MCQ Questions

Computer Engineering

Subject Name: Mobile Computing Semester: VI

Multiple Choice Questions

Choose the correct option for following questions. All the Questions carry
equal marks
1.
1) Which of the following usually stores all user-related data that is also
relevant to GSM mobile systems?

Option A: VLR

Option B: HMR
Option C: CMR
Option D: SIM

2. Which of these is required for the transmission of digital information by

translating it into analogue signals via a particular frequency?
Option A: BSPK
Option B: QPSK
Option C: Modulation
Option D: Demodulation

3. Two or more antennas can also be combined to improve reception by

counteracting the negative effects of multi-path propagation. These
antennas, also called
Option A: Multi-element antenna arrays isme thoda doubt hai)
Option B: Smart antennas
Option C: Sectorized antenna
Option D: Isotropic radiator

4. In which one of the following, the slow and fast hopping is used?
Option A: GSM
Option B: GPRS
Option C: FHSS
Option D: None of the above

5. Which of the following does not come under subsystem of GSM

architecture?
Option A: BSS
Option B: NSS
Option C: OSS
Option D: Channel

6. Changing VLRs with uninterrupted availability of all services is called as

Option A: VLR switching
Option B: Roaming
Option C: Hard handoff
Option D: Soft handoff

7. What is the interface between SGSN and HLR in a GPRS network structure?
Option A: Gs
Option B: Gn
Option C: Gb
Option D: Gr

8. UMTS is also known as ___________

Option A: IS-95
Option B: GPRS
Option C: CdmaOne
Option D: W-CDMA

9. It is defined as the process of transferring a call (or data transfer) in progress

from one channel to another channel.
Option A: Handover
Option B: Handoff
Option C: Roaming
Option D: Both A and B

10. The security algorithms used in GSM are__________.

Option A: A3
Option B: A5
Option C: A8
Option D: All of the above

11. ________________ is the mechanism of taking a packet consisting of packet

header and data and putting it into the data part of a new packet.
Option A: Decapsulation
Option B: Encapsulation
Option C: IP-in-IP
Option D: Packet extension

12. Foreign agents and home agents advertise their presence

periodically using special message is called as
Option A: Tunneling message
Option B: Registration request
Option C: Agent advertisement message
Option D: Binding request
 13. In TCP/IP, ———————— is a congestion control algorithm that makes it
possible to quickly recover lost data packets.
Option A: Fast retransmit and fast recovery
Option B: Fast retransmit
Option C: Fast recovery
Option D: None of the above

14. In the Indirect TCP the Foreign Agent (FA) becomes or acts as a —— and
relays data in both directions
Option A: Router
Option B: Node
Option C: Proxy
Option D: Access Point

15. A mobile phone uses ______ type of duplex communication

Option A: Full
Option B: Half
Option C: Both A And B
Option D: None of the above

16. What does LTE stand for

Option A: Level telecom advanced
Option B: Long terminal advanced
Option C: Long term evolution
Option D: Long time evolution

17. What are the advantages of a 4G LTE network over 3G network?

Option A: More Spectral Efficiency
Option B: Low power consumption
Option C: Scalability and flexibility with other networks
Option D: All of the above

18. What is the full form of WLAN?

Option A: Wide Local Area Network
Option B: Wireless Local Area Network
Option C: Wireless Land Access Network
Option D: Wireless Local Area Node

19. Which of the following specifies a set of media access control (MAC) and
physical layer specifications for implementing WLANs?
Option A: IEEE 802.16
Option B: IEEE 802.3
Option C: IEEE 802.11
Option D: IEEE 802.15
 20. Which of the following is the 802.11 High Rate Standard?
Option A: IEEE 802.15
Option B: IEEE 802.15.4
Option C: IEEE 802.11g
Option D: IEEE 802.11b

21. What is an Access point?

Option A: An entity that provides access to the LLC Layer
Option B: An entity that provides access to the MAC Layer
Option C: An entity that provides access to the distribution system
Option D: An entity that provides access to the Basic Service Set

22. The frequency band of Bluetooth radio is around

Option A: 2.1GHz
Option B: 2.3GHz
Option C: 2.4GHz
Option D: None of the above

23. The Single Piconet formed by

Option A: One Slave and One master
Option B: One Slave and multiple masters
Option C: Multiple slaves and one master
Option D: Multiple slaves and multiple masters

24. The Scatternet is a combination of

Option A: Single piconet
Option B: Double piconet
Option C: Multiple piconet
Option D: None of the above

25. The size of an IP address in IPv6 is

Option A: 4 bytes
Option B: 128 bits
Option C: 8 bytes
Option D: 100 bits

26. In CIP Architecture the major components are

Option A: Micro mobility
Option B: Macro mobility
Option C: Cellular IP gateway
Option D: None of the above

27. In practical IPv6 application, a technology encapsulates IPv6 packets inside

IPv4 packets, this technology is called
Option A: Tunneling
Option B: Hashing
Option C: Routing
Option D: NAT

28. The header length of an IPv6 datagram is

Option A: 10 bytes
Option B: 25 bytes
Option C: 30 bytes
Option D: 40 bytes

29. HMIPv6 stands for

Option A: Host Mobile IPv6
Option B: High Mobile IPv6
Option C: Hierarchical Mobile IPv6
Option D: None of the above

30. Challenges of mobile computing include

Option A: Low Security
Option B: Ad hoc Networking
Option C: Shared medium
Option D: All of the above

Descriptive Questions
Differentiate between DSSS and FHSS.

Explain the Various types of antennas along with their radiation patters.

Explain GSM architecture and different interfaces used in it.

