 )–p(r 2 2 )
A1 + A 2
A1 = p(r 1 2 – r 2 2 )
K1p ( r12 - r22 ) + K 2 pr22
K eq =
p(r12 - r22 ) + pr22

BB-3 : 2, 3
Ex. 1 : 38, 40, 39, 42, 45, 47, 50, 53, 55, 56
Ex. 2 : 29, 84, 27, 58

BB-3 : 2, 3
Ex. 1 : 38, 40, 39, 42, 45, 47, 50, 53, 55, 56
Ex. 2 : 27, 29, 58, 85
E 37
ALLEN
LECTURE # 11
Temperature of junction | Interface temperature (T 0 )
T1 T0 T2
(1) K1 (2) K2
L1 L2
When we have to calculate the temperature of junction then we equate the rate of heat flow from
both parts.
æ dQ ö æ dQ ö K1A K A
ç ÷ =ç ÷ Þ ( T1 - T0 ) = 2 ( T0 - T2 )
è dt ø1 è dt ø 2 L1 L2
and calculate the T0 .
Q.8 Find temperatue TA (temp. at point A) for the given figure.
KA KA
Sol. (100 - T0 ) = ( T0 - 20 )
2 3
3
Þ 150 – T = T 0 –20
2 0
5
Þ T0 = 170
2
Þ T0 = 68 ºC
Q.9 Find the temperature of junction for following figure.
100ºC T 20ºC
K 3K
Area is same.
l 3l
Sol. i1 = i2
æQö æQö Q KA
ç ÷ = ç ÷ \ =
è T ø1 è T ø2
( T1 - T2 )
t l
æ KA DT ö æ KA DT ö
ç ÷ = ç ÷
è l ø1 è l ø2
A (100 - T ) A ( T - 20 )
K = 3K
l 3l
Þ 100 – T = T –20
2T = 120
T = 60ºC
38 E
ALLEN
Q.10 Find temperature of junction :-
T
T1 K1 K2 T2
l1 l2
Sol. i1 = i2
æQö =æQö
ç ÷ ç ÷
è T ø1 è T ø 2
( T1 - T ) ( T - T2 )
K1 A = K2 A
l1 l2
K1 l 2 T 1 – K 1 l 2 T = K 2 l 1 T – K 2 T 2 l 1
K2 l 1 T + K1 l 2 T = K 1 l 2 T1 + K 2 T 2 l 1
T (K2 l 1 + K1 l2 ) = K1 l 2 T1 + K2 l1 T 2
K1l 2 T1 + K 2 l1T2
T=
( K 2 l1 + K1l 2 )
Q.11 Two cylinder of the same diameter, one of iron and other of silver are placed in closed contact as
shown in fig. If the thermal conductivity of silver is 11 times that of iron the temperature of the interface
is :
100°C
Fe
A
Ag
0°C
(1) 91.7°C (2) 80°C (3) 50°C (*4) 8.3°C

100°C 100
Sol. Fe K iH1
A – i
Ag 11K i
iH2
0°C O
iH1 = iH 2
KA 11KA
(100 - q) = (q - 0)
L L
100 – q = 11q
100 = 12q
100 50 25
q= = =
12 6 3
q = 8.3°C
E 39
ALLEN
Q.12 Two bars of thermal conductivities K and 3K and lengths 1 cm and 2 cm respectively have equal cross-sectional
area, they are joined lengths wise as shown in the figure. If the temperature at the ends of this composite bar
is 0°C and 100°C respectively (see fig.), then the temperature j of the interface is :-
0°C K 3K 100°C
1cm 2cm
100 200
(1) 50°C (2) °C (*3) 60°C (4) °C
3 3
6°C K 3K 100°C
Sol.
1cm 2cm
i1 = i2
f - 0 100 - f
= Þ 2f = 300 - 3f
1 2 Þ f = 60 o C
KA 3KA
Q.13 The temperature gradient in a rod of 0.5 m length is 80°C/m. It the temperature of hotter end of the
rod is 30°C, then the temperature of the cooler end is :-
(1) 40°C (*2) –10°C
(3) 10°C (4) 0°C
DT
Sol. = 80 o C / m
Dx
30 - T
= 80 Þ T = -10 o C
0.5
Q.14 L, K, A ¾® Same find T.
T=?
80ºC
90ºC
70ºC
KA ( 90 - T ) KA ( T - 80 ) KA ( T - 70 )
Sol. = +
l l l
90 –T = T –80 + T –70
90 – T = 2T –150
3T Þ 240
T = 80ºC
Or Alternate Method i1 + i2 + i3 = 0
40 E
ALLEN
B
R R
R A C
Q.15
100ºC R 0ºC
R R
D
We have 6 wires of equal length, Area and K are connected as shown in fig. Find temperature of A &
C.
Sol. Q L, K, A ® Same for all Rod
L
\ R =
KA
Equivalent diagram
So each resistance hold

100 100 A C O
°C changed in temperature. So,
3 R R R
100 200
TA = 100 - = °C
3 3
100 100 100

TC = 100 - = = °C
3 3 3
Q.16 Calculate :-
(i) Keq
(ii) net heat current
K1= 60 W/mºC
100ºC 0ºC
K2= 40 W/mºC
2m
A= 2m2
W W
Given l = 2m K1 = 60 , K 2 = 40
m° C m°C
A = 2m2
60 ´ 2 + 40 ´ 2 120 + 80 200
(i) Keq Þ Þ = = 50 W/mºC
4 4 4
K eq A eq
H= (T1 - T2 )
l eq
50 ´ 4 ´ (100 - 0)
H= J/s
2
H = 10000J / s
E 41
ALLEN
P
5m
10ºC W
Q.17 K = 100 , A = 1m2
m ºC
110ºC
l=10m
Find (i) Temperature gradient

(ii) Thermal current
(iii) temperature at point P .
DT 100
(i) Þ = 10
Dl 10
Q KA ( DT ) 100 ´ 1 ´ 100
(ii) iT = Þ Þ Þ 1000 J/S.
t L 10
DT
(iii) 10 Þ DT = 50
5
T = 60ºC
DT
= 10 110 – T P = 50
l
TP = 60ºC
Q.18 Two thin concentric shells made of copper with radius r1 and r2 (r2 > r1) have a material of thermal conductivity
K filled between them. The inner and outer spheres are maintained at temperatures TH and TC respectively
by keeping a heater of power P at the centre of the two spheres. Find the value of P.
Solution : Heat flowing per second through each cross-section of the sphere = P = i.
Thermal resistance of the spherical shell of radius x and thickness dx,
dx
dR =
K.4px 2
r2 r1
dx æ1 1ö r2
Þ ò
R = 4 px 2 .K =
r1
1
4pK
ç - ÷
çr r ÷
è 1 2ø dx x
P
thermal current
TH - TC 4pK(TH - TC ) r1 r2
i = P = = .
R (r2 - r1 )
Growth of Ice on Lakes
In winter atmospheric temperature falls below 0°C and water in the lake start freezing. Let at time t thickness
of ice on the surface of the lake = x and air temperature = –q° C

The temperature of water in contact with the lower surface of ice = 0°C
Let area of the lake = A
air at below 0° C
[0 - (-q)]
Heat escaping through ice in time dt is dQ = KA dt ice x
x dx
Due to escape of this heat increasing extra thickness of ice = dx 0° C
Mass of this extra thickness of ice is m = rV = r A.dx water
dQ = mL = (r A.dx) L
q rL
\ KA dt = (r A.dx) LÞ dt = x dx
x Kq
42 E
ALLEN
So time taken by ice to grow a thickness x is t =
rL x
Kq 0 z
x dx =
So time taken by ice to grow from thickness x1 to thickness x2 is

1 rL 2
2 Kq
x
1 rL
t = t2 – t1 = (x 2 – x12) and t µ (x 22 - x12 )
2 KT 2
Time taken to double and triple the thickness ratio t1 : t2 : t3 :: 12 : 22 : 32
So t1 : t2 : t3 :: 1 : 4 : 9

BB-3 : 4, 5, 6
Ex. 1 : 41, 43, 44, 51, 52, 61, 62, 64, 48, 49, 59, 65, 66, 67

BB-3 : 4, 5, 6
Ex. 1 : 41, 43, 44, 51, 52, 61, 62, 64, 48, 49, 59, 65, 66, 67
E 43
ALLEN
LECTURE # 12
Convection
Convection requires a medium and is the process in which heat is transferred from
one place to other by actual movement of heated substance (usually fluid).The type
of convection which results from difference in densities is called natural convection (for
example, a fluid in a container heated through its bottom). However, if a heated fluid
is forced to move by a blower, fan or pump, the process is called forced convection.
Phenomena Based on convection :
A
(i) Land and sea breezes :
The heat from the Sun is absorbed more rapidly by land than by sea–water. Moreover,
Flame
the specific heat of land is low as compared to that of sea–water. Consequently, the
rise in temperature of land is higher as compared to that of sea–water. To sum–up,
land is hotter than the sea during day time. As a result of this, the colder air over
the sea blows towards the land. This is called sea–breeze.
At night, air blows from land towards sea. This is called land breeze.
(ii) Formation of trade winds :
The surface of Earth near the equator gets heated strongly. So, the air in contact with the surface of Earth
at the expands and rises upwards. As a result of this, a low pressure is created at the equator.
At the poles, the air in the upper atmosphere gets cooled and comes down. So, a high pressure is created
at the poles. Due to difference of pressures at the poles and equator, the air at the poles moves towards
the equator, rises up, moves towards poles and so on. In this way, a wind is formed in the atmosphere.
The rotation of the Earth also affects the motion of the wind. Due to anti–clockwise rotation of Earth the
warm wind blowing from equator to north drifts towards east. The steady wind blowing from north–East to
equator, near the surface of Earth, is called trade wind.
(iii) Monsoons :
In summer, the peninsular mass of central Asia becomes more strongly heated than the water of the Indian
Ocean. This is due to the fact that the specific heat of water is much higher than that of the soil and rocks.
Hot air from the heated land mass rises up and moves towards the Indian ocean. Air filled with moisture
flows over the Indian ocean on the south towards heated land mass. When obstructed by mountains, the moist
air rushes upwards to great height. In the process, it gets cooled. Consequently, the moisture condenses and
falls as rain.
(iv) Ventillation :
Ventillator of exhaust fan in a room help of remove impure and warm air from a room. The fresh air from
outside blows into the room. This is all due to the forced convection current set up in the room.
(v) To regulate temperature in the human body :
Heat transfer in the human body involves a combination of mechanisms. These together maintain a remarkably
uniform temperature in the human body inspite of large changes in environmental conditions. The chief internal
mechanism is forced convection. The heart serves as the pump and the blood as the circulating fluid.
Some important points :
l Natural convection takes place from bottom to top due to gravity while forced convection in any direction.
l In case of natural convection, convection currents move warm air upwards and cool air downwards.
This is why heating is done from base, while cooling from the top.
l Natural convection is not possible in a gravity free region such as a freely falling lift or an orbiting
satellite.
l Natural convection plays an important role in ventilation, in changing climate and weather and in forming
land and sea breezes and trade winds.
l The forced convection of blood in our body by a pump (heart) helps in keeping the temperature of
body constant.
l Convection takes place in fluids (gases and liquid)
44 E
ALLEN
Thermal Radiation
The process of the transfer of heat from one place to another place without heating the intervening medium
is called radiation. When a body is heated and placed in vacuum, it loses heat even when there is no medium
surrounding it. The heat can not go out from the body by the process of conduction or convection since both
of these process require the presence of a material medium between source and surrounding objects. The
process by which heat is lost in this case is called radiation. This does not require the presence of any material
medium.
It is radiation by which heat from the Sun reaches the Earth.
Radiation has the following properties:
(a) Radiant energy travels in straight lines and when some object is placed in the path, its shadow is formed
at the detector.
(b) It is reflected and refracted or can be made to interfere. The reflection or refraction are exactly as
in case of light.
(c) It can travel through vacuum.
(d) Intensity of radiation follows the law of inverse square.
(e) Thermal radiation can be polarised in the same way as light by transmission through a nicol prism.
(f) Radiation takes place in solid, liquid & gases.
• When radiation passes through any medium then radiations slightly absorbed by medium according to its absorptive
power so temperature of medium slightly increases.
• In order to obtain a spectrum of radiation, a special prism is used like KCl prism, Rock salt prism
Flourspar prism. Normal glass prism or Quartz prism can not be used (because it absorbs some radiation).
• Radiation intensity is measured with a specific device named as Bolometer and Thermopile.
• Heat radiation are always obtained in infra–red region of electromagnetic wave spectrum so they are called
Infra-red rays.
• Thermal radiation when incident on a surface, then exert pressure on the surface which is known as Radiation
Pressure.
19. Heat travels though vacuum by :-
(1) Conduction (2) Convection
(*3) Radiation (4) Both (1) and (2)
Sol. Theory

