CHAPTER 1: BIOPSYCHOLOGY AS A Neurophysiology - The study of the

NEUROSCIENCE functions and activities of the nervous

Neurons - cells that receive and system
transmit electrochemical signals
Neuroscience- the scientific study of What Types of research Characterize
the nervous system the biopsychological approach?
Thinking creatively - thinking in Comparative approach - study of
productive, unconventional ways biological processes by comparing
Clinical - pertaining to ill- ness or different species. For example,
treatment comparing the behavior of species that
Evolutionary perspective - is the do not have a cerebral cortex with the
comparative approach (trying to behavior of species that do can provide
understand biological phenomena by valuable clues about cortical function
comparing them in different species). Between-subjects design - a different
group of subjects is tested under each
What is biopsychology? condition
Biopsychology - is the scientific study Within-subjects design - test the same
of the biology of behavior group of subjects under each condition
Neuroanatomy - The study of the Independent variable - assigns the
structure of the nervous system subjects to conditions, administers the
Neurochemistry - The study of the treatments, and measures the outcome
chemical bases of neural activity in such a way that there is only one
Neuroendocrinology - The study of relevant difference between the
interactions be- tween the nervous conditions being compared
system and the endocrine system Dependent variable - variable
Neuropathology - The study of nervous measured by the experimenter to
system disorders assess the effect of the independent
Neuropharmacology - The study of the variable.
effects of drugs on neural activity

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Confounded variable - difficult to Translational research - research that
determine whether it was the aims to translate the findings of pure
independent variable or the unintended research into useful applications for
difference human- kind
Coolidge effect - illustrates the
prevention of confounded variables with What are the Divisions of
good experimental design biopsychology?
Lordosis - the arched-back, rump-up, Physiological psychology - is the
tail-diverted posture of female rodent division of biopsychology that studies
sexual receptivity. the neural mechanisms of behavior
through the direct manipulation and
Quasiexperimental studies - studies of recording of the brain in con- trolled
groups of subjects who have been experiments—surgical and electrical
exposed to the conditions of interest in methods are most common.
the real world. These studies have the Psychopharmacology - is similar to
appearance of experiments, but they are physiological psychology except that it
not true experiments because potential focuses on the manipulation of neural
con- founded variables have not been activity and behavior with drugs.
controlled Neuropsychology - is the study of the
Case studies - Studies that focus on a psychological effects of brain damage in
single case or subject. human patients. Because human
Generalizability - the degree to which volunteers cannot ethically be exposed
their results can be applied to other to experimental treatments that
cases endanger normal brain function
Pure research - is motivated primarily Cerebral cortex - is most likely to be
by the curiosity of the researcher—it is damaged by accident or surgery; this is
done solely for the purpose of acquiring one reason why neuropsychology has
knowledge. focused on this important part of the
Applied research - is intended to bring human brain.
about some direct benefit to humankind.

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Psychophysiology - is the division of How Do biopsychologists Conduct
biopsychology that studies the relation Their Work?
between physiological activity and Converging operations- Progress is
psychological processes in human most likely when different approaches
subjects. are focused on a single problem in such
Electroencephalogram - measures are a way that the strengths of one
muscle tension, eye movement, and approach compensate
several indicators of autonomic nervous for the weaknesses of the others
system activity (e.g., heart rate, blood Korsakoff’s syndrome - is severe
pressure, pupil dilation, and electrical memory loss
conductance of the skin) Scientific inference - The empirical
Autonomic nervous system - is the method that biopsychologists and other
divi- sion of the nervous system that scientists use to study the unobservable
regulates the body’s inner environment
Cognitive neuroscience - is the
youngest division of bio-psychology Critical Thinking about
Cognition - a term that generally refers biopsychological Claims
to higher intellectual processes such as Critical thinking - the first step in
thought, memory, attention, and creative thinking is spotting the
complex perceptual processes weaknesses of exist- ing ideas and the
Comparative psychology - evidence on which they are based—the
Comparative psychologists compare the process by which these weaknesses are
behavior of differ- ent species in order to recognized
understand the evolution, genetics, and Morgan’s Canon - When there are
adaptiveness of behavior. several possible interpretations for a
Ethological research - the study of behavioral observation, the rule is to
animal behavior in its natural give precedence to the simplest one;
environment. this rule.
Prefrontal lobotomy - a surgical
procedure in which the connections
between the prefrontal lobes and the