What are the modifications are required to an existing GSM network to be upgraded to
GPRS, Explain with suitable diagram.
Write a short note on UTRAN and UMTS network.
Explain Hidden and Exposed terminal problem? Discuss solutions to this problems
Explain Tunnelling and Encapsulation and discuss how tunnelling work for Mobile IP using
IP-In-IP Encapsulation?
Explain about Hierarchical Mobile IPv6?
Explain the SAE architecture in detailed manner.
Explain LTE protocol stack.
Explain LTE MAC layer.
Explain Protocol Architecture of 802.11?
Explain in detail IEEE 802.11 MAC sub layer?
Explain Bluetooth Architecture in detailed manner?
Draw and explain Bluetooth protocol stack in detail?
Explain about optimization in mobility management?
Comparison of IPv4 and IPv6 Header format?
What is Cellular IP? Explain CIP architecture along with routing and paging procedure in
CIP?
Discuss in detail about Macro Mobility?
Explain about HAWAII in detailed manner?
Explain Agent advertisement in Mobile IP?
Explain various ALOHA protocol?
What are the goals of Mobile IP?
Write a short note on different generations of telecommunication
Compare between 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G and 5G generations.
Compare between LTE and LTE advanced.
Explain how Mobile originated call (MOC) work.
Explain the concept of medium access protocol.
Discuss various GSM services.
Explain how Mobile terminated call work in GSM.
Difference between Ad-hoc Network and Infrastructure Network?
Comparison of various IEEE 802.11x Standards?
Explain about Wireless LAN threats?
Short note on 5G.
Describe Micro Mobility.
Q. Describe Micro Mobility.
Ans:
 Micromobility protocols aim to handle movement within a domain of MNs(Mobile
Networks), with minimum or zero packet loss, minimum signalling, reduced power
consumption and by just interacting with Mobile IP in the access network gateway
(ANG), i.e. the node through which the domain connects to the Internet.
 This has the benefit of reducing delay and packet loss during handoff and eliminating
registration between MNs and possibly distant home agents when MNs remain
inside their local coverage areas.
 All IP micromobility protocols share the same operational principles related to fast
handoff, e.g. reduced location updates, fast security or even the quality of service.
 Micromobility protocols try to guarantee the arrival of packets and to reduce
signalling by hiding local migrations from home agents.
 Hierarchical mobility protocols do it by registering in the HA (Heirarchical address)
the address of the ANG(Access any network Gateway) instead of the CoA (Care of
Address or temporary address) assigned to the MN in the visited domain.
 In this way, when a MN moves from one access point to another one (which is
reachable through the same gateway) the HA needs not be informed.
 The role of micromobility protocols is to ensure that packets arriving at the ANG are
forwarded to the appropriate access point. In order to route packets to the MN's
actual point of attachment, protocols maintain a location database that maps host
identifiers to location information.
Types of Micro Mobility:
hierarchical tunnelling:
 In hierarchical tunnelling, the location database is maintained in a distributed way by
a set of mobility agents.
 Each agent reads the incoming packet's original destination address and searches its
list of visitors for a corresponding entry.
 The entry contains the address of the next lower level agent.
 Entries are created and maintained by registration messages transmitted by MNs.
 One of the main hierarchical tunnelling proposals, mobility agents directly interact
with MNs without the need for establishing a tree-like structure

Mobile-Specific routing:
 Mobile-specific routing approaches avoid the overhead introduced by decapsulation
and re-encapsulation schemes of tunnelling approaches.
 These schemes typically introduce implicit or explicit signalling to update host-
specific routes.
 In the case of Cellular IP [CaGo00] MNs attached to an access network use the IP
address of the gateway as their Mobile IP care-of address.
Q. Short note on 5G.
Ans:
 5G is not just one technology, it is actually a combination of several technologies in
one. The system, however, will be a smart and know when to make use of which
technology for maximum efficiency.
 5G will be much more faster than 4G. It will provide data rate up to 10Gbps.
 It will provide 100% coverage area. That is better coverage even at the cell
boundaries.
 5G will also provide low network latency (up to 1 msec) which will be helpful for the
critical applications like industry, healthcare and medical.
 5G technology aims to provide wide range of future industries from retail to
education, transportation to entertainment and smart homes to healthcare.
 5G technology will provide ubiquitous connectivity means everything. from vehicles
to mobile networks to industries to smart homes will be connected together.
 5G will utilize Extremely High frequency spectrum band between 3GHz to 30 GHz.
These are called millimetre waves. These wave can travel at very high speed but
covers short distance since they cannot penetrate obstacles..
 Unlike 4G that requires high powered cellular base stations to transmit signal over
long distance, 5G will use a large number of small cell stations that may be located
on small towers or building roofs.
 5G makes the use of Massive MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) standards to
make is 100 times faster as opposed to standard MIMO. Massive MIMO makes the
use of as much as 100 antennas. Multiple antennas allow for better and faster data
transmission.
 The 5G network will come with 100 times more devices in market.

Applications of 5G Network:
 High Speed Mobile Networks
 Entertainment and Multimedia
 Internet of Things - Connecting everything
 Virtual reality and Augmented Reality
Q. Explain about Wireless LAN threats?
Ans:
Rogue Access Points/Ad-Hoc Networks
 One way that is the attackers target wireless LANs is by setting up a rogue access
point.
 A rogue access point (AP) is a wireless AP that has been installed on a secured
network without any authorization from the network administrator.
 The idea is to 'fool' some of the legitimate devices and to make them connect to the
rogue access point.
Evil Twin Aps
 In this type of attack, the fraudulent AP advertises the same network name (SSID) as
a legitimate WLAN, causing nearby Wi-Fi clients to connect to them.
 The only effective defense against Evil Twins is server authentication from 802.1X.
Denial of Service
 This is the most common and simplest attack. It can cripple or disable a wireless
network by limiting the access to the services.
 This can be done by simply sending a large amount of traffic at a specific target.
 Here the amount of traffic generated to affect a target device is much higher than
the capabilities of a target machine.
Configuration Problems
 Simple configuration problems are often the cause of many vulnerabilities. A novice
user can set up one of these devices quickly and gain access. However, they also
open up their network to external use without further configuration.
 Other issues with configuration include weak passphrases, weak security algorithm
deployments (i.e. WEP vs WPA vs WPA2), and default SSID usage.
Passive Capturing
 Passive capturing is performed by simply getting within the range of a target wireless
LAN and then listening and capturing data.
 This information can be used for a number of things including attempting to break
existing security settings and analyzing non-secured traffic.
 It is almost impossible to really prevent this type of attack because of the nature of a
wireless network; what can
be done is to implement high security standards using complex parameters.
Misbehaving Clients
 Sometimes clients form unauthorized Wi-Fi connections accidentally or intentionally.
By doing this, they put themselves and corporate data at risk.
 Some enterprises use Group Policy Objects to configure authorized Wi-Fi
connections and prevent end-user changes.
 Others use host-resident agents to monitor Wi-Fi client activity and disconnect high-
risk connections.
Q. Comparison of various IEEE 802.11x Standards?
Ans:
Q. Difference between Ad-hoc Network and Infrastructure Network?
Ans:
Infrastructure mode ad hoc mode

In this mode, the transmitter and receivers are In the ad hoc mode transmitter and receivers can
in direct range of the access point (AP). communicate directly with each other.

In this mode AP handles all wireless nodes In ad hoc mode there is no need for an access point
within the range. in the range.

In this mode each client's security setting must Since in ad hoc mode there is no AP, the network
be configured to match the security setting of users have to configure what are the correct
the access point (AP). security settings and it must have to match with
each client’s security settings in the network.

In this mode, a client or a system can only Since ad hoc is peer to peer mode with no central
communicate with connected clients in access point, it also allows internet between any
managed mode. two connected clients.

More widely used. Most of the IEEE 802.11 transmitter and receivers
Generally used at airport lounge, hotel lobby, support the ad hoc mode.
railway station etc. Generally used in the Military arena (for sharing
information among soldiers),local area networks
for communication among a fixed group of people
etc.
Q. Explain how Mobile terminated call work in GSM.