BB-4 : 1
Ex. 1 : 88, 110, 109


BB-4 : 1
Ex. 1 : 88, 111, 110
E 45
ALLEN
LECTURE # 13
Basic Fundamental definitions
• Absorptive power or absorptive coefficient (a) : The ratio of amount of radiation absorbed by a surface
Qa
(Qa) to the amount of radiation incident (Q) upon it, is defined as the coefficient of absorption a = . It
Q
is unitless and dimensionless.
Qa l
• Spectral absorptive power (al ) al = : Also called monochromatic absorptive coefficient
Ql
z
¥
At a given wavelength a = a l dl . For ideal black body al and a = 1, a and al are unitless
0
• Emissive power (e) : The amount of heat radiation emitted by unit surface area in unit second at a particular
temperature. SI UNIT : J/m2–s or watt/m2
• Spectral Emmisive power (el ) : The amount of heat radiation emitted by unit area of the body in one second
in unit spectral region at a given wavelength.
¥
Emissive power or total emissive power e = ò el dl
0
2
SI UNIT : W/m –Å
Emissivity (e)
• Absolute emissivity or emissivity : Radiation energy given out by a unit surface area of a body in unit
time corresponding to unit temperature difference w.r.t. the surroundings is called Emissivity.
S I unit : W/m2 K
Q GB e emitted radiation by gray body

• Relative emissivity (er) : er = = GB =
Q IBB E IBB emitted radiation by ideal black body
GB = gray or general body, IBB = Ideal black body
(i) No unit (ii) For ideal black body er = 1 (iii) range 0 < er < 1
Spectral, emissive, absorptive and transmittive power of a given body surface
Due to incident radiations on the surface of a body following phenomena occur by which the radiation is divided
into three parts. (a) Reflection (b) Absorption (c) Transmission
• From energy conservation
amount of incident amount of reflected

radiation Q radiation Qr
amount of
absorbed
radiation Qa
amount of transmitted
radiation Q t
Qr Qa Qt
Q = Qr + Qa + Qt Þ + + =1Þ r + a + t = 1
Q Q Q
Qr Qa
Reflective Coefficient r = , Absorptive Coefficient a = ,
Q Q
46 E
ALLEN
Qt
Transmittive Coefficient t =
Q
r = 1 and a = 0 , t = 0 Þ Perfect reflector
a = 1 and r = 0, t = 0 Þ Ideal absorber (ideal black body)
t = 1 and a = 0, r = 0 Þ Perfect transmitter (diathermanous)
é Qr ù éQ ù
Reflection power (r) = ê ´ 100 ú % , Absorption power (a) = ê a ´ 100ú %
ëQ û ëQ û
é Qt ù
Transmission power (t) = ê ´ 100ú %
ë Q û
Ideal Black Body
• A body surface which absorbs all incident thermal radiations at low temperature, irrespective of their wave
length and emits out all these absorbed radiations at high temperature is assumed to be an ideal black body
surface.
• The identical parameters of an ideal black body is given by a = al = 1 and r = 0 = t, er = 1
Ferry's ideal black body
• The nature of emitted radiations from surface of ideal black body only depends on its temperature
• The radiations emitted from surface of ideal black body are called as either full or white radiations.
• At any temperature the spectral energy distribution curve for surface of an ideal black body is always continuous
and according to this concept if the spectrum of a heat source obtained is continuous then it must be ideal
black body like kerosene lamp; oil lamp, heating filament etc.
• There are two experimentally ideal black body
(a) Ferry's ideal black body (b) Wien's ideal black body.
• An ideal black body need not be of black colour (eg. Sun).
Prevost's theory of heat energy exchange
According to Prevost, at every possible temperature ( except zero kelvin temperature) there is a continuous
heat energy exchange between a body and its surrounding and this exchange carry on for infinite time.
The relation between temperature difference of body with its surrounding decides whether the body experience
cooling effect or heating effect.
When a cold body is placed in the hot surrounding : The body radiates less energy and absorbs more
energy from the surrounding, therefore the temperature of body increases. (Heating effect)
When a hot body placed in cooler surrounding : The body radiates more energy and absorbs less energy
from the surroundings. Therefore temperature of body decreases. (cooling effect)
E 47
ALLEN
When the temperature of a body is equal to the temperature of the surrounding
The energy radiated per unit time by the body is equal to the energy absorbed per unit time by the body,
therefore its temperature remains constant and the body is in thermal equillibrium with surrounding. Hence
no heating and cooling effects are seen.
KIRCHHOFF'S LAW
At a given temperature for all bodies the ratio of their spectral emissive power (el) to spectral absorptive
power (al) is constant and this constant is equal to spectral emissive power (El) of the ideal black body at
same temperature
el é el ù é el ù
= E l = constant ê ú = ê ú = constant Hence el µ a l
al ë a l û1 ë a l û2
Good absorbers are good emitters and bad absorbers are bad emitters
Applications of Kirchoff Law
• Fraunhoffer's lines
Fraunhoffer lines are dark lines in the spectrum of the Sun. When white light emitted from the central core
of the Sun (Photosphere) passes through its atmosphere (chromosphere) some of the radiations are absorbed
by the gases present, resulting in dark lines in the spectrum of Sun. At the time of total solar eclipse direct
light rays emitted from photosphere cannot reach on the Earth and only rays from chromosphere are able
to reach on the Earth surface. At that time we observe bright fraunhoffer lines.

Ex. 1 : 119, 105, 100, 88, 83, 81

Ex. 1 : 120, 106, 101, 88, 83, 81
48 E
ALLEN
LECTURE # 14
STEFAN-BOLTZMANN'S LAW :
According to this law, the amount of radiation emitted per unit time from an area A of a black body at absolute
tempeature T is directly proporitonal to the fourth power of the tempeature.
Q = sAT4 ...(1)
–8
where s is Stefan's constant = 5.67 × 10 W/m2K4
A body which in not a black body absorbs and hence emits less radiation then
For such a body, Q = esAT4 ...(2)
where e = emissivity (which is equal to absorptive power) which lies between 0 to 1
With the surroundings of temperature T0, net energy radiated by an area A per unit time..
Du = u – u0 = esA(T4 – T04) ...(2)
Q.20 A body of emissivity (e = 0.75), surface area of 300 cm2 and temperature 227°C is kept in a room at temperature
27°C. Calculate the initial value of net power emitted by the body.
Sol. P = esA(T4 – T04)
= (0.75) (5.67 × 10–8 W/m2–K4) (300 × 10–4 m2) × {(500 K)4 – (300 K)4}
= 69.4 Watt
Q.21 For a black body at temperature 727°C, its radiating power is 60 watt and temperature of surrounding
is 227°C. If temperature of black body is changed to 1227°C then its radiating power will be :-
(1) 304 W (*2) 320 W (3) 240 W (4) 120 W
Q
Sol. P = = sA[T 4 - T04 ]
t
P µ (T4 – T04 )
Q.22 If temp. of IBB is increased by 50% what will be % increment in the quanlity of radiation ?
Sol. E1 Þ s T 4
E1 Þ s T 4
81T 4
E2 Þ s ×
16
E1 16 81
=
E 2 81 Þ E2 = 16 1
E
æ E 2 - E1 ö
% Charge = ç E ÷ ´ 100
è 1 ø
æ 81 ö 65
= ç - 1÷ ´ 100 = ´ 100
è 16 ø 16
= 406.25%
E 49
ALLEN
R
Q.23 Two spherical bodies have radius R & . having surface temperature. T1 & T2. If both have same
2
T1
radiating power, find T .
2
Q
Sol. P = = sAT4
t
Radiating power is
A 1T 14 = A 2 T 2 4
æ R2 ö 4 T12 1 T1 1
Þ 4pR T 1 2 2
= 4p ç ÷ T2 Þ T 2 = 4 Þ T =
è 4 ø 2 2 2
Q.24 Energy emmited per sec, by a IBB at 27ºC is 10J. If temp. of IBB is increased to 327ºC. find energy
emmitted per sec. in IInd case.
Q Q
= sAT 4 ; µ T4
t t
4
Q2 æ T2 ö
=
10 çè T1 ÷ø
4
Q2 æ 600 ö
=ç ÷ Þ 160J
10 è 300 ø
Q.25 Temperature of the body is 300 K Assuming surrounding temperature is negligibe at what temperature
will body emit double of its radiation.
Sol. E1 = sA (300)4
2E2 = sA (T)4
4
1 æ 300 ö
Þ =ç ÷ Þ T = (300) (2)1/4 = 300 × 1.189 = 356.7 K
2 è T ø

BB-4 : 2, 3
Ex. 1 : 119, 116, 109, 105, 83, 81, 68, 69, 71, 74, 85, 86, 87, 89, 90, 111, 117, 118, 120, 121
Ex. 2 : 81, 86, 12

BB-4 : 2, 3
Ex. 1 : 120, 117, 110, 106, 83, 81, 68, 69, 71, 74, 85, 86, 87, 89, 90, 112, 118, 119, 121, 122
Ex. 2 : 12, 87, 92
50 E
ALLEN
LECTURE # 15
Rate of Heat loss (RH) and Rate of Cooling (RC)
* If temp of surrounding is T0 then
Rate of Emmision
æ dQ ö -4
ç ÷ = sAT
è dt øe
Rate of absorotion :-
æ dQ ö
÷ = sAT0
4
ç
è dt øa
Net Rate :-
æ dQ ö æ dQ ö
ç ÷ -ç ÷
è dt øe è dt øa
æ dQ ö
÷ = sA ( T - T0 )
4 4
Rate of heat loss :- RH = ç
è dt ø
where T0 ® Temp of surrounding
dQ æ dT ö
Q = ms ç ÷
dt è dt ø
dT
ms = sA (T4 – T04 )
dt
dT sA 4
Þ Rate of cooling RC = = ( T - T04 )
dt ms
Q.26 A sphere, a cube and a thin circular plate, all made of the same material and having the same mass are
initially heated to a temperature of 1000°C. Which one of these will cool first ?
(*1) Plate (2) Sphere (3) Cube (4) None of these
seA(T 4 - T04 )
Sol. RC µ (Area) RC =
ms
Q.27 The rate of cooling at 600 K, if surrounding temperature is 300 K is H. The rate of cooling at 900K is:-
16 2
(*1) H (2) 2H (3) 3H (4) H
3 3
Sol. RC =
(
s eA T 4 - T0
4
)
ms
Q.28 Sun and a star at 2000 K and 1000 K respectively and radius of star is half the radius of sun. Find the ratio
of heat loss.
4
dQ QS 4pr 2 æ 2000 ö SUN STAR
Sol. = sAT 4 Þ = 2 ç ÷
dt QSt pr è 1000 ø
QS 64 2000 K 1000 K
Þ R R
QSt 1
2
E 51
ALLEN
Q.29 If 2 Sphere of equal radius have same density same specific heat and both have same temperature. T and
surrounding temperature is Ts. Then comment on :-
(i) Rate of Heat loss
(ii) Rate of cooling
(A) 1>2 (B) 1 < 2 (*C) 1 º 2 (D) None
dQ
Sol. (i) = RH (RH µ r2 )
dT
(A) 1 > 2 (B) 1 < 2 (*C) 1 = 2 (D) None.
sA1 ( T - Ts )
4 4
( dq1 ) ms ( T 4 - Ts4 ) dq1 pr 2

= 12
(ii) Þ Þ ( dq2 ) pr2
( dq2 ) A2
ms
dq1 = dq2
NEWTON'S LAW OF COOLING
æ dT ö
Rate of cooling ç ÷ is directly proportional to excess of temperature of the body over that of surrounding.
è dt ø
dT
[(when (q – q0) > 35°C] - µ (q – q0)
dt
q = temperature of body [all temperatures in °C]
qo = temperature of surrounding,
q – T0 = excess of temperature ( q > q0 )
dT
If the temperature of body is decreased by dT in time dt then rate of fall of temperature – = K(q - q0 )
dt
Where negative sign indictates that the rate of cooling is decreasing with time.
dq dq
µ - ( q - q0 ) ; = - K ( q - q0 )
dt dt
dq
= -Kdt
q - q0
intigrating both side
t
dq
ò ( q - q0 ) = -ò0 Kdt
loge(q – q0) = –Kt + C
q - q0 = e - Kt +C
q = e -Kt +C + q0
For Numerical Problems, Newton's Law of cooling q or T
If the temperature of body decreases from q1 to q2 and temperature exponantional

decay graph
of surroundings is q0 then
é q + q2 ù q0
average excess of temperature = ê 1 - q0 ú
ë 2 û t
é q1 - q2 ù é q1 + q2 ù
Þ ê t ú = +K ê 2 - q0 ú
ë û ë û
52 E
ALLEN
Q.30 Assuming Newton's law of cooling to be valid. The temperature of body changes from 60°C to 40°C
in 7 minutes. Temperature of surroundings being 10°C, Find its temperature after next 7 minutes.
Solution
T1 – T2 æ T1 + T2 ö
According to Newton's law of cooling =K ç – T0 ÷
t è 2 ø
Since the temperature decreases from 60°C to 40°C in 7 minutes
60 – 40 FG 60 + 40 – 10IJ 20
= K (50 – 10) Þ K =
1
7
= K
H 2 K Þ
7 14
40 – T2 1 æ 40 + T2 ö
If the temperature of object becoms T2 in next 7 minutes then = – 10 ÷
7 14 çè 2 ø
1
Þ 40 – T2 = (40 + T2 – 20) Þ 160 – 4T2 = 20 + T2
4
Þ 5T2 = 140 Þ T2 = 28°C
Q.31 A body takes 10 min. to cool from 90°C to 80°C. If the room temperature is 25°C. How much time
will it take to cool from 80°C to 70°C :-
(*1) 12 min. (2) 15 min.
(3) 10 min. (4) 8 min.
10 æ 170 ö
Sol. = Kç - 25 ÷ ....(1)
10 è 2 ø
10 æ 150 ö
= Kç - 25 ÷ ....(2)
t è 2 ø
t 60
=
10 50
t = 12 min
Q.32 The initial temperature of a body is 80°C. If its temperature falls to 64°C in 5 minutes and in 10 minutes
to 52°. Find the temperature of surrounding :-
(1) 26°C (2) 60°C (3) 36°C (4) 49°C
T1 - T2 æ T + T2 ö
Sol. = C1 ç 1 - T0 ÷
t è 2 ø
here T0 ® surrouding temp.
Q.33 A cup of tea cools from 80°C to 60°C in one minute. The ambient temperature is 30°C. In cooling
from 60°C to 50°C, it will take :
(1) 50 sec. (2) 90 sec.