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rest of the brain are cut as a treatment CHAPTER 2: EVOLUTION,
for mental illness GENETICS, & EXPERIENCE
Prefrontal lobes - are the large areas, Zeitgeist - the general intellectual
left and right, at the very front of the climate of our culture.
brain
Leucotome - Lima cut out six large thinking about the Biology of
cores of prefrontal tissue with a surgical Behavior: from dichotomies to
device Interactions
Transorbital lobotomy - involved Cartesian dualism - the idea that the
inserting an ice pick–like device under human brain and the mind are separate
the eyelid, driving it through the orbit entities became even more widely
(the eye socket) with a few taps of a accepted.
mallet, and pushing it into the frontal Nature–nurture issue - The tendency
lobes, where it was waved back and to think in terms of dichotomies extends
forth to sever the connections between to the way people think about the
the prefrontal lobes and the rest of the development of behavioral capacities
brain Ethology - the study of animal behavior
Psychosurgery - any brain surgery, in the wild
such as prefrontal lobotomy, performed Instinctive behaviors - behaviors that
for the treatment of a psychological occur in all like members of a species,
problem even when there seems to have been
no opportunity for them to have been
learned
Asomatognosia - a deficiency in the
awareness of parts of one’s own body.
Asomatognosia typically involves the left
side of the body and usually results from
damage to the right parietal lobe

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Human Evolution Hominini - tribe that includes humans
Evolve - undergo gradual orderly are the hominini
change Spandrels - the incidental non adaptive
Natural selection - emphasize its evolutionary by-products
similarity to the artificial selective Exaptations - evolved to serve one
breeding practices em- ployed by function and were later co-opted to
breeders of domestic animals. serve another.
Fitness - is the ability of an organism to Analogous - structures that are similar
survive and contribute its genes to the but do not have a common evolutionary
next generation. origin
Species - is a group of Convergent evolution - the evolution in
organisms reproductively isolated from unrelated species of similar solutions to
other organisms; that is, the members of the same environmental demands
a species can produce fertile off- spring Convolutions - folds on the cerebral
only by mating with members of the surface—has greatly increased the
same species surface area of the cerebral cortex, the
Conspecifics - members of the same outermost layer of cerebral tissue
species Polygyny - pattern of mate bonding that
Chordates - are animals with dorsal is most prevalent in mammals
nerve cords (large nerves that run along Polyandry - mating arrangement in
the center of the back, or dorsum); they which one female forms mating bonds
are 1 of the 20 or so large categories, or with more than one male.
phyla Monogamy - a mate-bonding pattern in
Vertebrates - spinal bone which enduring bonds are formed
Amphibians - e.g., frogs, toads, and between one male and one female.
salamanders in their larval form must
live in the water; only adult amphibians fundamental genetics
can survive on land. Dichotomous traits - occur in one form
Mammals - females of this new class or the other, never in combination. For
fed their young with secretions from example, seed color is a dichotomous
special glands called mammary glands, pea plant trait