Ans:

 When a call is placed from the PSTN towards a given phone number, the PSTN uses
the information in the phone number (country and if available, operator) to locate
gateway MSC leading to the MSC where the subscriber is registered.
 The GMSC can request information about the subscriber’s core network and current
location by interrogating the HLR (Home Location Register).
 The HLR constantly updates locations of the MS stored in the VLRs of the networks
the MS visits. In the HLR, the subscriber MSISDN (phone number) is associated with
the IMSI number of the SIM card, which was used to authenticate the subscriber in
the visited network as they registered. Since authentication is communicated to the
MSC, the HLR is aware of the visited MSC/VLR of the MS at a given time.
 In order for the GMSC to pass the call to the MSC, the HLR asks a temporary roaming
phone number from the MSC (Mobile Station Roaming Number – MSRN).
 The MSRN is sent back from the HLR to the GMSC.
 The GMSC forward the call to the MSC using the assigned MSRN.
 Having received the call, the MSC pages all the BSCs in the area that it serves.
 The BSC, in turn, page the BTSs assigned to them.
 The called MS responds to the paging from the BTS, asking to establish a radio
channel to the BTS.
 The response is forwarded to the MSC, which, once notified, authenticates the MS
and initiates the ciphering of the call using the same procedure as in MO calls.
 When the MSC sends back to the radio network the call confirmation message, the
called MS starts to ring.
Q. Discuss various GSM services.

Ans:

GSM offers three basic types of services −

 Telephony services or teleservices

 Data services or bearer services
 Supplementary services

Teleservices

The abilities of a Bearer Service are used by a Teleservice to transport data. These services
are further transited

 Voice Calls
o The most basic Teleservice supported by GSM is telephony. This includes full-
rate speech at 13 kbps and emergency calls, where the nearest emergency-
service provider is notified by dialing three digits.
 Short Text Messages
o Short Messaging Service (SMS) service is a text messaging service that allows
sending and receiving text messages on your GSM mobile phone. In addition
to simple text messages, other text data including news, sports, financial,
language, and location-based data can also be transmitted.

Bearer Services

 Data services or Bearer Services are used through a GSM phone. to receive and send
data is the essential building block leading to widespread mobile Internet access and
mobile data transfer. GSM currently has a data transfer rate of 9.6k. New
developments that will push up data transfer rates for GSM users are HSCSD (high
speed circuit switched data) and GPRS (general packet radio service) are now
available.

Supplementary Services

 Supplementary services are additional services that are provided in addition to

teleservices and bearer services. These services include caller identification, call
forwarding, call waiting, multi-party conversations, and barring of outgoing
(international) calls, among others. A brief description of supplementary services is
given here –
 Advice of Charge (AoC) − This service was designed to give the subscriber an
indication of the cost of the services as they are used. Furthermore, those service
providers who wish to offer rental services to subscribers without their own SIM can
also utilize this service in a slightly different form. AoC for data calls is provided on
the basis of time measurements.
 Closed User Groups (CUGs) − This service is meant for groups of subscribers who
wish to call only each other and no one else.
 Unstructured supplementary services data (USSD) − This allows operator-defined
individual services.
 Conferencing − It allows a mobile subscriber to establish a multiparty conversation,
i.e., a simultaneous conversation between three or more subscribers to setup a
conference call. This service is only applicable to normal telephony.
 Call Waiting − This service notifies a mobile subscriber of an incoming call during a
conversation. The subscriber can answer, reject, or ignore the incoming call.
 Call Hold − This service allows a subscriber to put an incoming call on hold and
resume after a while. The call hold service is applicable to normal telephony.
 Call Forwarding − Call Forwarding is used to divert calls from the original recipient to
another number. It is normally set up by the subscriber himself. It can be used by the
subscriber to divert calls from the Mobile Station when the subscriber is not
available, and so to ensure that calls are not lost.
 Call Barring − Call Barring is useful to restrict certain types of outgoing calls such as
ISD or stop incoming calls from undesired numbers. Call barring is a flexible service
that enables the subscriber to conditionally bar calls.
Q. Explain the concept of medium access protocol.

Ans:

 Medium access protocols basically controls access to the shared medium.

 We know many of the MAC protocols for wired (or fixed) network such as ALOHA,
Slotted ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD, Token bus, token ring etc.
 Since wireless medium is a shared medium MAC protocols become an important
design decision for wireless network.
 But all this MAC protocols from wired networks cannot be directly used for wireless
networks.
 Here, we have introduced several Medium Access Control (MAC) algorithms which
are specifically adapted to the wireless domain.
 Medium access control comprises all mechanisms that regulate user access to a
medium using SDM, TDM, FDM, or CDM. MAC is thus similar to traffic regulations in
the multiplexing.
Q. Explain how Mobile originated call (MOC) work.

Ans:

Step 1 : The MS transmits the request for a new connection. This is realized by the MS
sending a random access burst on RACH logical channel.

Step 2 : The BSS forwards this request to the MSC.

Step 3, 4 : MSC then checks if this user is allowed to setup a call with the requested service.

Step 5-8 : The MSC checks the availability of resources through GSM network and into the
PSTN. Step 9, 10 : If all resources are available, the MSC sets up a connection between MS
and the fixed network.
Q. Compare between LTE and LTE advanced.

Ans:
Q. Compare between 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G and 5G generations.

Ans:
Q. Write a short note on different generations of telecommunication

Ans:

First Generation (1G):

 Analog cellular systems were the first generation of mobile telephone

communication systems.
 The individual calls used different frequencies and shared the available spectrum
through Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA).
 1G system provided only voice communication.
  1G was not supporting roaming between different network operators and
countries.

Examples of 1G networks are :

AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) USA

NMT (Nordic Mobile Telephone) Sweden

Second Generation (2G) – 2.5 Generation (2.5G) : 1990s

 The second generation (2G) of mobile cellular started in the early 1990s.
 It was completely digital and used either Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) or
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA).
 It provides increased capacity and security due to the uses of digital cellular
technology.
 2G systems support international roaming.

Third Generation (3G) - 2000

 The third generation (3G) systems started in 2000.

 The 3G revolution allowed mobile telephone customers to use audio, graphics and
video applications.
 Over 3G it is possible to watch streaming video and engage in video telephony.
 3G standards are :
o W-CDMA
o CDMA2000
o UWC-136
o TD-CDMA / TD-SCDMA
o DECT
Fourth Generation (4G) - 2004

 The fourth generation will be fully IP-based integrated systems.

 It will allow accessing the Internet anytime from anywhere, global roaming, and
wider support for multimedia applications.
 These networks will be capable of providing 100 Mbps in outdoor environment and
1Gbps in indoor with end-to-end QoS and high security.
 4G standards are :
o oLTE (Long Term Evolution)
o WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access)

Fifth Generation - 5G (2018)

 5G is not just one technology, it is actually a combination of several technologies in

one. The system, however, will be a smart and know when to make use of which
technology for maximum efficiency.
 5G will be much more faster than 4G. It will provide data rate up to 10Gbps. It will
provide 100% coverage area. That is better coverage even at the cell boundaries.
 5G will also provide low network latency (up to 1 msec) which will be helpful for the
critical applications like industry, healthcare and medical. 5G technology aims to
provide wide range of future industries from retail to education, transportation to
entertainment and smart homes to healthcare
 5G standards:
o As 5G is under development, as such there is no firm standard at present.
Q. What are the goals of Mobile IP?