(3) 60 sec. (4) 48 sec.
T2 - T1 éT + T ù
Sol. = K ê 2 1 - T0 ú
t ë 2 û
80 - 60
= K [ 70 - 30 ] ....(1)
60
60 - 50
= K [55 - 30] ....(2)
t
by (1) and (2)
t = 48 sec
E 53
ALLEN
Limitations of Newton's Law of Cooling
• Temperature difference should not exceed 35° C, (T – T0) >/ 35° C
• Newton's law of cooling is used to calculate the specific Heat of liquid because loss of heat should only be
by radiation.
• This law is an extended form of Stefan–Boltzman's law.
Derivation of Newton's law from Stefan's Boltzman law
dT sA 4 4 ì T - T0 = DT ü
= (T - T0 ) í ý
dt m s î T = T0 + DT þ
dT sA
= é(T0 + DT)4 - T04 ùû If x <<< 1 then (1 + x)n = 1 + nx (Binomial theorem)
dt m s ë
dT sA é 4 DT 4 ù sA 4 é DT 4 ù sA 4 é DT ù
= ê T0 (1 + ) - T04 ú = T0 ê (1 + ) - 1ú = T0 ê1 + 4 - 1ú
dt m s ë T0 û m s ë T0 û m s ë T0 û
dT é sA 3 ù dT 4s A T03
= 4 T0 ú DT Þ = K DT here constant K =
dt êë m s û dt ms
dT
Newton's law of cooling µ DT (for small temperature difference)
dt

BB-4 : 4
Ex. 1 : 75, 84, 94, 95, 96, 99, 106, 107, 70, 113, 114, 103, 76, 70
Ex. 2 : 34, 46, 67, 75

BB-4 : 4
Ex. 1 : 75, 84, 95, 96, 97, 98, 107, 108, 77, 70, 114, 115, 104, 76, 70
Ex. 2 : 46, 67, 75, 34
54 E
ALLEN
LECTURE # 16
Spectral Energy distribution curve of Black Body radiations
Practically given by : Lumers and Pringshem Mathematically given by : Plank
E lm3 T3 T3 > T2 > T 1

E n3
J sec-m2
lm3< lm2< lm 1 different

T3 > T2 > T 1 frequency
different
wavelength n3 > n 2 > n1 and emitted
T2 and emitted E n2 radiation
E lm2
Spectral radiation
radition
intens ity
E n or I l
T3
T1 T2
E lm1 E n1
T1
lm3 lm2 lm1 l n1 n 2 n3 n
Results from these Graphs
height of peak µ T
5
El
1
(i) lm µ Wien's displacement law
area µ T
4 T
lm T = b
l m1 T1 = l m2 T2
lm dl l
spectral energy distribution curve (E l–l )
(ii) E lm µ T5
¥
Area between curve and l axis gives (iii) i.e. Area òE

0
l dl = E = s T 4
the emissive power of body 4
A1 é T1 ù
Hence =ê ú
A2 ë T2 û
Wein's Displacement Law
The wavelength corresponding to maximum emission of radiation decrease with increasing temperature él m µ 1 ù .
ê T úû
ë
This is known as Wein's displacement law.
lm T = b where b is Wein's constant = 2.89 x 10–3 mK.
Dimensions of b : = M0 L1 T0 q1
Relation between frequency and temperature n m = c T [c = l ´ n]

b
Q.34 A black body is at a temperature of 5760 K. The energy of radiation emitted by the body at wavelength
250 nm is U1, at wavelength 500 nm is U2 and that at 1000 nm is U3. Wien's constant, b = 2.88 ×
106 nmK. Which of the following is correct?
(1) U1 = 0 (2) U3 = 0
(3) U1 > U2 (*4) U2 > U1
Sol. lmT = b
b 2.88 ´ 106
lm = = nm = 500 nm
T 5760
So U2 > U1
U2 > U3
E 55
ALLEN
Q.35 In the figure, the distribution of spectral energy of the radiation emitted by a black body at a given temperature
is shown. The possible temperature of the black body is :-
(b = 3 × 10–3 mk)
0 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 l in µm
(1) 1500 K (*2) 2000 K (3) 2500 K (4) 3000 K
Sol. P using Wiens law
lm T = b
(1.5 × 10–6)T = b
1.5 × 10–6T = 3 × 10–3
3 ´ 10 -3
T= ; T = 2 × 103 ; T = 2000 K
1.5 ´ 10 -6
Q.36 Shown below are the black body radiation curves at temperatures T1 and T2(T2>T1). Which of the
following plots is correct ?
I I I I
T2 T2 T2 T1
T1
T1 T1 T2
(1) (2) (3) (4)
l l l l
1
Sol. lµ
T
Q.37 Find temperature at max energy.
Sol. El
T
Emax
l=2.89 l(mm)
lm × T = b.
b 2.8 ´ 10-3
T= =
lm 2.89 ´ 10 –6
Þ 103 K.
56 E
ALLEN
Solar constant 'S'
The Sun emits radiant energy continuously in space of which an in significant part reaches the Earth. The
solar radiant energy received per unit area per unit time by a black surface held at right angles to the Sun's
rays and placed at the mean distance of the Earth (in the absence of atmosphere) is called solar constant.
The solar constant S is taken to be 1340 watt/m2 or 1.937 Cal/cm2–minute
l Temperature of the Sun
Let R be the radius of the Sun and 'd' be the radius of Earth's orbit around d
the Sun. Let E be the energy emitted by the Sun per second per unit area.
The total energy emitted by the Sun in one second = E.A = E × 4pR2. (This
R
energy is falling on a sphere of radius equal to the radius of the Earth's orbit
around the Sun i.e., on a sphere of surface area 4pd2) T
So, The energy falling per unit time per unit area of Earth
A
4 pR 2 ´ E E R2
= =
4 pd 2 d2 A'
R = 7× 10 m , d = 1.5 × 1011 m, s = 5.7 × 10–8 W m–2 K–4
8
E R2
Solar constant S =
d2
By Stefan's Law E = sT4

BB-4 : 5
Ex. 1 : 112, 115, 108, 102, 97, 93, 92, 91, 80, 79, 78, 82
Ex. 2 : 1, 4, 16, 23, 34, 50, 54, 69, 81

BB-4 : 5
Ex. 1 : 113, 116, 109, 103, 98, 94, 93, 91, 80, 79, 78, 82
Ex. 2 : 1, 4, 16, 23, 34, 50, 54, 69, 81

E 57
ALLEN
LECTURE # 17
To state the conditions of a gas, its volume, pressure and temperature must be specified.
Intermolecular force Solid > liquid > real gas > ideal gas (zero)
Potential energy Solid < liquid < real gas < ideal gas (zero)
At a given temperature for solid, liquid and gas:
(i) Internal kinetic energy : Same for all
(ii) Internal potential Energy : Maximum for ideal gas (PE = 0) and Minimum for solids (PE = –ve)
(iii) Internal Energy : Maximum for Ideal gas and Minimum for solid
Notation :
m = Molar amount of gas = M/Mw = N/N0 m = mass of a gas molecule
N0 = Avogadro constant = 6.023 × 1023 molecules/mole M = mass of gas
R = Universal gas constant = 8.31 J/mole–k Mw = molecular weight
» 2 cal/mole-k, [Dimension = ML2T-2m-1q-1] N = No. of gas molecules
r = Specific gas constant (r = R/Mw) n = Molecular density (n = N/V)
k = Boltzmann constant = (k = R/N0) = 1.38 x 10–23 J/kelvin r = gas density (r = M/V = mn)
N.T.P. S.T.P.
(Normal temperature and pressure) (Standard Temperature and Pressure)
Temperature 0° C = 273.15 K 0.01° C = 273.16K
Pressure 1 atm = 1.01325 × 105 N/m2 1 atm
= 1.01325 × 105 pascal
Volume 22.4 litre 22.4 litre
1 lit = 10–3 m3 = 103 cm3 = 103cc = 103ml
rwater=1000 kg/m3 = 1 g/cc, rice=900 kg/m3 = 0.9 g/cc
Ideal Gas Concept
• Volume of gas molecules is negligible as compared to volume of container.
So volume of gas = volume of container (Except 0 K)

Z:\NODE02\B0AH-AI\TEACHING NOTES\PHYSICS\THERMAL PHYSICS\05-KINETIC THEORY OF GASES.P65
• No intermoleculer forces act between gas molecules.
Properties of Ideal Gas

• A gas which follows all gas laws and gas equation at every possible temperature and pressure is known as
ideal or perfect gas.
• Ideal gas molecules can do only translational motion, so their kinetic energy is only translational kinetic energy
• Ideal gas can not be liquified because IMF is zero
• Potential energy of ideal gas is zero so internal energy of ideal gas is perfectly translational K.E. of gas.
It is directly proportional to absolute temperature.
• All real gases behaves as an ideal gas at high temperature and low pressure and low density.
• Gas molecules have point mass and negligible volume and velocity is very high (10 7 cm/s).
58 E
ALLEN
Equation of state for Ideal gas
M é mN ù éRù
PV = µRT Þ PV = RT = ê ú RT = ê ú N T = NkT where µ = number of moles of gas
Mw ë m N0 û ë N0 û
k = Boltzamann constant
P RT kT
Þ = =
r Mw m
Q.1 Calculate the value of universal gas constant at STP.
Sol. Universal gas constant is given by R = PV

T
One mole of all gases at S.T.P. occupy volume V = 22·4 litre = 22·4 × 10–3 m3
P = 760 mm of Hg = 760 × 10–3 × 13·6 × 103 × 9.80 N m–2, T = 273.16 K
760 ´ 10 - 3 ´ 13.6 ´ 10 3 ´ 9.80 ´ 22.4 ´ 10 - 3

\R = = 8·314 J mol–1 K–1
273.16
Q.2 Find the number of molecules in 10 cm3 of an ideal gas at 0°C and at a pressure of 2×10–5mm of mercury.
Take density of Hg = 13.6 g/cc and g = 10 m/s 2, R = 25/3 J/mol–K
Sol. PV = NKT
PV
Hint : N =
KT
Q.3 Calculate the temperature of the Sun if density is 1.4 g cm–3, pressure is 1.4 × 109 atmosphere and average
molecular weight of gases in the Sun in 2 g/mole. [Given R = 8.4 J mol–1K–1]
PV M M rV
Sol. PV = µRT Þ T = ...(i) But m = M and r = \ m=
mR w V Mw
P V Mw P Mw 1.4 ´ 109 ´ 1.01 ´ 105 ´ 2 ´ 10 -3

From equation (i) T= = = = 2.4 × 107 K
rV R rR 1.4 ´ 1000 ´ 8.4
Q.4 At the top of a mountain a thermometer reads 7°C and barometer reads 70 cm of Hg. At the bottom of
NODE02\B0AH-AI\TEACHING NOTES\PHYSICS\THERMAL PHYSICS\05-KINETIC THEORY OF GASES.P65
the mountain they read 27°C and 76 cm of Hg respectively. Compare the density of the air at the top with
that at the bottom.
P R é M M ù
Sol. By gas equation PV = M RT Þ = êQ m = and = rú
Mw rT M w ë Mw V û
éPù éPù rT PT TB 70 300 75