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True-breeding lines - breeding lines in Genetic recombination - each of the
which interbred members always gametes that formed the zygote that
produce offspring with the same trait developed into you contained
(e.g., brown seeds), generation after chromosomes that were unique,
generation. spliced-together re- combinations of
Dominant trait - appeared in all of the chromosomes from your mother and
first-generation offspring father.
Recessive trait - appeared in about Mitosis - all other cell division in the
one-quarter of the second-generation body occurs
offspring. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) -
Phenotype - organism’s observable chromosome is a double-stranded
traits molecule
Genotype - traits that it can pass on to Nucleotide bases - attached to a chain
its offspring through its genetic material of phosphate and deoxyribose; there are
Gene - inherited factor four nucleotide bases: adenine, thymine,
Alleles - two genes that control the guanine, and cytosine
same trait Replication - is a critical process of the
Homozygous - possess two identical DNA molecule. Without it, mitotic cell
genes for a trait division would not be possible.
Heterozygous - possess two different Mutations - accidental alterations in
genes for a trait individual genes.
Chromosomes - threadlike structures in Autosomal chromosomes - which
the nucleus of each cell come in matched pairs
Gametes - process of cell division that Sex chromosomes - pair of
produces gametes chromosomes that determines an
Meiosis - egg cells and sperm cells individual’s sex.
Sex-linked traits - Traits influenced by
Zygote - a fertilized egg cell with the full genes on the sex chromosomes
complement of chromosomes is Proteins - long chains of amino acids
produced.

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Amino acids - control the physiological Human Genome Project - was a
activities of cells and are important loosely knit collaboration of major
components of cellular structure. research institutions and individual
Enhancers - are stretches of DNA research teams in several countries.
whose function is to determine whether Human proteome - entire set of
particular structural genes initiate the proteins encoded for by our genes
synthesis of proteins and at what rate. Epigenetics - is the study of all
Gene expression - important process mechanisms of inheritance other than
because it determines how a cell will the genetic code and its expression.
develop and how it will function once it
reaches maturity. DNA methylation - is the reaction that
Transcription factors - Proteins that occurs when a methyl group attaches to
bind to DNA and influence the extent to a DNA molecule, usually at cytosine
which genes are expressed sites in mammals
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) - it contains
the nucleotide base uracil instead of Histone remodeling - is the reaction
thymine and has a phos- phate and that occurs when histones change their
ribose backbone instead of a phosphate shape and in so doing influence the
and deoxyribose backbone. shape of the adjacent DNA—there are
Messenger RNA - strand of transcribed several different mechanisms by which
RNA, because it carries the genetic this can occur.
code out of the nucleus of the cell. Histones - proteins around which DNA
Ribosomes - the clear fluid within the is coiled
cell RNA editing - Small RNA molecules
Codon - Each group of three and other proteins have been shown to
consecutive nucleotide bases along the cleave messenger RNA apart at precise
messenger RNA strand points and sometimes to splice sections
Transfer RNA - the ribosome reads a of new RNA to create a new sequence
codon, it attracts a transfer RNA of bases.
molecule that is attached to the Transgenerational epigenetics - is a
appropriate amino acid. subfield of epigenetics that examines

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the transmission of experiences via usually when they are several months
epigenetic mechanisms across old
generations
genetics of human Psychological
Epigenetics of Behavioral differences
development: Interaction of genetic Monozygotic twins - who developed
factors and Experience from the same zygote and thus are
Ontogeny - is the development of genetically similar
individuals over their life span Dizygotic twins - who developed from
Phylogeny - is the evolutionary two zygotes and thus are no more
development of species through the similar than any pair of siblings (brothers
ages. and sisters)
Phenylketonuria (PKU) - noticed a Heritability estimate - is not about
peculiar odor in the urine of his two individual development; it is a numerical
intellectually disabled children. He estimate of the proportion of variability
correctly assumed that the odor was that occurred in a particular trait in a
related to their disorder particular study as a result of the genetic
Sensitive period - during which a variation in that study.
particular experience must occur to
have a major effect on the development
of a trait
Sensory phase - begins several days
after hatching. Although the young birds
do not sing during this phase, they form
memories of the adult songs they
hear—usually sung by their own male
relatives—that later guide the
development of their own singing
Sensorimotor phase - begins when the
juvenile males begin to twitter subsongs
(the immature songs of young birds),