Ans:

1. Flawless Device Mobility Using Existing Device Address

 Mobile devices can continue to use their existing IP address even while changing
their actual location or their original network.

2. No additional Addressing or Routing Requirements

 The same overall scheme for addressing and routing must be maintained as in
regular IP. The owner of each device must assign IP addresses in the usual way.
 New routing requirements must not be placed on the internetwork, like host-
specific routes.

3. Interoperability

 Mobile IP devices can continue to communicate with other IP devices that have no
idea about how Mobile IP works, and vice-versa.

4. Transparency of Layers

 All changes made by Mobile IP must remain confined to the network layer.
 Other layers like the transport layer and applications must be able to function in the
same way as regular IPv4.

5. Restraining Hardware Changes

 A few changes are required to the routers that are used, by the mobile device and
the mobile device software for Mobile IP.
 These changes must be kept to a minimum. Other devices, however, like routers
between the ones on the home and visited networks, do not need changes.

6. Scalability

 Mobile IP must allow any device to change from one network to another network,
and this must be supported for an arbitrary number of devices.
 The scope of the connection change must be global. For example, you can use your
laptop from an office in London and also use it if you move to Mumbai.

7. Security

 Mobile IP must include authentication procedures to prevent unauthorized devices

from causing accessing the network and thereby causing problems.
Q. Explain various ALOHA protocol?

Ans:

ALOHA:

 ALOHA is a multiple access protocol for transmission of data via a shared network
channel. It operates in the medium access control sublayer (MAC sublayer) of the
open systems interconnection (OSI) model.
 Using this protocol, several data streams originating from multiple nodes are
transferred through a multi-point transmission channel.
 In ALOHA, each node or station transmits a frame without trying to detect whether
the transmission channel is idle or busy.
 If the channel is idle, then the frames will be successfully transmitted.
 If two frames attempt to occupy the channel simultaneously, collision of frames will
occur and the frames will be discarded.
 These stations may choose to retransmit the corrupted frames repeatedly until
successful transmission occurs.

Versions Of ALOHA:

Pure ALOHA:

In pure ALOHA, the time of transmission is continuous. Whenever a station has an available
frame, it sends the frame. If there is collision and the frame is destroyed, the sender waits
for a random amount of time before retransmitting it.

Slotted ALOHA

Slotted ALOHA reduces the number of collisions and doubles the capacity of pure ALOHA.
The shared channel is divided into a number of discrete time intervals called slots. A station
can transmit only at the beginning of each slot. However,there can still be collisions if more
than one station tries to transmit at the beginning of the same time slot.
Q. Explain Agent advertisement in Mobile IP?

Ans:

 Since mobility is an important feature of Mobile IP, it is very important to track

where the user’s cell has moved.
 Tracking here means to locate the MN’s foreign agent (FA). One method to find it is
by the method called as Mobile Advertisement.

Agent Advertisement

 Over here the HA and FA periodically advertise their presence by using special
advertisements messages.
 Usually, the FA periodically broadcasts the IRDP message in its own network to let
the visited MN know the FA is here and what services the FA provides (Agent
Advertisement). Thus, the MN knows which network it belongs to.
 In case the MN does not receive this message, it can request the service by sending a
solicitation message to inform the FA directly (Agent Solicitation).
 These advertisements can be seen as beacon broadcast to the subnets.
 Here we use ICMP messages according to RFC 1256. The agent advertisement packet
is show alongside.
 In the figure the upper half is the ICMP packet while the lower half is the extension
needed for mobility
 The IP destination address (not in fig.) can be set to 224.0.0.1 (which is the standard
address for multicast) or 255.255.255.255 (broadcast address)
 Some of the fields used are as follows:
o Type → set to 9
o Code → 0 if agent routes traffic from non-mobile nodes as well or else 16
o Check sum → The 16-bit one's complement of the one's complement sum of
the ICMP /IRDP message
o #addresses → The number of router addresses adver sed in this message
o Addr. Size → The number of 32-bit words of information per each router
address
o Lifetime → The maximum number of seconds that the router addresses may
be considered valid.
o Router Address [i=1,2,3..] → The sending router's IP address on the ith
interface from which this message is sent.
o Prefernce level [i=1,2,…] →The preferability of each Router Address[i]
Q. Explain about HAWAII in detailed manner?

Ans:

 Handoff-Aware Wireless Access Internet Infrastructure (HAWAII) has been designed

to take care of the micro mobility inside the visited domain.
 The HAWAII is not totally transparent to the mobile nodes. They use the standard
Mobile IP protocol with NAI, route optimization and challenge/response extensions.
 The processing and generation of the Mobile IP registration messages are splitted
into two parts: between the mobile host and the base station and between the base
and the home agent.
 Because of this division to two parts, the HAWAII is a close relative with the
regionalized tunnel management protocol proposals.
 In the HAWAII, the mobile nodes can use the co-located care addresses (CCOA). This
means that the end point of the IP within IP tunnel is always at the mobile node and
that the mobile node responsible of decapsulating the IP packets.
 If the mobile node is connected to the visited with a slow connection, this is a
disadvantage because the extra IP layer is transferred all the way to the mobile
node.
 So in the HAWAII the normal IP data packets are sent directly from the home agent
to the mobile node and the registrations are processed in two stages at the base
station and the home agent.

Working

Step 1 : On entering an HAWAII domain, a mobile node obtains a co-located COA.

Step 2 : MN registers with the HA.

Step 3 : When MN moving another cell inside the foreign domain, the MN sends a
registration request to the new base station as to a foreign agent.

Step 4 : The base station interprets the registration request and sends out a handoff update
message, which reconfigures all routers on the paths from the old and new base station to
the crossover router.
Advantages

1. Security : Challenge response extensions are mandatory. In contrast to cellular IP, routing
changes are always initiated by the foreign domain’s infrastructure.

2. Transparency : HAWAII is mostly transparent to mobile nodes.

Disadvantages

 Co-located COA raises DHCP security issues(DHCP has no strong authentication).

 Decentralized security-critical functionality(Mobile IP registration processing during
handover)in base stations.
 Authentication of HAWAII protocol messages unspecified (potential attackers:
stationary nodes in foreign network).
Q. Discuss in detail about Macro Mobility?