Now as MW and R are same for top and bottom ê rT ú = ê rT ú So r = P ´ T = ´ = = 0.9868
ë û T ë ûB B B T 76 280 76
E 59
ALLEN
Q.5 The number of oxygen molecules in a cylinder of volume 1 m 3 at a temperature of 27°C and pressure 13.8 Pa
is :
(Boltzmaan's constant k = 1.38 × 10–23 JK–1)
PV 13.8 N m 2 ´ 1m 3
Sol. N= =
kT 1.38 ´ 10 -23 J K ´ 300K
N = 3.3 × 1021 molecule
Q.6 A cylinder contains 10 kg of gas at pressure of 107 N/m2. When final pressure is reduce to 2.5 × 10 6 N/m2 then
quantity of gas taken out of the cylinder will be : (temperature of gas is constant)
Sol. Closed contain (V = constant)
Initially,
M1 = 10 kg P1 = 107 N/m2
let M¢ kg gas leak
Finally M2 = (10 – M¢)kg P2 = 2.5 × 106 N/m2
given
T = constant for a given gas
MRT
PV = V = constant
Mw
PµM Mw = constant
P2 M2
So = T = Constant
P1 M1
By solving. M¢ = 7.5 kg
Q.7 Relation PV = RT is given for following condition for real gas -

(1) High temperature and high density (2) Low temperature and low density
(3) High temperature and low density (4) Low temperature and high density
Sol. (3) High temperature and low density

B.B.-5 : 3
Ex. 1 : 122, 123, 124, 125, 128, 129, 134, 139, 142, 143, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 155
Ex. 2 : 9, 78, 108, 59


B.B.-5 : 3
Ex. 1 : 123, 124, 125, 126, 129, 130, 135, 140, 143, 144, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 156
Ex. 2 : 9, 78, 59
60 E
ALLEN
LECTURE # 18
Gas Laws
• Boyle's Law
According to it for a given mass of an ideal gas at constant temperature, the volume of a gas is inversely
1
proportional to its pressure, i.e., V µ if m and T = Constant Þ P1 V1 = P2 V2
P
nt
m=constant T=constant ta
T=constant T=constant o ns
c
T=
P PV PV P
V V P (1/V)
• Charle's Law
According to it for a given mass of an ideal gas at constant pressure, volume of a gas is directly proportional
V1 T1
to its absolute temperature, i.e. V µ T if m and P = Constant Þ =
V2 T2
nt
ta
ns
P=constant
nt
P=constant
co
P=constant
ta
P=
ns
V
co
P=
V V V V
T T
T(K) V T(K) –273°C 0°C t(°C) 1
T
Gay–Lussac's Law
According to it, for a given mass of an ideal gas at constant volume, pressure of a gas is directly proportional
P1 T1
to its absolute temperature, i.e., P µ T if m and V = constant Þ =
P2 T2
nt
V=constant
ta
ns
co
V=constant
V=
P P P
T
T(k) P 1
T
V=constant
P
P
T
T(K) –273°C 0°C t(°C)
E 61
ALLEN
Q.8 Match the correct :-
P
P
(a) (p) Volume is constant (b) (q) Volume is increasing
V V
P P
(c) (r) Temperature is constant (d) (s) Pressure is constant
V V
(1) a®q ; b®q,r ; c®q ; d®p (2) a®r, p ; b®q,r ; c®q,s ; d®p,r
(*3) a®q, r ; b®q ; c®q,s ; d®p (4) None
Sol. (a) V, T = Constant , P¯
(b) P V
(c) P = Constant, V
(d) P, V = Constant
Q.9 Find the correct relation in given P-V diagram :

(1) T1 = T2 (2) T1 > T2 P
T2
(*3) T1 < T2 (4) T1 £ T2 T1
Sol. P V
P2
P1 T2
T1
V=constant V
Assume either P=constant or V=constant
for T1 and T2
Let V = constant (P µ T)
so P2 > P1
T2 > T 1
Q.10 In the given (V – T) diagram, what is the relation between pressure P1 and P2 ?
V P2
P1
q2
q1
T
(1) Cannot be predicted (2) P2 = P1 (3) P2 > P1 (4) P2 < P1
æ mR ö mR
Sol. PV = mRT Þ V = ç ÷ T Þ slope =
è P ø P
1 1
As q2 > q1 so > Þ P1 > P2
P2 P1
62 E
ALLEN
Q.11 In the given (P – T) diagram, what is the relation between pressure V1 and V2 ?
P V2
V1
q2
q1
T
(1) Cannot be predicted (2) V2 = V1 (3) V2 > V1 (4) V2 < V1
æ mR ö mR
Sol. PV = mRT Þ P = ç ÷ T Þ slope =
è V ø V
1 1
As q2 > q1 so > Þ V1 > V2
V2 V1
Q.12 Plot P – V , V – T graph corresponding to the P–T graph for an ideal

gas shown in figure. Explain your answers.
Sol.
A
V
C
B
T
(P - V curve) (V - T curve)
1
For process AB ; T = constant so P µ For process BC P = constant so V µ T
V
1
For process CD ; T = constant so P µ For process DA P = constant so V µ T
V
Q.13 A cylinder contains gas at 2×105 Pa and 47°C. the cylinder is steadily heated. Neglecting any change in its
volume, find the temperature at which the cylinder will break if the walls of cylinder can bear a maximum
pressure of 8 × 105 Pa.
Sol. At constant volume
PµT
P2 T2 P 320 ´ 8 ´ 105
= Þ T2 = T1 2 = = 1280 K
P1 T1 P1 2 ´ 105
Avogadro's Law
According to it, at same temperature and pressure, equal volume of all gases contain equal number of molecules,
i.e., N1 = N2 if P,V and T are same.
Dalton's Partial Pressure Mixture Law :

According to it, the pressure exerted by mixture of non-reactive gases is equal to the sum of partial pressure
of each component gases present in the mixture, ie., P = P1 + P2 + ....
E 63
ALLEN
Q.14 In a closed cylinder there are 60 g Ne and 64 g O 2. If pressure of mixture of gases in cylinder is 30 bar then
partial pressure of O2 in this cylinder will be :-
(1) 30 bar (2) 20 bar (3) 15 bar (4) 12 bar
Sol. As partial pressure µ number of moles (V and T is constant)
PO2 n O2
so =
PO2 + PNe n O2 + n Ne
64 60
where m O2 = =2 and m Ne = =3
32 20
PO2 2
Þ = Þ PO2 = 12 bar
30bar 2+3

B.B.-5 : 1, 2, 4
Ex. 1 : 135, 137, 138, 141, 144, 145, 152, 153, 154, 155, 126
Ex. 2 : 5, 103, 35, 24, 40

B.B.-5 : 1, 2, 4
Ex. 1 : 136, 138, 139, 142, 145, 146, 153, 154, 155, 156, 127
Ex. 2 : 5, 35, 24, 40
64 E
ALLEN
LECTURE # 19
Concept of mixture :-
For a closed system apply conservation of mole
mi = mf
(m1 + m2)i = (m)mix
P1 V1 P2 V2 Pmix Vmix
+ =
T1 T2 Tmix
æM ö M1 + M 2 + .......
(M W ) mix = ç mix ÷ =
è m mix ø m1 + m2 + .......
Q.15 Hydrogen and helium gases of volume V at same temperature T and same pressure P are mixed to have same
volume V. The resulting pressure of the mixture will be :
(1) P/2
(2) P
(*3) 2P
(4) Depending on the relative mass of the gases
Sol. Ans. (3)
Basic postulates of Kinetic theory of gases
• Every gas consists of extremely small particles known as molecules. The molecules of a given gas
are all identical but are different than those of another gas.
• The molecules of a gas are identical, spherical, rigid and perfectly elastic point masses.
• Molecules of a gas keep on moving randomly in all possible direction with all possible velocities.
• The speed of gas molecules lie between zero and infinity (very high speed).
• The number of molecules moving with most probable speed is maximum.

• No attractive or repulsive force acts between gas molecules.
• Gravitational attraction among the molecules is ineffective due to extremely small masses and very
high speed of molecules.
• Molecules constantly collide with the walls of container due to which their momentum changes. This
change in momentum is transferred to the walls of the container. Consequently pressure is exerted
by gas molecules on the walls of container.
• The density of gas is constant at all points of the container.

r
• Mean momentum = 0; Mean velocity < v > = 0; < v2 > ¹ 0 (Non zero); < v3 > = < v5 > = 0
E 65
ALLEN
Root mean square velocity (Vrms for Gas)
z
Expression for Pressure of An Ideal gas B
Consider an ideal gas enclosed in a cubical vessel of length l.
A
Suppose there are 'N' molecules in a gas which are moving with
r r r C
velocities v1 , v 2 ........v N .
0 x
D l
y
l
r
If we consider any single molecule then its instantaneous velocity vr can be expressed as v = v xˆi + v yˆj + v z kˆ
r
Due to random motion of the molecule vx = vy = vz ; v = v x 3 = v y 3 = v z 3 = v 2x + v 2y + v 2z
Suppose a molecule of mass m is moving with a velocity vx towards the face ABCD. It strikes the face of
the cubical vessel and returns back to strike the opposite face.
Change in momentum of the molecule per collision Dp = – mvx – mvx = – 2 mvx
Momentum transferred to the wall of the vessel per molecule per collision Dp= 2 mvx
The distance travelled by the molecule in going to face ABCD and coming back is 2l.
2l
So, the time between two successive collision is Dt =
vx
vx molecule velocity f = v rms vm
Number of collision per sec per molecule is fc = = ; c l or fc = l
2l mean free path m m
Hence momentum transferred to the wall per second by the molecule is equal to force applied on the wall
vx mv 2x mv 2 é
therefore, force F = (2 mvx)
2l
= = ë As V = 3Vx ùû
l 3l
F 1 mv 2 1 mv 2
Pressure exerted by gas molecule P =
A
=
3l´A
Þ P=
3 V
[Q A ´ l = V ]
1 mv 2 1 mv 2 N 1 mN å v 2 1 mN 2
pressure exerted by gas P = å3 V = å3 V
´ =
N 3 V N
=
3 V
v rms
3PV 3mRT 3RT 1M 2 1

v 2rms = = v rms = v rms = rv 2rms
M µM w Þ Mw
, P =
3V 3
N
• Average number of molecules for each wall = .

6
N
No. of molecules along each axis = (Nx = Ny = Nz)
3
v 2rms v rms
• v x2 = v y2 = v z2 = Root mean square velocity along any axis for gas molecule is (vrms)c= (vrms)y= (vrms)z=
3 3
All gas laws and gas equation can be obtained by expression of pressure of gas
66 E
ALLEN
Spacial points :
(i) Average number of molecules for each direction of wall = N/6
Number of molecules along each axis = N/3 (Nx = Ny = Nz)
v 2rms
(ii) v x2 = v y2 = v 2z =
3
v rms
Root mean square velocity along any axis for gas molecule is (vrms)c= (vrms)y= (vrms)z=
3
(iii) If pressure & temp. both are given then consider only temperature effect.
(iv) Escaping condition :-
(a) If Vrms ³ Ves (escape velocity) of a gas than gas will escape from earth gravitational field.
(b) There is no atmosphere on moon because there Vrms ³ Ves (escape velocity)
Mw
(c) For a gas to escape earth's atmosphere the minimum required temperature is given by tmin = ´ 104 K
2
Q.15 Calculate rms velocity of oxygen molecule at 27°C

Sol. Temperature, T = 27° C
Þ 273 + 27 = 300 K,
Molecular weight of oxygen = 32 × 10–3 kg and R = 8·31 J mol–1 K–1
3RT 3 ´ 8 × 31 ´ 300
rms velocity is vrms = = = 483·5 ms–1
M 32 ´ 10-3

Ex. 1 : 157, 164
Ex. 2 : 97

Ex. 1 : 158, 165
E 67
ALLEN
LECTURE # 20
Different speeds of gas molecules
• Average velocity
r r r
r v1 + v 2 +............ v N
< v> = = 0
N
Average momentum is also zero.
3P 3RT 3kT kT
• RMS speed of molecules vrms= = = = 1.73
r Mw m m
• Average speed or Mean speed of molecules :
r r r
r |v 1 |+|v 2 |+..........|v n | 8P 8RT 8kT kT
<|v|> = vmean = = = = = 1.59
N pr pM w pm m
• Most probable speed of molecules (vmp)
2P 2RT 2kT kT
vmp = = Mw = = 1.41
r m m
• Velocity of sound in gas medium (vs )
gP gRT gkT
vsound = = = \1< g < 2
r Mw m
• At any temperature vrms > vMean > vMP > vsound (always)
v rms 3 v rms 3
• For a gas at any temperature (T) v sound = , v MP =
g 2
• A temperature is not possible at which above order can be changed
vrms ¹ vMean ¹ vMP ¹ vsound (always )
Q.16 According to Maxwell's law of distribution of velocites of molecules, the most probable velocity is :-
(1) greater than the mean velocity (2) equal to the mean velocity
(3) equal to the root mean square velocity (*4) less than the root mean square velocity
Sol. vrms > vavg > vmp
Q.17 The rms velocity of gas molecules of a given amount of a gas at 27°C and 1.0 × 10 5 N m-2 pressure is 200 m sec-1.
If temperature and pressure are respectively 127°C and 0.5 × 105 N m–2, the rms velocity will be :-
2
(*1) 400/ 3 ms-1 (2) 100 2 ms-1 (3) 100 2 /3 ms-1 (4) 50 ms-1
3
Sol. vrms a T (Does not depend on pressure)
v rms1 T1 200 300