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CHAPTER 3: ANATOMY OF THE from the brain and sacral (lower back)
NERVOUS SYSTEM region of the spinal cord.
General Layout of the Nervous Cranial nerves - purely sensory nerves
System such as the olfactory nerves (I) and the
Central nervous system (CNS) - is the optic nerves (II), but most contain both
division of the nervous system located sensory and motor fibers.
within the skull and spine Meninges - protective membranes
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) - is Dura mater - tough membrane
the division located outside the skull and Arachnoid membrane - inside the dura
spine. mater
Somatic nervous system (SNS) - is Subarachnoid space - Beneath the
the part of the PNS that interacts with arachnoid membrane; which contains
the external environment many large blood vessels and
Afferent nerves - carry sensory signals cerebrospinal fluid
from the skin, skeletal muscles, joints, Pia mater - innermost meninx; which
eyes, ears. adheres to the surface of the CNS.
Efferent nerves - carry motor signals Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) - which fills
from the central nervous system to the the subarachnoid space, the central
skeletal muscles canal of the spinal cord, and the
Autonomic nervous system (ANS) - is cerebral ventricles of the brain.
the part of the peripheral nervous Central canal - a small central channel
system that regulates the body’s internal that runs the length of the spinal cord
environment. Cerebral ventricles - are the four large
Sympathetic nerves - are autonomic internal chambers of the brain: the two
motor nerves that project from the CNS lateral ventricles, the third ventricle, and
in the lumbar (small of the back) and the fourth ventricle.
thoracic (chest area) regions of the Choroid plexuses - networks of
spinal cord. capillaries, or small blood vessels that
Parasympathetic nerves - are those protrude into the ventricles from the pia
autonomic motor nerves that project mater

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Blood–brain barrier - This barrier is a Oligodendrocytes - are glial cells with
consequence of the special structure of extensions that wrap around the axons
cerebral blood vessels. In the rest of the of some neurons of the central nervous
body, the cells that compose the walls of system
blood vessels are loosely packed Myelin - a fatty insulating sub- stance
Myelin sheaths - they form increase the
Cells of the Nervous System speed and efficiency of axonal
Neurons - are cells that are specialized conduction
for the reception, conduction, and Schwann cells - constitutes one myelin
transmission of electrochemical signals. segment, whereas each oligodendrocyte
Multipolar neuron - neuron with more provides several myelin segments, often
than two processes extending from its on more than one axon.
cell body
Unipolar neuron - one process Microglia - are smaller than other glial
extending from its cell body cells; They respond to injury or disease
Bipolar neuron - a neuron with two by multiplying, engulfing cellular debris
processes extending from its cell body or even entire cells
Interneurons - Neurons with a short Astrocytes - They are the largest glial
axon or no axon at all cells, and they are so named be- cause
Nuclei - clusters of cell bodies are they are star-shaped
called nuclei (singular nucleus)
Ganglia - the peripheral nervous Neuroanatomical techniques and
system, they are called ganglia (singular Directions
ganglion) Golgi stain - Golgi was trying to stain
Tracts - bundles of axons the meninges, by exposing a block of
Nerves - in the peripheral nervous neural tissue to potassium dichromate
system, they are called nerves. and silver nitrate,
Glial cells - Neurons are not the only Nissl stain - used to estimate the
cells in the nervous system; there are number of cell bodies in an area, by
about as many glial cells counting the number of Nisslstained
dots.

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Anterior - toward the nose end stem from the posterior boundary of the
Posterior - toward the tail end myelencephalon to the anterior
Dorsal - toward the surface of the back boundary of the midbrain.
or the top of the head Metencephalon - houses many
Ventral - toward the surface of the chest ascending and descending tracts and
or the bottom of the head part of the reticular formation.
Medial - toward the midline of the body Pons - is one major division of the
Lateral - away from the midline toward metencephalon
the body’s lateral surfaces Cerebellum - is the large, convoluted
structure on the brain stem’s dorsal
Anatomy of the Central Nervous surface.
System Mesencephalon - has two divisions.
Gray matter - composed largely of cell The two divisions of the mesencephalon
bodies and unmyelinated interneurons are the tectum and the tegmentum
White matter - composed largely of Tectum - (roof) is the dorsal surface of
myelinated axons the midbrain. In mammals,
Dorsal horns - spinal gray matter Tegmentum - is the division of the
Ventral horns - two ventral arms mesencephalon ventral to the tectum.
Dorsal root ganglia - unipolar neurons Periaqueductal gray - is the gray
with their cell bodies grouped together matter situated around the cerebral
just outside the cord to form. aqueduct
Brain stem - the stem on which the Cerebral aqueduct - the duct
cerebral hemispheres sit. connecting the third and fourth
Myelencephalon (medulla) - most ventricles it is of special interest
posterior division of the brain, is because of its role in mediating the
composed largely of tracts carrying analgesic (pain-reducing) effects of
signals between the rest of the brain opioid drugs.
and the body. Substantia negra - black substance
Reticular formation - is a complex Red nucleus - both important
network of about 100 tiny nuclei that components of the sensorimotor
occupies the central core of the brain system.