Ans:

 Macro-mobility handover happens when MN moves globally from one MAP to

another MAP that is located far away from each other while micro-mobility
handover happens when MN moves locally between access router within one MAP
domain.
 In HMIPv6, MN is assigned two addresses, regional care of address (RCoA) and on-
link care of address (LcoA).
 These two addresses are very useful for managing macro-mobility and micro-
mobility. The HMIPv6 macro-mobility management is explained by modeling the
routing scheme for every message exchange between MN and its correspondent
agent (CN).
 The over-all delay is dependent of the time required for each step in the registration
operation which in-turn depends mainly on the transmission time between the
nodes.
 The message exchange for this operation is assumed the scenario that the MN is
currently receiving packets from CN and starts to move to a new MAP domain.
 After the MN receives router advertisements, it acquires two new addresses, the
RcoA2 and LcoA2

Macro-mobility protocols

Mobile IP is the most widely used protocol for macro-mobility management. In addition to
Mobile IP, three macro-mobility architectures are discussed in the section. These protocols
are: Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)-based mobility management, multi-tier hybrid SIP and
Mobile IP protocol, and network inter-working agent-based mobility protocol.
Q. What is Cellular IP? Explain CIP architecture along with routing and paging procedure in
CIP?

Ans:

 Cellular IP (CIP) is a new robust, simple, and flexible protocol for highly mobile hosts.
 CIP complements Mobile IP by supporting local mobility.
 It can accommodate large number of users by separating idle hosts from active
hosts.

Cellular IP Architecture:

The architecture of Cellular IP is shown in Fig. 5.4.1. It consists of three major components.

 Cellular IP gateway (GW),

 Cellular IP node or the base station (BS)
 Cellular IP mobile host (MH)
 An important component of a Cellular IP network is the base station (BS). A cellular IP
network consists of several interconnected BSs.
 The BSs communicate with mobile hosts (MHs) via wireless interface and also route IP
packets inside the cellular network.
 The base stations are built on regular IP forwarding engines, but IP routing is now
replaced by Cellular IP routing and cellular location management.
 CIP gateway router connects a cellular IP network and the regular Internet.

 Mobility between gateways is managed by Mobile IP while mobility within access

networks is handled by Cellular IP.
 Now the IP address of gateway serves as the care-of-address for all mobile hosts that are
currently attached to the network.
Routing in CIP:

 Uplink packets (packets originated from mobile host) are routed from mobile host to
the gateway on a hop-by-hop basis.
 The path taken by these packets is cached in base stations. This cache is called
routing cache.
  To route downlink packets addressed to a mobile host the path used by recent
packets transmitted by the host (that are already stored in route cache) is reversed.

Paging in CIP

 In Cellular IP, an idle mobile host is one that has not received data packets for a
system specific time.
 For such idle hosts, their downlink soft state routes timeout and are removed from
the routing cache.
 These hosts transmit paging-update packets at regular intervals. The paging update
packet is an empty IP packet addressed to the gateway. It is distinguished from route
update packet by its IP type parameter.
 Similar to data and route update packets, paging update packets are routed on a
hop-by-hop basis to the gateway. Base stations may optionally maintain paging
cache.
Q. Comparison of IPv4 and IPv6 Header format?

Ans:

Fields of Ipv6 header

(i) Version : 4 bits. IPv6 version number.

(ii) Traffic Class : 8 bits. Used to specify different classes or priorities of IPv6 packets.

(iii) Flow Label : 20 bits. Used for specifying special router handling from source to
destination(s) for a sequence of packets. It distinguishes the different types of packets such
as audio, video, txt etc. and accordingly provides Quality of services to them.

(iv) Payload Length : 16 bits unsigned. Specifies the length of the data in the packet.

(v) Next Header : 8 bits. Specifies the next encapsulated protocol. The values are compatible
with those specified for the IPv4 protocol field.

(vi) Hop Limit : 8 bits unsigned. For each router that forwards the packet, the hop limit is
decremented by 1. When the hop limit field reaches zero, the packet is discarded. This
replaces the TTL field in the IPv4 header that was originally intended to be used as a time
based hop limit.

(vii) Source address : 16 bytes. The IPv6 address of the sending node.

(viii) Destination address : 16 bytes. The IPv6 address of the destination node.

Yeh answer me jo ipv4 me hai wo lokh dena or uske baad likh dena wo cheez ipv4 me nhi
hai. Or

Jo ipv4 me hai wo likh dena uske baad likh dena yeh cheez ipv6 me nhi hai
Q. Explain about optimization in mobility management?

Ans:

Cn: coorespondent node.

MN: mobile node

HA: home agent

CoA: Care of Address

Triangular routing

 With Mobile IPv4 there is always a triangular traffic pattern. As shown in Fig. 5.1.2
the IP packet from a CN (Correspondent Node) destined to an MN needs to be
routed to its HA first and then tunneled to the foreign agent of the MN.
 If the Corresponding Node (CN)and MN are very near, then also the IP packet has to
travel a long way to reach the MN. This in efficient behavior of a non optimized
mobile IP is called Triangular Routing.
 The triangle is made of the three segments : CN to HA, HA to COA/MN and MN back
to CN.
Route optimization to avoid triangular routing

To solve triangular routing problem, a route optimization protocol has been introduced.
Basically this protocol defines some messages as to inform CN of an upto date location of
MN. Once the current location of the MN is known, the CN itself performs tunneling and
sends packet directly to MN.

The optimized mobile IP protocol needs four additional messages; these are :

1. Binding request

 If a node wants to know where the MN is currently located, it can send a binding
request to the HA.

2. Binding update

 The HA sends a binding update to the CN and informs the CN the current location of
an MN. The binding update can request an acknowledgement.

3. Binding acknowledgement

 On request, after receiving a binding update message, anode returns a binding

acknowledgement.

4. Binding warnings

 A binding warning message is sent by anode if it decapsulates a packet for an MN

but it is not the FA for that MN currently.
 If CN receives the binding warning, it requests the HA for a new binding update.
 If the HA receives the warning it directly sends a binding update to the CN
Q. Draw and explain Bluetooth protocol stack in detail?

Ans:

 AT : Attention sequence
 OBEX : Object exchange
 TCS BIN : Telephony control protocol specification – binary
 BNEP : Bluetooth network encapsulation protocol
 SDP : Service discovery protocol
 RFCOMM : Radio frequency comm.

Radio Layer

 Radio layer defines the carrier frequencies and output power.

 Bluetooth uses 2.4 GHZ license free band.
 Frequency hopping and TDD (time division duplex) is used for transmission with fast
hopping rate of 1600 hops/s.
 It uses 79 hop carriers equally spaced with 1 MHz.
 Gaussian FSK used for modulation

Baseband Layer

 Baseband layer performs frequency hopping to avoid interference and to access the
medium.
 Defines physical links and many packet formats.
Link Manager Protocol (LMP)

 The link manager protocol (LMP) manages various aspects of the radio link between
master and slave.

Logical Link Control and Adaptation Layer Protocol (L2CAP)

 L2CAP is layered over the Baseband Protocol and resides in the data link layer.

Host Controller Interface (HCI)

 The HCI provides a command interface to the baseband controller and link manager
 It provides access to hardware status and control registers.
 Essentially this interface provides a uniform method of accessing the Bluetooth
baseband capabilities.

Service Discovery Protocol (SDP)

 The service discovery protocol (SDP) helps the applications to discover which
services are available and to determine the characteristics of those available
services.
 SDP defines only the discovery of services not about their usage.