= Þ =
v rms2 T2 v rms2 400
400
v rms2 = m/s
3
Q.18 At what temperature root mean square velocity of hydrogen becomes double of its value at S.T.P., pressure
remaining constant ?
Sol. Let v1 be the r.m.s. velocity at S.T.P. and v2 be the r.m.s. velocity at unknown temperature T2.
v12 T
\ 2
= 1
v2 T2
2
év ù
or T2 = T1 ê 2 ú = 273 × (2)2 = 273 × 4 = 1092 K = (1092 – 273) = 819°C
ë v1 û
68 E
ALLEN
Q.19 Find the temperature at which average speed of oxygen molecule be sufficient so as to escape from the earth ?
(Escape speed from the earth is 11.0 km/sec, R = 25/3 J-mol–1K–1).
Sol. At every temperature, there will be then will some molecules with the required escape speed ; as theoretically
r
0 £| V |£ ¥, at all temperatures.
8RT
Vav =
pM w
8RT
\ pM w = 11 × 10 m/s
3
put R = 25/3 J-mol-1K–1

M = 0.032 in SI units (kg/mol)
p 3
(112×103×2)× ´ ´ 0.032 = T
8 25
1452 p
T= ´ 103 K
25
Q.20 A gas is filled in a rigid container at pressure P 0. If the mass of each molecule is halved keeping the total number
of molecules same and their r.m.s speed is doubled then find the new pressure.
1 æ mN ö 2
P= ç v rms
3 è V ÷ø
Sol.
\ P µ mv 2rms
P2 = 2P0
Q.21 At room temperature (300 K), the rms speed of the molecules of a certain diatomic gas is found to be 1930 m/s.
Can you guess name of the gas? Find the temperature at which the rms speed is double of the speed in part one
(R = 25/3 J/mol–k)
3RT
Sol. (1) Vrms = = 1930
Mw
Mw is in SI unit i.e. kg.
(2) Vrms µ T
2
T2 vrms2
=
T1 v2rms1

B.B.-6 : 4, 5
Ex. 1 : 156 to 180
B.B.-6 : 4, 5
Ex. 1 : 157 to 181
E 69
ALLEN
LECTURE # 21
Maxwell's law of distribution of velocities
Nmax (T1)
T1=500K
number of molecules (N)

vmp= most probable speed
N max= maximum number of molecules
Nmax (T2) at given temperature
T2=1000K
Nmax (T3)
T3=2000K
T3 > T2 > T1
v mp (T ) v mp (T )
1 vmp (T )
2 3
velocity of molecule v
• At a given temperature graph drawn between molecular velocity and number of molecules is known as velocity
distribution curve.
• The velocities of molecules of a gas are in between zero and infinity (0 – ¥ )
• With the increase in the temperature, the most probable velocity and maximum velocity both
increases.
• The number of molecules within certain velocity range is constant although the velocity of molecule changes
continuously at particular temperature.
Degree of freedom (f)

• The number of independent ways in which a molecule or an atom can exhibit motion or have energy is called
its degrees of freedom.
Degrees of freedom for different gases according to atomicity of gas at low temperature
Atomicity of gas Translational Rotational Total

y
Monoatomic
3 0 3
Ex. Ar, Ne, Ideal gas etc x
z
Diatomic
3 2 5
Ex. O2, Cl2, N2 etc.
Triatomic (linear)
3 2 5
Ex. CO 2, C2H2 O=C=O
Triatomic (Non–linear)
or Polyatomic 3 3 6
Ex. H2O, NH3, CH4
Note : At high temperature a diatomic molecule has 7 degrees of freedom. (3 translational, 2 rotational and
2 vibrational)
Maxwell's law of equipartition of energy
The total kinetic energy of a gas molecules is equally distributed among its all degree of freedom and the
1
energy associated with each degree of freedom at absolute temperature T is kT
2
70 E
ALLEN
Different K.E. of gas (Internal Energy)
1 3 é 1M 2 ù
• Translational kinetic energy (ET) ET = Mv 2rms = PV ê P = 3 V v rms ú
2 2 ë û
1
Kinetic energy of volume V is = Mv 2rms
2
• Molar K.E. or Mean Molar K.E. (E)
3
E= RT
2
1 E 3 RT 3
• Molecular kinetic energy or mean molecular K.E. ( E ) E = M w v 2rms , E = = = kT
2 N 0 2 N0 2
3 RT
• Kinetic energy of 1 g mass (Em) =
2 MW
For one molecule of gas
1
Energy related with each degree of freedom = kT
2
f
Energy related with all degree of freedom = kT
2
• The area enclosed between the (N – v) curve and the velocity axis represents the total number of molecules.
• Except 0 K, at any temperature T , E > Em > E
• At a common temperature, for all ideal gas
E and E are same while Em is different and depends upon nature of gas (Mw or m)
Q.22 The temperature of gas is –73°C. To what temperature should it be heated so that
(a) average kinetic energy of the molecule is doubled ?
(b) the root mean square velocity of the molecules is doubled ?
Sol. Initial Temperature T1 = 200 K
3 E T
(a) E = kT Þ E µ T Þ 2 = 2
2 E1 T1
2E T
Þ = 2 Þ T2 = 400 K = 127°C
E 200
v rms2 T2
(b) vrms µ T Þ v rms1 = T1
2v T2
Þ = Þ T2 = 800 K = 527°C
v 200
Q.23 The total kinetic energy of 1 mole of N2 at 270C will be approximately :-

(1) 1500 J (2) 1500 calorie (3) 1500 kilo calorie (4) 1500 erg.
5
Sol. Total K.E = mRT
T
2
5
for 1 mole = RT
2
5
= × 2 × 300 = 1500 cal
2
E 71
ALLEN
Q.24 Find the relation between pressure (P) and energy density (E) of an ideal gas ?
3
Sol. ET = PV
2
ET 3 ET
= P E= energy density
V 2 V
2
P= E
3
Q.25 At which of the following temperature any gas has average moleculer kinetic energy double that of at 200C
(1) 400C (2) 800C (*3) 3130C (4) 5860C
Sol. KE µ T
E1 T1
=
E 2 T2
T2 = 2 × 293
T2 = 586 K = 313°C

B.B.-6 : 1, 2
Ex. 1 : 210, 209, 208, 205, 201, 200, 199, 198, 195, 194, 181, 190, 189, 186, 185, 184, 183, 182
Ex. 2 : 51, 30, 65, 2, 3
B.B.-6 : 1, 2
Ex. 1 : 211, 210, 209, 206, 202, 201, 200, 199, 196, 195, 182, 191, 190, 187, 186, 185, 184, 183
Ex. 2 : 51, 30, 65, 2, 3

72 E
ALLEN
LECTURE # 22
SPECIFIC HEAT :
Specific Heat
Gram specific Heat Molar specific Heat

(c) (C)
Q cal or Joule Q 1 Joule cal
c= Unit : C= Unit : mol K or
gm°C logK mole°C
mD T mDT
If m = 1 g ; DT = 1°C = 1K If m = 1 ; DT = 1°C = 1K
c=Q C=Q
Amount of Heat required to change the Amount of Heat required to change the
temperature of a 1 g substance by 1°C, temperature of a 1-mole substance by 1°C,
called gram specific heat called molar specific heat or molar Heat
capacity.
Q = mcDT Q = mcDT
Note :- Relation between molar specific Heat [C] and gram specific Heat (c)
C = Mw × c
Mw ® Molecular weight
Note :- The specific heat of solid and liquid have unique value, but the value of specific heat of a gas varies from O
to ¥. Specific Heat of gas depends on process, under which gas is Heated and ¥ process are possible.
Specific Heat (molar) of a gas in various process.
(1) Isochoric/Isometric process (CV) V = constant
f
CV = R f ® degree of freedom
2
(2) Isobaric process (CP) ; P = constant
æ fö
CP = ç 1 + ÷ R
è 2ø
(3) Adiabatic process [CAD]

Q=0
mCADDT = 0
CAD = 0
(4) Isothermal process [CIT]
Q
C= ; T = constant ; DT = 0
mDT
C IT = ¥
E 73
ALLEN
(5) Polytropic process [C] ; Equation of process PV x = co nst
–¥ £ x £ + ¥
R
C = CV +
1-x
Mayer's Relation :-
R
CP – C V = R cP – cV = r =
Mw
CP and CV are molar specific Heat at cP and cV are the gram specific Heat at
constant pressure and volume constant pressure and volume
Values of f, U, CV, CP and g for different gases are shown in table below.
Atomicity of gas f Cv CP g
3 5 5
Monoatomic 3 R R = 1.67
2 2 3
Diatomic, Triatomic and Triatomic linear 5 7 7
5 R R = 1.4
(at normal temperature) 2 2 5
6 8 4
Poly atomic Triangular Non-linear 6 R = 3R R = 4R = 1.33
2 2 3
Here g = poissions Ratio (g)
CP 2
g= =1+
CV f
Q.26 The following sets of values for Cv and Cp of a gas have been reported by different students. The units are
cal/-mole-K. Which of these sets is most reliable ?
(*1) Cv = 3, Cp = 5 (2) Cv = 4, Cp = 6 (3) Cv = 3, Cp = 2 (4) Cv = 3, Cp = 4.2
Q.27 If for hydrogen Cp – Cv = m and for nitrogen Cp – Cv = n, where Cp and Cv refer to specific heats per unit
mass respectively at constant pressure and constant volume. The relation between m and n is :-
(Molecular weight of hydrogen = 2 and molecular weight of nitrogen = 28)
(1) n = 14m (2) n = 7m (3) m = 7n (*4) m = 14n
Q.28 If for a gas R/Cv = 0.67, this gas is made up of molecules which are :-
(*1) monoatomic (2) diatomic
(3) polyatomic (4) mixture of diatomic and polyatomic molecules
R
Q.29 For a gas; if Cv = , then the degrees of freedom for the gas is :-
0.67
(1) 4 (*2) 3 (3) 5 (4) 6
Q.30 For O2 gas; Cp – Cv = a and for He gas; Cp–Cv = b then the relation between a and b is, if Cp and Cv are
gram specific heat :-
(1) a = 8b (*2) 8a = b (3) a = 16b (4) 16a = b
74 E
ALLEN
LECTURE # 23
Mixture of non-reacting gases :
(a) Molecular weight (Mw)mix =

m1 + m2 {
m1M1 + m 2 M 2 Here,
M1 ,M 2 is mass of gas
M1 & M2 are molar masses.
m1CV1 + m 2 CV2
(b) Specific heat (Cv)mix=
m1 + m 2
m1CP1 + m 2 CP2
(Cp ) mix =
m1 + m 2
Cpmix m1C P1 + m 2 CP2 + ......