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Diencephalon is composed of two the hypo- thalamus, just behind the
structures: the thalamus and the pituitary
hypothalamus Telencephalon - largest division of the
Thalamus - is the large, two-lobed human brain, mediates the brain’s most
structure that constitutes the top of the complex functions. It initiates voluntary
brain stem movement, interprets sensory input, and
Sensory relay nuclei - nuclei that mediates complex cognitive processes
receive signals from sensory receptors, such as learning, speaking, and problem
process them, and then transmit them to solving.
the appropriate areas of sensory cortex. Cerebral cortex - mainly com- posed of
Hypothalamus - is located just below small, unmyelinated neurons, it is gray
the anterior thalamus; It plays an and is often referred to as the gray
important role in the regulation of matter. In contrast, the layer beneath
several motivated behaviors (e.g., the cortex is mainly composed of large
eating, sleep, and sexual behavior). myelinated axons, which are white and
Pituitary gland - regulating the release often referred to as the white matter.
of hormones; which dangles from it on Fissures - large furrows in a convoluted
the ventral surface of the brain. cortex
Optic chasm - is the point at which the Sulci - singular sulcus
optic nerves from each eye come Gyri - singular gyrus
together Longitudinal fissure - the cerebral
Decussate - cross over to the other side hemispheres are almost completely
of the brain separated by the largest of the fissures
Contralateral - projecting from one side Pyramidal cells - are large multipolar
of the body to the other neurons with pyramid-shaped cell
Ipsilateral - staying on the same side of bodies, a large dendrite called an apical
the body dendrite that extends from the apex of
Mammillary bodies - which are often the pyramid straight toward the cortex
considered to be part of the surface, and a very long axon.
hypothalamus, are a pair of spherical Stellate cells - are small star- shaped
nuclei located on the inferior surface of interneurons (neurons with a short axon

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or no axon). Second, it is apparent that Septum - is a midline nucleus located at
the six layers of neocortex differ from the anterior tip of the cingulate cortex.
one another in terms of the size and
density of their cell bodies and the CHAPTER 4: NEURAL CONDUCTION
relative proportion of pyramidal and AND SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION
stellate cell bodies that they contain. Resting Membrane Potential
Columnar organization - neurons in a Membrane potential - is the difference
given vertical column of neocortex often in electrical charge between the inside
form a mini-circuit that performs a single and the outside of a cell.
function Microelectrodes - their tips are less
Hippocampus - located at the medial than one- thousandth of a millimeter in
edge of the cerebral cortex as it folds diameter—much too small to be seen by
back on itself in the medial temporal the naked eye.
lobe Resting potential - steady membrane
Limbic system - is a circuit of midline potential of about −70 mV
structures that circle the thalamus; Ions - positively and negatively charged
involved in the regulation of motivated particles
behaviors—including the four F’s of Ion channels - unequal distributions of
motivation: fleeing, feeding, fighting, and Na+ and K+ ions are maintained even
sexual behavior though there are specialized pores
Amygdala - the almond-shaped nucleus Sodium−potassium pumps, p. 104
in the anterior temporal lobe Transporters - mechanisms in the
Cingulate cortex - is the large strip of membrane of a cell that actively
cortex in the cingulate gyrus transport ions or molecules across the
Fornix - the major tract of the limbic membrane.
system, also encircles the dorsal
thalamus; it leaves the dorsal end of the Generation, Conduction, and
hippocampus and sweeps forward in an Integration of Postsynaptic Potentials
arc coursing along the superior surface Depolarize - the receptive membrane
of the third ventricle and terminating in (decrease the resting membrane
the septum and the mammillary bodies potential, from −70 to −67 mV.