Service Discovery Protocol (SDP)

 The service discovery protocol (SDP) helps the applications to discover which
services are available and to determine the characteristics of those available
services.
 SDP defines only the discovery of services not about their usage.

Telephony Control Protocol Specification Binary (TCS-BIN)

 To define call control signaling for the establishment of voice and data calls between
Bluetooth devices TCS-BIN describes a binary, packet based, bit-oriented protocol.
Q. Explain Bluetooth Architecture in Detail Manner?

Ans:

Bluetooth:

Bluetooth is a network technology that connects mobile devices wirelessly over a short
range to form a personal area network (PAN). They use short-wavelength, ultra-high
frequency (UHF) radio waves within the range 2.400 to 2.485 GHz, instead of RS-232 data
cables of wired PANs.

Bluetooth Architecture:

The architecture of Bluetooth defines two types of networks:

1. Piconet

2. Scatternet

Piconets

Piconets are small Bluetooth networks, formed by at most 8 stations, one of which is the
master node and the rest slave nodes (maximum of 7 slaves). Master node is the primary
station that manages the small network. The slave stations are secondary stations that are
synchronized with the primary station.

Communication can take place between a master node and a slave node in either one-to-
one or one-to-many manner. However, no direct communication takes place between
slaves. Each station, whether master or slave, is associated with a 48-bit fixed device
address.

Besides the seven active slaves, there can be up to 255 numbers of parked nodes. These are
in a low power state for energy conservation. The only work that they can do is respond to a
beacon frame for activation from the master node.

Scatternodes

A scatternet is an interconnected collection of two or more piconets. They are formed when
a node in a piconet, whether a master or a slave, acts as a slave in another piconet. This
node is called the bridge between the two piconets, which connects the individual piconets
to form the scatternet.
Q. Explain in detail IEEE 802.11 MAC sub layer?

Ans:

The 802.11 MAC sublayer provides an abstraction of the physical layer to the logical link
control sublayer and upper layers of the OSI network. It is responsible for encapsulating
frames and describing frame formats.

MAC Sublayer frame of IEEE 802.11

The main fields of a frame of wireless LANs as laid down by IEEE 802.11 are −

Frame Control − It is a 2 bytes starting field composed of 11 subfields. It contains control

information of the frame.

Duration − It is a 2-byte field that specifies the time period for which the frame and its
acknowledgement occupy the channel.

Address fields − There are three 6-byte address fields containing addresses of source,
immediate destination and final endpoint respectively.

Sequence − It a 2 bytes field that stores the frame numbers.

Data − This is a variable sized field carries the data from the upper layers. The maximum size
of data field is 2312 bytes.

Check Sequence − It is a 4-byte field containing error detection information.

Q. Explain Protocol Architecture of 802.11?

Ans:

The components of an IEEE 802.11 architecture are as follows

1) Stations (STA) − Stations comprise all devices and equipments that are connected to the
wireless LAN. A station can be of two types:

 Wireless Access Pointz (WAP) − WAPs or simply access points (AP) are generally
wireless routers that form the base stations or access.
 Client. − Clients are worksta ons, computers, laptops, printers, smartphones,
etc.sEach station has a wireless network interface controller.

2) Basic Service Set (BSS) −A basic service set is a group of stations communicating at
physical layer level. BSS can be of two categories depending upon mode of operation:

 Infrastructure BSS − Here, the devices communicate with other devices through
access points.
 Independent BSS − Here, the devices communicate in peer-to-peer basis in an ad
hoc manner.

3) Extended Service Set (ESS) − It is a set of all connected BSS.

4) Distribution System (DS) − It connects access points in ESS.

Advantages of WLANs

 They provide clutter free homes, offices and other networked places.
 The LANs are scalable in nature, i.e. devices may be added or removed from the
network at a greater ease than wired LANs

Disadvantages of WLANs

 Since radio waves are used for communications, the signals are noisier with more
interference from nearby systems.

 WLANs are slower than wired LANs.

Q. Explain LTE MAC Layer?

Ans:

LTE MAC Layer

  Error correction through Hybrid ARQ (HARQ).

  Logical channel to transport channel mapping
  Logical Channel Prioritization.
  Scheduling information reporting.

Error Correction through Hybrid ARQ

 The Hybrid Automatic Repeat-reQuest (HARQ) process is done in combination

between the MAC and the PHY layer.
 The PHY performs the retention and re-combination and the MAC performs the
management and signaling.
 The MAC indicates a NACK whenever there’s a transport block (TB) CRC failure; the
PHY usually indicates that failure.
 Retransmission is done by the eNodeB or the sender on the downlink using a
different type of coding.

Logical Channels to Transport Channel Mapping

  Logical channels exist at the top of the MAC. Types of logical channels include
control channels (for control plane data) and traffic channels (for user plane data)
  Transport channels are in the transport blocks at the bottom of the MAC. They
represent data transfer services offered by the PHY and are defined by how the
information is carried, different physical layer modulations and the way they are
encoded.
 When a valid transport block is available from the HARQ process, the transport
channels are mapped to logical channels.

Logical Channel Prioritization

  When the radio resources for a new transmission are allocated, the logical channel
prioritization entity instructs the multiplexing and de-multiplexing entity to generate
MAC PDUs from the MAC SDUs.
  The logical channel prioritization entity also decides how much data from each
configured logical channel should be included in each MAC PDU whenever radio
resource for a new transmission is available.
Scheduling

  Scheduling is a process through which eNodeB decides which UEs should be given
resources (RBs), how much resource (RBs) should be given to send or receive data.
  In LTE, scheduling is done at per subframe basis i.e. every 1 mili second.
  Resources are composed of Physical Resource Blocks (PRB) and Modulation Coding
Scheme (MCS).
  The MCS determines the bit rate, and thus the capacity, of PRBs.
Q. Explain LTE protocol stack.

Ans:

Physical Layer (Layer 1)

 Physical Layer carries all information from the MAC transport channels over the air
interface. Takes care of the link adaptation (AMC), power control, cell search (for
initial synchronization and handover purposes) and other measurements (inside the
LTE system and between systems) for the RRC layer.

Medium Access Layer (MAC)

 MAC layer is responsible for Mapping between logical channels and transport
channels.
 Multiplexing of MAC SDUs from one or different logical channels onto transport
blocks (TB) to be delivered to the physical layer on transport channels
 Demultiplexing of MAC SDUs from one or different logical channels from transport
blocks (TB) delivered from the physical layer on transport channels.

Radio Link Control (RLC)

 RLC operates in 3 modes of operation: Transparent Mode (TM), Unacknowledged

Mode (UM), and Acknowledged Mode (AM).
 RLC Layer is responsible for transfer of upper layer PDUs, error correction through
ARQ (Only for AM data transfer), Concatenation, segmentation and reassembly of
RLC SDUs (Only for UM and AM data transfer).