(c) for mixture, g = =
C Vmix m1CV1 + m 2 CV2 + ......
m f T + m 2 f 2 T2 ìHere
ï
(d) Tmix = 1 1 1 íf1 , f 2 is degree of
m1f1 + m 2 f 2 ïîfreedom of gas
(Here m1, m2 is number of moles)

Q.31 If g be the ratio of specific heats (C p & Cv) for a perfect gas. Find the number of degrees of freedom of a
molecule of the gas ?
æf +2ö
C ç ÷R f +2 2 2
g= P =è 2 ø = = 1+ f=
Sol. CV f f f g -1
R
2
Q.32 Internal energy of two moles of an ideal gas at a temperature of 127°C is 1200 R. Then find the molar
specific heat of the gas at constant pressure ?
Sol. U = 1200 R = mCv T 1200R =2Cv ×400
3 3
CV = R \ CP = R + R = 2.5R
2 2
Q.33 For a gas, g = 9/7. What is the number of degrees of freedon of the molecules of this gas ?
2
Sol. g =1+ \f = 7
f
Q.34 If 2 gm moles of a diatomic gas and 1 gm mole of a mono-atomic gas are mixed then the value of g (Cp/Cv) for
mixture will be :–
13 19 7 5
(1) (*2) (3) (4)
19 13 5 3
E 75
ALLEN
m1 C P1 + m2 C P2
Sol. C Pmix. =
m1 + m 2
m1 C V1 + m2 C V2
C Vmix. =
m1 + m 2
CP,mix m1 CP1 + m2 CP2

g mix. = =
CV,mix m1 C V1 + m2 CV2
æ7 ö æ5 ö
(2) ç R ÷ + (1) ç R ÷
è 2 ø è2 ø 14 + 5 19
= = =
æ5 ö æ3 ö 10 + 3 13
(2) ç R ÷ + (1) ç R ÷
è2 ø è2 ø
Q.35 If cp and cv denote the specific heats (per unit mass) of an ideal gas of molecular weight M, then :-
R R
(1) cp – cv = R (*2) cp – cv = (3) cp – cv = MR (4) cp – cv =
M M2
where R is the molar gas constant
Sol. We know that
Cp – Cv = RC = Mwc
Mwcp – Mwcv = R C = molar specific heat
R
Þ cp - c v = c = gram specific heat
Mw
B.B.-6 : 6
Ex. 1 : 182, 188, 192, 194, 196, 201, 205, 206, 212, 202, 187
Ex. 2 : 18, 37, 56
B.B.-6 : 6
Ex. 1 : 183, 189, 193, 195, 197, 202, 206, 207, 213, 203, 188
Ex. 2 : 18, 37, 56
76 E
ALLEN
LECTURE # 24
MEAN FREE PATH
A molecule in its path undergoes a number of collisions so the path traversed by it is not a straight line
but somewhat zigzag. Between two successive collisions a molecule travels in a straight line with uniform
velocity. As motion is random thus the distance travelled by molecule between two succesive collisions is
not always equal.
The average distance travelled by a molecule between two succesive collisions is called as mean free path
(lm) of the molecule.
1
lm =
2pd 2 n
N
Here n = = No. of molecules per unit volume
V
d = diameter of a molecule
V KT
lm = or lm =
2pd N 2
2pd 2 P
1
Mean free path l µ (r is radius of molecule)
r2
Optional Questions :
Q.36 16 g of oxygen at 37°C is mixed with 14 g of nitrogen at 27°C. Find the temperature of the mixture ?
Sol. Both are diatomic.
m 16 1
No. of moles of O2 = m1 = = =
M 32 2
m 14 1
No. of moles of N2 = m2 = = =
M 28 2
\ (m1 + m2)Cv T=m1CvTv+m2CvT2 [By energy conservation]

as Cv cancel out Cv
m1T1 + m2T2
=T=
m1 + m2
æ1ö æ1ö
ç ÷ 310 + ç ÷ 300
= è2ø è2ø
1 1 = 305 K = 32°C
+
2 2
E 77
ALLEN
Cp 5
Q.37 A gaseous mixture enclosed in a vessel of volume V consists of one gram mole of a gas A with g = C = 3 and
v
7
another gas B with g = at a certain temperature T. The gram molecular weights of the gases A and B are 4
5
and 32 respectively. The gases A and B do not react with each other and are assumed to be ideal. The gaseous
mixture follows the equation; PV19/13 = constant in adiabatic processes.
(a) Find the number of gram moles of the gas B in the gasous mixture.
(b) Compute the speed of sound in the gaseous mixture at T = 300 K
(c) If T is raised by 1 K from 300 K, find the percentage change in the speed of sound in the gaseous mixture.
Sol. (a) As for ideal CP – CV = R and g = (CP/CV),
R R
So g -1 = or CV =
CV ( g - 1)
R 3
\ (C V )1 = = R;
(5 / 3) - 1 2
R 5
(C V )2 = = R
(7 / 5) - 1 2
R 13
and (C V )mix = = R
(19 /13) - 1 6
Now from conservation of energy, i.e., DU = DU1 + DU2,

(m1 + m2) (CV)mix DT = [m1(CV)1 + m2(CV)2]DT
m1 (C V )1 + m2 (CV )2
i.e., (CV )mix =
m1 + m 2
3 5
1´ R + m´ R
We have 13
R= 2 2 = (3 + 5m )
6 1+n 2(1 + m)
or, 13 + 13n = 9 + 15m,

m = 2 mole
(b) Molecular weight of the mixture will be given by
m A MA + mB MB (1)(4) + 2(32)
M= =
m A + mB 1+2
M = 22.67
Speed of sound in a gas is given by
gRT
v=
M
Therefore, in the mixture of the gas
(19 /13)(8.31)(300)
v= m/s
22.67 ´ 10-3
v » 401 m/s
78 E
ALLEN
(c) vµ T
or v = KT1/2 ...(2)
dv 1 æ dT ö
Þ = KT -1 / 2 Þ dv = K ç ÷
dT 2 è2 T ø
dv K æ dT ö dv 1 æ dT ö 1 æ dT ö
Þ = ç Þ = ÷ = 2ç T ÷
v v è 2 T ÷ø v ç
T è2 T ø è ø
dv 1 æ dT ö 1æ 1 ö 1
Þ ´ 100 = ç ´ 100 = ç ´ 100 = 0.167 =
v 2 è T ÷ø 2 è 300 ÷ø 6
Therefore, percentage change in speed is 0.167%

Ex. 2 : 41, 47, 66

Ex. 2 : 41, 47, 66
E 79
LECTURE # 25
WORK AND HEAT :
W Q (Heat) firstly given by Rumford. i.e. W = JQ(Heat)
Here J = conversion factor = Joule’s constant (mechanical equivalent of heat)
joule
J = 4.18
calorie
dimensionless
1 cal = 4.18 J 4.2 joule

J
1 joule = 0.24 cal = 1 cal
4.2
1 cal > 1 joule
Special Point :
(a) Work and heat both are the form of energy. Work is ordered energy where as heat is disordered form of
energy.
(b) Conversion of mechanical work into heat is completely possible but its reverse is not true.
100%
W Q
100%
TWO TYPES OF CONVERSIONS :
mgh 1
(a) Mechanical work Heat • PE : = msd (cal) 0.24
J J
1 mv 2
• KE : msd cal
2 J
1I 2
• Rotational kinetic energy = msd cal
2 J
Z:\NODE02\B0AH-AI\TEACHING NOTES\PHYSICS\THERMAL PHYSICS\06-THERMODYNAMICS.P65
(b) Heat mechanical work

Q.1 Calculate rise in temperature of water when falls from 100m high waterfall.
Sol. Conversion PE heat
mgh
msd
J
10 100
d 0.24 C Ans.
4.2 1000
80 E
Q.2 A block of 100 gm is sliding on a rough horizontal surface. If speed of block reduces from 10 m/sec to
5 m/sec then find heat generated in this process.
Sol. Heat generated = change in KE
1
heat generated = m v12 v22
2
1 3 2 2 75 1
= 100 10 10 5 = 10 3.75 joule
2 2
Q.3 A bullet of mass 84 gm is moving with a velocity of 200 m/s. It collides with wall by which one fourth of
the kinetic energy is converted into heat. Find the heat developed by bullet in calorie.
1 1 1 mv 2 1 1 84 200 200
Sol. Q= (W) = = = 100 cal.
4 4 2 J 4 2 1000 4.2
Q.4 A man gains 100 kcal of heat by eating bread. His efficiency is 25% and mass is 70 kg. Calculate the
height to which he can climb.
25
Sol. Q W
100
25 Mgh
100 103
100 J
70 10 h
25 × 103 =
4.2
h = 150 meter
SIGN CONVENTION USED IN PHYSICS THERMODYNAMICS

FLOT Q = dU + W or [Q = U + W]
Rules :
+ve heat given to system / heat absorbed by system.
1. Q/ Q=
-ve heat rejected / released by system or heat taken out from system
+ve U (internal energy) T increases)
2. U/dU=
-ve U (internal energy) T (decreases)
V (expansion) dV = +ve W = PdV = +ve

3. (work is done by system)
W/ W=
V (compression); dV = -ve W = PdV = -ve
(work is done on system)
E 81
WORK DONE IN VARIOUS THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS :
Vf
(1) Mathematical method W = PdV

Vi
Process W
Cyclic Area of the closed curve
Isochoric 0
Isothermal Vf Pi
RT loge = RT log e
Vi Pf
Adiabatic µR(Tf Ti )
1
Isobaric P (Vf – Vi) = µR(Tf – Ti)
Polytropic R Tf Ti
process 1 x
(2) Graphical method W = Area enclosed between PV curve and Volume axis.
P V
A A
B B
Ex.
V P
Work done WA B = Area shaded.
Sign concept :-
Expansion work +ve (work by system)/volume of a gas increases
compression work –ve (work on system)/ volume of a gas decreases
P V
a b a b
Va=Vb
W=0
Ex. W=+ve
V P
P b V
a
W=0 compression
W=-ve
a
V b
Va=Vb P
82 E
P P
a a b'
c
b c
Wabc V
V Wab'c
Note : Area enclosed between PV curve and volume axis.
Q.5 A system changes from the state (P1,V1) to (P2,V2) as shown in figure. What is the work done by the
system.
Patm
6 (P2,V2)
2 (P1,V1)
V(lit)
1 4
Sol. W = Area between curve line and volume axis.
1
W= 2 6 105 3 10 3
W = 1200 joule
Note : (a) work and heat are both path functions, it depends on path
(b) internal energy depends on initial and final state, it is a state function.
• Order of work :
P
WC > Wb > Wa 1
b C
• Order of internal energy
a
dUa = dUb = dUc (constant) 2
V
• Order of heat
Qc > Qb > Qa
Q=W+ U
E 83
CYCLIC PROCESS :
1. Work done in cyclic proces : P Wcyclic = ve
(a) W = Area enclosed between closed loop
(b) In PV graph
V
C.W. W = +ve
Direction
ACW W = -ve
V Wcyclic = ve
(c) In V-P graph
C.W. : W = –ve
Direction P
ACW. : W = +ve
P
3P1
W=?
P1
Ex.
V1 4V1 V
Sol. Area = 2P1 ×3V1 = 6P1V1

work = –6P1V1 [ Cycle is ACW]
2. In cyclic process : dU = 0
3. Heat : Q = W [By FLOT Q = dU + W]
Q.6 Consider the process on a system shown in figure. During the process, the work done by the system.
Pressure
1 2
Volume
*(1) Continuously increases
(2) Continuously decreases
(3) First increases then decreases
(4) First decreases then increases
Sol. W = PdV
As volume is continuously increasing. So, work done will keep on increasing.
84 E
Q.7 The net work done in the given process is
V Wnet = -ve
P
[axis are interchanged]
(1) Positive (*2) Negative (3) zero (4) None of these

Sol. V–P graph
W1 = –ve (CW)
W2 = +ve (ACW)
Wnet = –ve
Note: Internal energy
It is a state function lie independent from path or process
f
U= R T for all process
2
T U
T U
Ex. 1 : 221, 223, 229, 225, 231, 260
Ex. 2 : 6, 32, 25, 39, 82, 104, 49, 80
Ex. 1 : 222, 224, 230, 226, 232, 261

Ex. 2 : 6, 32, 25, 39, 82, 49, 80
E 85
LECTURE # 26
ZLOT : (ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
• \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
C
A B
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
\
Adiabatic wall
• If two systems are separately in a thermal equilibrium with the third system then they must be in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
• ZLOT defines temperature only.
FLOT : (FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS)
Q = dU + W
Q = Uf–Ui + W
• FLOT is based on the principle of energy conservation and is defined by Joule’s law.
• Thermodynamic force is non-conservative force.
• Keep the units same while solving numericals.
Q.8 In a thermodynamic process, work done on the system is 100 J and heat given to system is 500 cal. Then
calculate change in internal energy of system.
Soln. As from FLOT : Q = dU + W
(500 × 4.2) = dU – 100
dU = 2100 + 100 = 2200 J = 524 cal dU is positive so temperature

