Lecture 5:

Luminosity and angular diameter distances

L: Remember the Friedmann-Robertson-Walker metric, for the standard model of the Universe.

−ds2 = c2 dτ 2 = c2 dt2 − a2 (t) dr2 + Sk2 (r)(dθ2 + sin2 θdφ2 ) ,

 
(1)

where Sk (r) = r for k = 0 (flat case), Sk (r) = R sin(r/R) for k = 1 (closed case), and Sk (r) = R sinh(r/R)
for k = −1 (open case). Note that R is the comoving radius of curvature of space here, and is a constant
(does not depend on cosmic time t).

Q: If we have a ruler of physical length L, placed along a transverse direction at comoving distance r from us,
what is the angle α it subtends on the sky?

L L Sk (r)
α= = ; DA (r) = . (2)
ae Sk (r) DA (r) 1+z
The angular diameter distance is DA (r) = ae Sk (r) = Sk (r)/(1 + z). The scale factor ae is that of the
ruler when it emits the light we see. The redshift z is the one the observer measures for the ruler, where
we assume the scale factor is normalized at the observing epoch to ao = 1 (otherwise we have to multiply
Sk (r) by ao ).

Q: If we have a source of luminosity L observed at redshift z, emitting light isotropically at a comoving distance
r from us, what is the flux f we receive from it?
The luminosity L is spread over a sphere of physical size 4πa2o Sk (r)2 , where the scale factor ao is at the
time of observation of the flux. However, each emitted photon is redshifted and its energy is reduced by
a factor 1 + z. At the same time, the rate at which photons are received is also slowed by another factor
1 + z. So the measured flux is:
L 1
f= . (3)
4πa2o Sk (r)2 (1 + z)2
2
The luminosity distance is defined as f = L/(4πDL ). If the observer is at present, with normalized scale
factor ao = 1, then the luminosity distance is
L
f= 2 ; DL = Sk (r)(1 + z) . (4)
4πDL

L: First evidence for the cosmological constant: supernovae Type Ia. The method is analogous to the one used
by Henrietta Leavitt to establish Cepheid variables as standard candles: the measurement of a Cepheid
period-luminosity relation in the Magellanic Clouds tells you a method to infer the luminosity once you
know the period. The scatter of this relation is further reduced if you measure a correlation with metallicity
and correct for any dust absorption. Then you use the inferred luminosity to obtain the distance from the
flux.

L: Similarly, observations of Type Ia supernovae (a special type of supernovae that show no hydrogen and are
believed to arise from collisions of white dwarfs) show a relation between the duration of their lightcurve
and their intrinsic luminosity, which can be tested in nearby galaxies that have independent distance
measurements from Cepheid variables. Then we can use this relation to infer luminosity for more distant
supernovae. This has led to the measurement of luminosity distance versus redshift up to a high redshift of
about one. Only the benchmark model containing ∼ 70% of the critical density at the present cosmic time
as a cosmological constant, and ∼ 30% as matter, matches the observations. This evidence, presented in
1998, came on top of other observations (coming from ages of globular clusters and large-scale structure
data) that had suggested the presence of a cosmological constant, and was the first time that a cosmological
constant was clearly required by the data.

1
L: Then, in 2002, observations of the CMB by WMAP confirmed this discovery in a totally independent way,
and with greater precision. The evidence for an accelerating expansion was interpreted more generally
as implying the presence of dark energy. A dark energy component arising from a new field is globally
equivalent to a cosmological constant only if the relation p = −ρ holds exactly at all times, which is so
far in agreement with observations.

Q: The luminosity distance tells us how total flux depends on total luminosity, or flux in a given band that
is redshifted from the band in which the luminosity is emitted. How does flux per unit frequency vary?
Since dνobs = dνem /(1 + z), we have:

Lν (1 + z)
fν/(1+z) = 2 . (5)
4πDL

Q: How about flux per unit wavelength? Now, a unit of wavelength interval in which we observe varies as
dλobs = dλem (1 + z), so:
Lλ
fλ(1+z) = 2 (1 + z) . (6)
4πDL