Radio Resource Control (RRC)

 The main services and functions of the RRC sublayer include broadcast of System
Information related to the non-access stratum (NAS),

Packet Data Convergence Control (PDCP)

PDCP Layer is responsible for Header compression and decompression of IP data, Transfer of
data (user plane or control plane), Maintenance of PDCP Sequence Numbers (SNs), In-
sequence delivery of upper layer PDUs at re-establishment of lower layers.

Non Access Stratum (NAS) Protocols

 The non-access stratum (NAS) protocols form the highest stratum of the control
plane between the user equipment (UE) and MME.
 NAS protocols support the mobility of the UE and the session management
procedures to establish and maintain IP connectivity between the UE and a PDN GW.
Q. Explain the SAE architecture in detailed manner.

Ans:

SAE Architecture

  System Architecture Evolution (SAE) is a new network architecture designed to

simplify LTE networks. It establish a flat architecture similar to other IP based
communications networks.
  SAE uses an eNB and Access Gateway (aGW) and removes the RNC and SGSN from
the equivalent 3G network architecture. This allows the network to be built with an
“All-IP” based network architecture.
  SAE also includes entities to allow full inter-working with other related wireless
technology (WCDMA, WiMAX, WLAN, etc.). These entities can specifically manage
and permit the non-3GPP technologies to interface directly with the network.
  The high-level network architecture of LTE is comprised of following three main
components :

(i) The User Equipment (UE)

(ii) The Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio

Access Network (E-UTRAN)

(iii) The Evolved Packet Core (EPC)

The User Equipment (UE)

 UE is nothing but the mobile equipment.

 The internal architecture of the UE for LTE is identical to the one used by UMTS and
GSM.

The mobile equipment comprised of the following important modules:

 Mobile Termination (MT) : This handles all the communication functions.

 Terminal Equipment (TE) : This terminates the data streams.
 Universal Integrated Circuit Card (UICC) : This is also known as the SIM card for LTE
equipment
 . It runs anapplication known as the Universal Subscriber Identity Module (USIM).

The E-UTRAN

  The E-UTRAN handles the radio communications between the mobile equipment
(ME) and the evolved packet core (EPC). It contains only one component, the
evolved base stations, called eNodeB or eNB.
  Each eNB is a base station that controls the mobiles in one or more cells.
  The base station that is currently communicating with a mobile is known as its
serving eNB
Evolved Packet Core (EPC) components

It contains following important components :

1. Serving GW

  The serving gateway (S-GW) acts as a router, and forwards data between the base
station and the PDN gateway.
  It is also responsible for inter-eNB handovers in the U-plane.
  It provides mobility between LTE and other types of networks (such as between
2G/3G and P-GW).

PDN GW

The PDN GW is the point of interconnect between the EPC and the external IP networks.
PDN GW routes packets to and from the PDNs. The functions of the PGW include :

  Policy enforcement
  Packet filtering
  Charging support

HSS

  The HSS (for Home Subscriber Server) is a database that contains user-related and
subscriber-related information.
  It is similar to - Home Location Register (HLR) and Authentication Centre (AuC)
used in 3G networks.

MME

 The MME (for Mobility Management Entity) deals with the control plane.

 It handles the signaling related to mobility and security for E-UTRAN access. The MME is
responsible for the tracking and the paging of UE in idle-mode. It is the termination point of
the Non-Access Stratum (NAS).
Q. Explain about Hierarchical Mobile IPv6?
Ans:

HMIPv6 – Hierarchical Mobile IPv6

 The Hierarchical Mobile IPv6 (HMIPv6) has been proposed by IETF to reduce
registration control signaling. It separates micro-mobility from macro-mobility with
the help of an intermediate mobility agent, called the mobility anchor point (MAP).
 Mobile Node’s (MN’s) spatial locality. However, in HMIPv6, the handover process
reveals numerous problems manifested by the latency in configuring a new care of
address and confirmation scheme called duplicate address detection. In this paper,
we proposes an
 Efficient Scheme Fast Handover over HMIPv6 networks
  Hierarchical Mobile IPV6 (HMIPv6) provides micro-mobility support by installing a
mobility anchor point (MAP). MAP is an entity which is responsible for a certain
domain and acts as a local HA within this domain for visiting MNs.
 The MAP receives all packets on behalf of the MN, encapsulates and forwards them
directly to the MN’s current address LCOA (Link COA).

Advantages

1. Security : MNs can have (limited) location privacy because LCOAs can be hidden.

2. Efficiency : Direct routing between CNs sharing the same link is possible

Disadvantages

 Transparency : Additional infrastructure component (MAP).

Security : Routing tables are changed based on messages sent by mobile nodes. This
requires strong authentication and protection against denial of service attacks. Additional
security functions might be necessary in MAPs
Q. Explain Tunnelling and Encapsulation and discuss how tunnelling work for Mobile IP
using IP-In-IP Encapsulation?

Ans:

Tunneling:

  When a mobile node moves out from home network, the HA sends packet to COA
of the MN via a tunnel.
  A tunnel establishes a virtual pipe for data packet.
  In Mobile IP, the start of the tunnel is the home agent, which does the
encapsulation. The end of the tunnel depends on what sort of care of address is
being used which decapsulates data packet.
  If foreign agent COA is used then FA acts as the tunnel end point and if co-located
COA is used then MN acts as the tunnel end point.
  If a CN wants to send data packet to MN (currently not in home network) the data
packet is first encapsulated at HA and sent via a tunnel and then decapsulated at FA
and finally forwarded to the MN.

Encapsulation means putting a packet made up of a packet header and data into the data
field of a new packet.

Advantages of Encapsulation:

1. Encapsulation promotes maintenance

2. Code changes can be made independently
3. Increases usability

IP-in-IP Encapsulatiion:

  IP-in-IP encapsulation is defined in RFC 2003. It is the simplest approach and must
always be supported.
  In this type of encapsulation, the entire IP datagram sent by the internet host is
inserted in a new IP datagram as the payload
1.ver. (Version) : Version field denotes the version number and set to 4 for IPv4.

2. IHL (Internet header length) : IHL indicates the length of the outer header.

3. DS (TOS) : It is just copied from the inner header.

4. Length : It denotes the complete length of the encapsulated packet.

5. TTL (time to live) : It indicates the period of validity of the packet. TTL should be high
enough so the packet can reach the tunnel endpoint.

6. IP-in-IP : This denotes the type of protocol used in the IP payload.

7. IP checksum : This is used for error detection mechanism.

Advantage

 It is simple to implement and it is a default encapsulation mechanism.

Disadvantage

 Most of the outer header fields are same as inner header so this method increases
redundancy.
Q. Write a short note on UTRAN and UMTS network.

Ans:

UTRAN

  The UMTS Terrestrial network (UTRAN) handles the cell level mobility and
comprises several radio network subsystems (RNS).
  RNS consists of two main components: RNC(Radio Network Controller) and Node
B.
  Node B is similar to the base station in GSM system, which performs physical layer
processing such as channel coding, modulation, data interleaving etc.
  RNC controls one or more Node Bs. It manages radio resources assigned to them.
Thus it performs data link layer processing and also participates in handover process.
  RNC is connected to MSC and SGSN to route circuit switched and packet switched
data.

UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication System) Core Network

  Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS) is the European proposal for

IMT-2000 prepared by ETSI.
  The UMTS specifically defines new radio interface called UMTS Terrestrial Radio
Interface (UTRA).
  Two radio interfaces have been defined: UTRA-FDD and UTRA-TDD.
  UMTS does not define a complete new 3G system rather it specifies a smooth
transition from second generation GSM or TDMA systems to the third generation.
  Many solutions have been proposed for 3G networks.
  One initial enhancement of GSM towards UMTS was Enhanced Data rates for
Global Evolution (EDGE) which uses enhanced modulation techniques.
Q. What are the modifications are required to an existing GSM network to be upgraded to
GPRS, Explain with suitable diagram.

Ans:

General Packet Radio System (GPRS) standard was defined by European

Telecommunications standards Institute (ETSI).

  It is a major improvement and extension to the standard GSM system.

  GSM is a circuit-switched network which is ideal for the delivery of voice but not
suitable for transmitting data that is bursty and asymmetric in nature.
  GPRS added packet-switched functionality to existing networks as a result the
users of the system can be online, allowing to make voice calls and access internet
on-the-go.
  GPRS uses unused time slots of GSM system to transmit packet data.
  GPRS can allocate one to eight time slots within a TDMA frame.
  Allocation of time slots is an on demand basis instead of fixed and predetermined.
This allocation depends on current network load and the operator preference.
  Depending upon the coding, the transfer rate up to 171.2 kbits/s is possible.
  GPRS operators offer a minimum of one time slot per cell to ensure at least
minimum data rate.
  Charging in GPRS is based on the volume of data exchanged and not on the
connection time.
  GPRS also includes several security services such as authentication, access control,
confidentiality of user identity and user data.
  The available user data rate depends upon the coding scheme and the number of
TDMA time slots allocated.

OR
The following network nodes have been added to the existing GSM network to support
packet switched network.

GPRS Support Nodes (GSNs)

  The most important network node added to the GSM network is GSN (GPRS
Support Node).
  It is a network node which supports the use of GPRS in the GSM core network. All
GSNs should have a Gn interfaceand support the GPRS tunneling protocol (GTP).
There are two key variants of the GSN, namely serving and gateway GPRS support
node.

Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)

 It is similar to MSC of GSM network. SGSN functions are listed below.

 Performs data compression which helps to minimize the size of transmitted data
units.
 Performs authentication of GPRS subscribers and also maintains information of all
the GPRS subscribers.

Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)

  GGSN is the gateway to external networks such as PDN (Packet Data Network) or IP
network. It is similar to GMSC of GSM network.

Packet Control Unit (PCU) 

 PCU is the core unit to segregate between GSM and GPRS traffic.  It separates the
circuit switched and packet switched traffic from the user and sends them to the
GSM and GPRS networks respectively.

Border Gateway (BG)

  It acts as an interface between different operators of GPRS networks.

  The connection between two border gateways is called GPRS tunnel.

Charging Gateway (CG)

  Charging gateway is responsible for accounting and billing for the use of the
network.
  Charging is done based on Quality of Service or plan user has opted.
DNS server

 It converts domain name to IP addresses required to establish internet connection

and to deliver web pages on user's terminal screen.

Q. Explain GSM architecture and different interfaces used in it.

Ans:

1. Radio subsystem

 Radio subsystem comprises all radio entities. Entities of RSS are explained below.
 Base station subsystem (BSS)
o  A GSM network comprises many BSSs.
o  BSS contains one or more radio cells, each one is controlled by a base
transceiver station (BTS).
 Base station controller (BSC)
o The BSC manages the radio resources for one or more BTSs.
 Mobile station (MS)
  The MS comprises all user hardware and software needed for communication
with a GSM network.
  International mobile equipment identity (IMEI) is used to identify an MS.
Device specific mechanism like theft protection uses the IMEI number.

2.Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)

  The NSS connects the radio network with the standard public mobile networks.
  The NSS includes the main switching functions of GSM, important databases (such
as HLR, VLR) required to manage user profile and user mobility.

3. Operation Sub System (OSS)

  The OSS is the functional entity which is used to monitor and control the overall
GSM network.
  It is also used to control the traffic load of the BSS.
  OSS contains the following entities.
 Operation and Maintenance Center (OMC)
o  The operations and maintenance center (OMC) is connected to all
equipment in the switching system and to the BSC.
o  The OMC monitors and controls all other network entities via the O
interface.
 Authentication Center (AUC)  The Authentication Center is a protected database
that stores a copy of the secret key stored in each subscriber's SIM card, which is
used for authentication and ciphering of the radio channel.  The AUC protects
network operators from different types of fraud
Q. Explain the Various types of antennas along with their radiation patters.

Ans:

 An antenna is a device that converts electromagnetic radiation in space into

electrical currents in conductors or vice-versa, depending on whether it is being used
for receiving or for transmitting, respectively.
  The radiation pattern of an antenna describes the relative strength of the radiated
field in various directions from the antenna, at a constant distance.

Types of Antennas.

Isotropic Antenna

  An isotropic antenna is a theoretical antenna that radiates its power uniformly in

all directions.
 It is an ideal antenna which radiates equally in all directions and has a gain of 1 (0
dB), i.e. zero gain and zero loss.

Omnidirectional Antennas

  Unlike isotropic antennas, dipole antennas are real antennas. The dipole radiation
pattern is 360 degrees in the horizontal plane and approximately 75 degrees in the
vertical plane.
  It is also called the "non-directional" antenna because it does not favor any
particular direction.

Directional Antenna

  A directional antenna or beam antenna is an antenna which radiates or receives

greater power in specific directions.
  This allows increased performance and reduced interference from unwanted
sources.
Sectorized Antenna

  Several directional antennas can be combined on a single pole to construct a

sectorized antenna.
  They are widely used in cellular telephony infrastructure. For example, A cell can
be sectorized into three or six

Antenna arrays

  An antenna array is a configuration of multiple antennas (elements) arranged to

achieve a given radiation pattern.
  Multiple antennas allow different diversity schemes to improve the quality and
reliability of a wireless link.
Q. Differentiate between DSSS and FHSS

Ans:

Q1. Differentiate between DSSS and FHSS.

Ans:
Parameters of
FHSS DSSS
Comparison

Abbreviation Frequency-hopping spread spectrum Direct-sequence spread spectrum

Delivery capability
3 Mbps 11 Mbps
the connection

Rate of Signal to
18 dB 12 dB
Noise Ratio

The bandwidth of this system is large.

It is simpler to hide the signal. It is less
Advantages The system can be programmed to
expensive than FHSS, etc.
avoid parts of the spectrum, etc.

A Wide-band channel is required,

Errors in the connection, Not much
Disadvantages Needs a longer acquisition time
useful for great range, etc.
period, etc.

Examples Bluetooth, Military use, etc. Wi-Fi, CDMA, etc.