will increase
Q.9 During an experiment heat released by the system is 10 cal and work done on the system is 10 J. If
initial internal energy of the system is 50 J then find final internal energy.
Soln. As Q = W + Uf – Ui
– 10 cal = – 10 J + Uf – 50
Uf = – 10 × 4.2 + 10 + 50
Uf = – 42 + 60 = 18 J
86 E
Q.10 A thermodynamical process abca is plotted on a PV indicator diagram such that internal energy at a & b
are zero and 20 J respectively. If heat supplied along bc is 30 J, then find
(i) UC = ?
Qbc = Wbc + Uc–Ub
30 = 0 + Uc – 20
2
P (N/m )
UC = 30 + 20 = 50 J c
50
(ii) Wab = 20 (3–1) = 40 J
(iii) Wbc = 0
20 b
a
(iv) Qab = Wab + Ub–Ua
Qab = 40 + 20 – 0 = 60 J
3
V(m )
1 2 3
1
(v) Wabca = – (2) (30) = – 30 J
2
(vi) Wba = – 40 J
(vii) dUabca = 0
(viii) Qabca = – 30J
(ix) Wac = 40 + 30 = 70 J
(x) Qac = Wac + Uc–Ua = 70 + 50 – 0 = 120 J
Q.11 When a system is taken from state i to a state f along path iaf, Q = 50 J and W = 20 J. If
W = – 13 J for the curved return path fi, Q for this path is
P
a f
i b
Sol. dUiaf = Qiaf – Wiaf
= 50 – 20 = 30 Joule
Qfi = Wfi + dUfi [dUfi = –dUiaf]
= – 13 – 30 = – 43 joule
E 87
Q.12 In given figure, when a thermodynamic system is taken from state A to state B via path ACB, 100 cal of
heat given to the system and 60 cal work is done by the gas. Along the path ADB, the work done by the
gas is 20 cal. Find the heat flowing into the system in this case ?
Sol. Q= U+ W
U1 = Q1– W1=100–60 = 40 cal
U2 = Q2– W2= Q2–20 cal
U1 = U2
40 = Q2–20
Q2 = 60 cal
Q.13 A gas under constant pressure of 4.5×105 Pa when subjected to 800 kJ of heat, changes the volume
from 0.5m3 to 2.0 m3. Find the change in internal energy of the gas ?
Sol. U = Q– W = Q – P V
U = 800×103–4.5×105 (2–0.5)
=1000(800 – 675)
dU = 125 kJ
Q.14 In given figure, An ideal gas is taken through a cyclic process ABCA, calculate the value of mechanical
equivalent of heat (J) when 4.8 cal of heat is given in the process ?
1
Sol. Area of ABC = 200 103 Pa 200 10 –6 m 3
2
W= 20 J = Q
Given Q = 4.8 Cal.
Q joule 20 25
J J/Cal.
Q calorie 4.8 6
88 E
2Q
Q.15 If Q amount of heat is given to a diatomic ideal gas in process in which the gas perform a work on its
3
surrounding. Find the molar heat capacity (in terms of R) for the process.
Sol. According to FLOT
Q=W+ U
2
Q= Q CV T
3
Q 5
= R T
3 2
15
C T R T
2
15
C R
2
Ex. 1 : 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 226, 230, 271, 270, 227, 228
Ex. 2 : 10, 14, 20, 28, 36, 53, 57, 83, 89, 105
Ex. 1 : 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 227, 231, 272, 271, 228, 229
Ex. 2 : 10, 20, 14, 28, 36, 53, 57, 83, 90

E 89
LECTURE # 27
THERMODYNAMICAL PROCESS :
Top 10 questions :
1. Which thermodynamic parameter is constant.
2. Which gas law is applied.
3. Form of gas equation.
4. Work done in process.
5. Apply FLOT.
6. PV indicator diagram.
7. Slope of PV curve.
8. Specific condition required for process.
9. Special example.
10. Comments / Remarks.
Isochoric process (IC) / Isometric Process (IM)

(i) Volume = constant
(ii) Gay-Lussac Law
(iii) P T
(iv) W=0
R
(v) QV = dU = CVdT ; CV = (derive in class)
1
(vi)
(vii) Slope = tan = tan 90° =
dP
Slope = (max.)
dV
(viii) Closed container
(ix) Heating of solid and liquid
(x) W = 0, dU = CVdT
90 E
ISOBARIC PROCESS
(i) Pressure = constant
(ii) Charle’s law
(iii) V T; V : IB expansion T heating effect
V : IB compresion T cooling effect
(iv) WIB = PdV = RdT
(v) FLOT Q = dU + W
Q 0; dU 0; W 0
R R
CP = CV + R = CV
1 1
P
tan =0
(vi)
dP
(vii) Slope = =0 (minimum)
dV
(viii) Constant pressure (open container)

(ix) All phase conversion (melting of solid)
(x) ( W)P = RdT
( Q)P = CPdT
(dU)P = CVdT
Q.18 Given figure shows a P–V graph of the thermodynamic behaviour of an ideal gas. Find out work in the processes
A B, B C, C D and D A from this graph.
V(litres)
E 91
Sol. The work done in a thermodynamic process is equal to the area enclosed between the P–V curve and the
volume-axis.
Work done by the gas in the process A B is
W1 = (6.0 – 1.0) litre × (12 × 105) N/m2
= 5.0 × 10–3 m3 × (12 × 105) N/m2
= 6000 Nm = 6000 J
Work done in the process B C is zero since volume remains constant.
Work done by the gas in process C D is

–3 5
W2 = –(6.0 – 1.0) × 10 × 2 × 10
–3 5
= –(5.0 × 10 ) × (2 × 10 ) = –1000 J
Work done in the process D A is also zero.
Q.19 One mole of an ideal monoatomic gas is taken round the cyclic process ABCA as shown in fig. calculate.
(a) The work done by the gas.
(b) The heat rejected by the gas in the path CA and heat absorbed in the path AB.
(c) The net heat absorbed by the gas in the path BC.
1
Sol. (a) WABCA = × (2V0 – V0) × (3P0 – P0) = P0V0
2
(b) Heat rejected in path CA = –(W + U)

= –[P0(V0 – 2V0) + µCV T]
P0 ( V0 2V0 ) P0 V0
where T = TA – TC = =
R R
Therefore heat rejected
3 5
= P0V0 + P V = P0V0
2 0 0 2
OR
Heat rejected in path CA in isobaric process
FG 5 RIJ FG P0 V0 IJ 5
= –µCP T = –1 ×
H2 K H 1 R K = P V
2 0 0
Heat absorb in path AB = U = CV T
3
Therefore heat absorbed = 1 × R (TB – TA)
2
3
= R (3T0 – T0) = 3RT0
2
Here P0V0 = RT0 then Heat absorbed = 3P0V0
92 E
(c) Heat absorbed in BC path = W + U
FG 1 2P0 V0
IJ
= P0V0 +
H2 K + µCV T
3
= 2P0V0 + 1 × R (TC – TB)
2
But TC = 2T0 where T0 = temp. of A

TB = 3T0 also P0V0 = RT0
Therefore heat absorbed
3
= 2P0V0 + 1 × R(2T0 – 3T0)
2
3 PV
= 2P0V0 – P0V0 = 0 0
2 2
B.B.-7 : 3, 4
Ex. 1 : 224, 232, 238, 246, 252, 263
Ex. 2 : 57, 80, 95, 92, 99
B.B.-7 : 3, 4
Ex. 1 : 225, 233, 239, 247, 253, 264, 243, 247, 249
Ex. 2 : 80, 95
E 93
LECTURE # 28
ISOTHERMAL PROCESS (IT):
(i) Temperature = constant
(ii) Boyle’s law
1
(iii) PV = constant: P
V
V2
(iv) W = 2.303 RT log10 V
1
Proof :
V2 V2
RT V2 V2 V2
W PdV =
V
dV RT log e V V1 = RT log e V 2.303 RT log10
V1
V1 V1 1
P1 P1
W = 2.303 RT log10 P = 2.303 PV log10 P
2 2
(v) FLOT : Q = W [dU = 0; only for ideal gas]

[Isothermal process is practically impossible for ideal gas]
(vi) slope = – ve
(vii) Slope d(PV) = d( RT)

PdV + VdP = 0
VdP = – PdV
dP P
(‘–’ sign shows obtuse angle)
dV V
dP P
BIT V = BIT V BIT P [B = Bulk modulus]
dV V
(viii) (a) Container should be heat conducting.
(b) Process should be carried out slowly.
(ix) All phase conversions.
V2
(x) W = 2.303 RT log10 V
1
94 E
Q.20 Two moles of helium gas are taken along the path ABCD (as shown in figure). The work done by the gas
is :-
20 D
V(litre)
15 B C
10
5 A
250 500 750 1000

T(K)
4 16 4
(1) 2000R 1 ln (2) 500R(3 + ln 4) (3) 500R 2 ln (*4) 1000R 1 2 ln
3 9 3
Sol. A B is an isobaric process V T
so, WAB = R T = 2 × R × (750 – 250) = 1000R
B C is an isochoric process
DWBC = 0 and C D is an isothermal process,
Vf
WCD RT ln
Vi
20
2 R 1000ln 2000R ln(4/3)
15
Total work done W = WAB
Q.21 Following figure is given for 1 mole gas.
Then find out net work done in the cyclic process.
V(m3)
Sol.
D C
40
20 B
A
200 400 Temp (K)
Work done = WAB + WBC + WCD + WDA
VC VA
= 0 2.303 RT B log10 0 2.303 RTD log10
VB VD
E 95
VC VA
= 2.303 R TB log10 TD log
VB VD
40 20
= 2.303 1 8.314 400 log10 20 200 log
40
= 2.303 8.314 400log10 2 200log10 2

= 2.303 × 8.314 × 200 × log102
= 2.303 × 8.314 × 200 × 0.3010
= 1152.65 J
Q.22 P-V curve of a diatomic gas is shown in the figure. Find the total heat given to the gas in the process AB and BC
2P0 B Diatomic
Isothermal
P0 C
A
V
V0 2V 0
Sol. From first law of thermodynamics

QABC = UABC + WABC
VC 2V0
WABC = WAB + WBC = 0 + nRTB ln = nRT
TBln
VB V0
= nRTBln 2 = 2P0V0ln2
5 5
U = nCV T = (2P0V0 – P0V0) QABC = P V + 2P0V0 ln 2
2 2 0 0
ADIABATIC PROCESS (AD) / ISENTROPIC PROCESS)
(i) Heat (Q) = zero ; S (entropy) = constant
(ii) Poission law (derive in class if required)
(iii) (PV form) PV const
T T
(T,V form) P V = constant TV ( –1)
= const
V V
T T
(P,T form) V P = consant P1– T = constant
P P
1 1
(P, form) V P = constant P –

= constant
R T1 T2 PV
1 1 PV
2 2
(iv) W=
1 1
(v) FLOT : Q=0
W = – dU = – CVdT
dU = CVdT
R
CV =
1
96 E
dT = T2 – T1
R
W= T2 T1
1
R
T1 T2
1
P
1
P
V
(vi)
V
(vii) Slope d(PV ) = d (constant)
Pd(V ) + V dP = 0
P( V –1 dV] + V dP = 0
1
dP PV
dV V
dP P dP P
dV V dV V
(Slope)AD = (slope)IT
[Bulk modulus = BAD = – P]
(viii) (a) Container should be perfectly heat insulated.
(b) Process must be carried out rapidly, fastly or suddenly.
(ix) • Propagating of sound wave in gaseous medium.
• Sudden blast of tyre, tube (cooling effect).
• If CO2 gas cylinder is suddenly opened then conversion of CO2 gas into dry ice (cooling)
• Continuous hammering [ heating]
• Pump barrel becomes hot during pumping of air into tyre tube
• Free expansion of ideal and real gases.
(x)
Q.23 Temperature and pressure of air in tyre tube is 27°C and 8 atm respectively. If tube suddenly burst then
calcualte final temperature of air. [ = 1.5)
Sol. P11 T1 P21 T2
(8)1- (300) = (1)1– (T2)
T2 = 150 K
T2 = 150 – 273 = – 123°C Ans.
E 97
1
Q.24 A diatomic ideal gas is compressed adiabatically to of its initial volume. If the initial temperature of the
32
gas is T1K and final temperature is aT1 then find the value of a.
Sol. T1V1 -1 =T2V2 –1
7
1
V 5
T1(V)7/5-1 = a.T1
32
2
5
a 2 5 =4
Q.25 Find the order of magnitude of slope of PV curve in different process.
Sol. Slope IC > AD > IT > IB
P P
0
V V
IC [Isochoric process] or IM [Iso volumetric process] or Isometric process
Q.26 A gas is expanded to double of its initial volume through three different process (IB, IT, AD) then find
P
IB 2
1
IT
2'
AD
2"
V
V 2V
(a) Order of work done Ans. IB > IT > AD
(b) Order of final pressure Ans. IB > IT > AD
(c) Order of final temperature Ans. IB > IT > AD
Q.27 A gas is compressed to half of its initial volume along three different process, then
P
2"
2' IT AD
2 1
IB
V
V 2V
(a) order of work done AD> IT > IB

(b) Order of final pressure AD > IT > IB
(c) Order of temperature AD > IT > IB
Q.28 Identify the curves for AD and IT process
P
Sol. A AD
(Slope)AD > (Slope) IT B C
B IT
C,D Polytrophic A D
Hint : Slope of Isothermal and Adiabatic is negative.
V
98 E
Q.29 Convert the given V-T diagram into PV diagram.
V c
a b
Sol. a b ; V = constant ; P T P
T ;P b
1
b c ; T = constant ; P
V a c
V ;P
c a ; V T ; P = constant V
V ;T
Q.30 Identify the curves for IT & AD process.
P A
B
(slope) AD = – (slope)IT
AD or IT
AD
V
Note : (1) Two IT curves, don’t intersect to each other at any real point so they are always parallel.
(2) Two AD curves may intersect each other at any real point because slope of Adiabatic graph depends
on nature of gas (monoatomic, diatomic, polyatomic)
P
(Slope)AD = , for different gases, slope of P-V graph is different, so they are never parallel/
V
intersect each other.
Hence : (A) and (B) AD but (B) IT
5
Q.31 An ideal gas is adiabatically compressed from to 80 cm3 to 10 cm3. If the initial pressure is P then
3
find the final pressure ?
Sol. P1V1 = P2V2
P1 V2
P2 V1
5
P 10 3
P2 80
P2 = 32 P Ans.
E 99
Note : For different type of gas PV curve in adiabatic process.
(Adiabatic
expansion of gas)
P
poly
a tom
ic
di a t = 1.33
m om
on ic
oa = 1.4
to
m
ic = 1.67
V

BB-8 : 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
Ex. 1 : 236, 247, 262, 264, 234, 235, 236, 237, 239, 243, 244, 250, 252, 253, 256, 257, 258, 259, 262,
265, 266, 267, 268, 269, 271, 272
Ex. 2 : 13, 17, 19, 21, 24, 33, 37, 38, 31, 48, 52, 62, 72, 76, 79, 85, 90, 91, 98, 100, 106,

BB-8 : 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
Ex. 1 : 237, 248, 263, 265, 235, 236, 237, 238, 240, 244, 245, 251, 253, 254, 257, 258, 259, 260, 263,
266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 272, 273
Ex. 2 : 13, 17, 19, 21, 24, 33, 37, 38, 31, 48, 52, 62, 72, 76, 79, 86, 91, 94
100 E
LECTURE # 29
R R
General expression for C (CP or CV) in the process PVx = constant C
1 1 x
R
For isobaric process P = constant so x = 0 C CP R CV R
1
For isothermal process, PV = constant so x = 1 C=
For adiabatic process PV = constant so x = C = 0
Values of f, U, CV, CP and for different gases are shown in table below.
Atomicity of gas f Cv CP
3 5 5
Monoatomic 3 R R 1.67
2 2 3
Diatomic, Triatomic and Triatomic linear 5 7 7
5 R R 1.4
(at normal temperature) 2 2 5
6 8 4
Poly atomic Triangular Non-linear 6 R 3R R 4R 1.33
2 2 3
Q.32 Find the molar heat capacity (in terms of R) of a monoatomic ideal gas undergoing the process :
PV1/2 = constant ?
2
K
Sol. PV 1/2
=K V= .....(1)
P
RT 2 K2
P= P P = RT
K2
2
12 K RT R 2 2T.dT
As V dv
P K K2
K2 2
R 2 .2T.dT
dW = P.dv= RT K2
dW = 2 RdT
Now, dQ = dU + dW
3RdT 7
CdT 2 RdT C R
2 2
Alter :-
Use polytropic process
R
C CV
1 x
PV x constant
E 101
Q.33 An ideal gas is taken through a process in which pressure and volume vary as P = kV2. Show that the
R
molar heat capacity of the gas for the process is giveny by C = Cv + .
3
Sol. PV–2 = K
R R R
As C C V (1 x) ,x –2 = CV 1 ( 2) C Cv .
3
Q.34 A monoatomic ideal gas (Cp/Cv= ) is taken through a process in which the pressure and the volume vary
as P = kVa, where k = constant. Find the value of a for which the molar specific heat capacity in the
process is zero.
R
Sol. C CV ; If PVx = constant
1 x
3 R 5
0 R ;a
2 1 a 3
5
a
3
FREE EXPANSION OF GASES
• Expansion of gas against vacuum • Container should be heat insulated.

1. (a) Q = 0
(b) W = 0
(c) Q = W + dU [vacuum : P = 0]
dU = 0 U = constant
2. (a) For Ideal Gas [ Isothermal & adiabatic]
U = constant T = constant
[Temperature of ideal gas is constant in free expansion process]
(b) For real gas [only AD]
[Temperature of vanderwaal gas decreases in free expansion because the thermal internal energy de-
creases]
102 E
Q.35 If ideal gas expands against vacuum, insulated container then what will be final volume, final pressure and
final temperature?
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
ideal Gas Vaccum
P,V,T V
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
\
1
Sol. (i) T'=T (ii) V'= 2V (ii) P' = P/2 P
V
Q.36 Match the column–I with column–II
Column–I Column–II
(A) Adiabatic expansion (p) Q = 0
(B) Adiabatic free expansion (q) U = 0
(C) Isobaric expansion (r) W = 0
(D) Isothermal expansion (s) Q = W + U
(E) Isochoric cooling
Sol. (A) – p,s, (B) – p,q,r,s, (C) – s , (D) – q,s, (E) – r,s
SLOT (SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS)

Draw back of FLOT :
• No information about what part of heat converted into mechanical-work.
• Does not give proper direction of heat flow.
Statement :
1. Kelvin plank statement : It state that in a cyclic process total heat can not be converted into mechenical
work.
2. Claussius statement : it is impossible to have net heat flow from low temperature body to high
temperature body.
E 103
• Heat Engine :
heat source
output
Efficiency of heat engine at higher temp.
input T1K
work (T1>T2) Q1 T1 (heat given)

heat given
working
W Q1 Q2 substance
Q1 Q1
Q1=Q2 + W Q2 T2 (heat rejected)
T1 T2 W = (Q 1 Q 2)
Maximum Efficiency : 100%
T1
sink at lower
temp. (T2)
T2
1 100%
T1
Note : (1) If T1 = K or T2 = 0 K then = 100% (That is practically impossible)

(2) Efficiency depends on temperature of source (T1K) and temperature of sink (T2 K)
CARNOT HEAT ENGINE
P Q1
A
I.T (T1>T2)
.E
xp.
B........ TA = T B=T1
AD
AD exp. W
comp Enclosed area represent work done by the engine.
D C........ TC =TD = T2
I.T. comp
Q2 V
1. It is a hypothetical engine because working substance is an ideal gas.

2. It’s efficiency is maximum but not 100%
3. This cycle process have two isothermal and two adiabatic process.
• Efficiency of Carnot heat engine :
output W Q1 Q2 T1 T2
input Q1 Q1 T1
T2
% 1 100%
T1
Q.37 If a carnot engine works at a temperature between 300 K to 400 K, then find the efficiency of that engine.
T1 – T2 400 – 300 100 1

Sol. %= = = = or 25%
T1 400 400 4
104 E
Q.38 A diatomic ideal gas is used in a Carnot engine as the working susbtance. if during the adiabatic expansion
part of the cycle the volume of the gas increases from V to 32 V, the efficiency of the engine is
Sol. TV
1 1
1
T2V2 1
7
1 1
T2 V1 T2 1 5 1
T1 V2 T1 32 4
T2 1
Efficiency 1 1 0.75
T1 4

Ex. 1 : 255, 273, 274, 275, 277, 278, 280, 281, 284

Ex. 1 : 256, 274, 275, 276, 278, 279, 281, 282, 285
E 105
LECTURE # 30
CARNOT REFRIGERATOR :
At higher temp.
T1K
(let T1>T2)
Q1 T1 (heat rejected)
working work
substance W
Q2 T2 (heat absorbed)
At lower temp. Q1=W + Q2

T2K W = Q1 Q2
1. In Carnot refrigerator heat is absorbed from a cold body & some external work is to be done on refrig-
erator and the total heat is given out at higher temperature.
• Refrigerator is just opposite to heat engine so (COP) of refrigerator is
Heat absorbed Q2 Q2
COP ( ) = Work W Q1 Q2
T2
COP
T1 T2
1 1
Relation between and ) or 1
1
Q.39 Calculate COP of a Carnot refrigerator working between 30°C to 40°C.
T2 303
Sol. 30.3
T1 T2 10
Q.40 A Carnot engine has same efficiency between (i) 100 K and 500 K and (ii) TK and 900 K. Find the value
of T ?
T2
Sol. Efficiency 1
T1
100 T 100 T
or 1 1 or
500 900 500 900
T = 180 K
Q.41 A Carnot engine takes 103 kilocalories of heat from a reservoir at 627°C and exhausts the remaing heat
to a sink at 27°C. What will be the efficiency of the engine ?
Sol. Q1 = 103 × 103 cal = (106 × 4.2 J)
T1 = 900 K
T2 = 300 K
T1 T2 600
100 100 67%
T1 900
106 E
Q.42 In the above problem, what will be the work performed by the engine?
Sol. Work performed by the engine
2
W= 106 4.2
Q1 or W = 2.8×106 joule
3
Q.43 A Carnot engine absorbs an amount Q of heat from a reservoir at an absolute temperature T and rejects
heat to a sink at a temperature of T/3. The amount of heat rejected is :-
(1) Q/4 (2) Q/3 (3) Q/2 (4) 2Q/3
T2 W
Sol. 1
T1 Q1
where Q1 = heat absorbed, Q2 = heat rejected
T /3 W 2 W Q1 Q 2 2 Q2 Q2 1 Q1 Q
1 1 Q2
T Q1 3 Q1 Q1 3 Q1 Q1 3 3 3
Q.44 A Carnot engine having an efficiency of 1/10 as heat engine, is used as a refrigerator. If the work done
on the system is 10 J, the amount of energy absorbed from the reservoir at lower temperature is :-
(1) 90 J (2) 99 J (3) 100 J (4) 1 J
1
Sol.
10
1
1
Q2
9
W
Q2 = 9 × 10
Q2 = 90 J Heat absorbed at lower temp.
Q1 = 90 + 10 = 100 J Heat released at higher temp.

BB-9 : All question
Ex. 1 : 273 to 285 (Remaining)
Ex. 2 : 7, 22, 55, 64, 77, 109, 107, 102, 96, 87, 68, 64, 61, 55, 44
BB-9 : All question
Ex. 1 : 274 to 286
Ex. 2 : 7, 22, 44, 55, 61, 64, 68, 77, 88
E 107

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Pre-Medical : Physics

(ii) Pressure of gas at constant volume.

Scale Symbol LFP UFP Number of divisions

*LFP = Lower Fixed Point *UFP = Upper Fixed Point

212°F 100°C 373.15k

Fahrenheit Celsius Kelvin

Relation between different scale:

Reading on any scale - LFP

(t2 – t1)°C = (T2 – T1) K.

Þ F = -459 .4° F » -460 ° F

(a) 50° (b) 40° (c) 30° (d) 54°

Sol. Difference of 100°C = difference of 180°F

Q.10 The correct value of 0°C on Kelvin scale will be

(a) 273.15 K (b) 273.00 K (c) 273.05 K (d) 273.63 K

Sol. 10K< 10° F < 10° C

Z:\NODE02\B0AH-AI\TEACHING NOTES\PHYSICS\THERMAL PHYSICS\01-THERMOMETRY.P65

HOMEWORK (Module - 2019-20)

HOMEWORK (Module - 2018-19)

v The expanded object is like a photographic enlargement.

Thermal expansion arises because the well is

(A) Before heating (B) After heating

v Change in length D L = L0aDT

(L0 = Original length, DT = Temperature change)

v Final length L = L0 (1 + aDT)

v Unit of a is °C -1 or K -1 . It’s dimension is [q -1]

v Unit of b is °C–1 or K–1.

v Final volume V = V0 (1 + gDT )

v Unit of g is °C–1 or K–1.

expansion of the silver rod is

Now g = 3a = 3 ´ 1.9 ´ 10–5/°C = 5.7 ´ 10–5/°C

(B) x and r increase, d decreases r

(*C) x, r and d all increase

(D) Data insufficient to arrive at a conclusion d

(A) R1 (B) R2 (C) R2 – R1 (*D) All of these

= 2 × 10–5 × 100 × 100

(A) a I DT (B) a I DT (*C) 2 a I DT (D) 3 a I DT

(*A) g>3a (B) g<3a (C) g=3a (D) none of these

HOMEWORK (Module - 2019-20)

HOMEWORK (Module - 2018-19)

Higher temperature At room temperature At high temperature

(A) Heating (B) Cooling

a1L 2 + a 2 L1 a1L 2 + a 2 L 2 a1L1 + a 2 L 2 (

L ' = L'1 + L'2

Þ L + LaDT = L + L1a1DT + L2a2DT

(A) p r2 (B) ab (C) R (D) b

Thermal Expansion in Liquids

PQ ® represents expansion of vessel R

PR ® Represent the apparent expansion of liquid

v The actual increase in the volume of the liquid =

the apparent increase in the volume of liquid + the

increase in the volume of the vessel.

0°C 4°C Temperature 0°C 4°C Temperature

HOMEWORK (Module - 2019-20)

HOMEWORK (Module - 2018-19)

Q = 5 × 1 × 20 = 100 cal = 420 J

Sol. Q = msDT = 10 × 2100 × 80 = 168 × 104 J

Note :- Mechanical energy to heat.

Sol. mgh = mSDT

Þ 10 × 2 × 103 = 126 × (T –25)

(Sblock = 100 J/ kg–1 ºC)

LFP = Lower Fixed Point UFP = Upper Fixed Point

If P ¯ ¬¾¾¾¾ ¾ M.P. & B.P. ¯