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Hyperpolarize - it (increase the resting greater EPSP, how simultaneous IPSPs
membrane potential, from −70 to −72 sum to form a greater IPSP, and how
mV simultaneous EPSPs and IPSPs sum to
Excitatory postsynaptic potentials cancel each other out.
(EPSPs) - they increase the likelihood Temporal summation - It shows how
that the neuron will fire postsynaptic potentials produced in
Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials rapid succession at the same synapse
(IPSPs) - they decrease the likelihood sum to form a greater signal.
that the neuron will fire
Graded responses - the amplitudes of Conduction of Action Potentials
EPSPs and IPSPs are proportional to Voltage-activated ion channels - ion
the intensity of the signals that elicit channels that open or close in response
them: Weak signals elicit small to changes in the level of the membrane
postsynaptic potentials, and strong potential
signals elicit large ones. Absolute refractory period - absolute
Axon hillock - the conical structure at refractory period
the junction between the cell body and Relative refractory period - the period
the axon. during which it is possible to fire the
Axon initial segment - they are actually neuron again but only by applying
generated in the adjacent section of the higher-than-normal levels of stimulation.
axon Antidromic conduction - If electrical
All-or-none responses -they either stimulation of sufficient intensity is
occur to their full extent or do not occur applied to the terminal end of an axon,
at all. an action potential will be generated and
Integration - Adding or combining a will travel along the axon back to the cell
number of individual signals into one body
overall signal Orthodromic conduction - natural
Spatial summation - It shows how local direction— from cell body to terminal
EPSPs that are produced buttons
simultaneously on different parts of the Nodes of Ranvier - the gaps between
receptive membrane sum to form a adjacent myelin segments.

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Saltatory conduction - “to skip or been clear for some time that many
jump” neurons contain two neurotransmitters.
Exocytosis - the process of
Synaptic transmission: Chemical neurotransmitter release
transmission of Signals among Receptors - is a protein that contains
Neurons binding sites for only particular
Dendritic spines - nodules of various neurotransmitters; thus, a
shapes that are located on the surfaces neurotransmitter can influence only
of many dendrites those cells that have receptors for it
Directed synapses - synapses at which Ionotropic receptors - are as- sociated
the site of neurotransmitter release and with ligand-activated ion channels
the site of neurotransmitter reception Metabotropic receptors - are
are in close proximity. associated with signal proteins
Nondirected synapses - are synapses Second messenger - neurotransmitters
at which the site of release is at some are considered to be the first
distance from the site of reception messengers
Neuropeptides - are short amino acid Autoreceptors - are metabotropic
chains composed of between 3 and 36 receptors that have two unconventional
amino acids; in effect, they are short characteristics: They bind to their
proteins. neuron’s own neurotransmitter
Synaptic vesicles - Small-molecule molecules, and they are located on the
neurotransmitters are typically presynaptic, rather than the
synthesized in the cytoplasm of the postsynaptic, membrane.
terminal button and packaged Reuptake - is the more common of the
Golgi complex - This may be a good two deactivating mechanisms. The
point at which to review the internal majority of neurotransmitters, once
structures of neurons released, are almost immediately drawn
Coexistence - It was once believed that back into the pre- synaptic buttons by
each neuron synthesizes and re- leases transporter mechanisms.
only one neurotransmitter, but it has Gap junctions - are narrow spaces
between adjacent cells that are bridged

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by fine, tubular, cytoplasm-filled protein Opioid peptides - contains
channels, called connexins. neuropeptides that are similar in
structure to the active ingredients of
Neurotransmitters opium
Monoamine neurotransmitters - are Miscellaneous peptides - is a catch-all
slightly larger than amino acid category that contains all of the
neurotransmitters, and their effects tend neuropeptide transmitters that do not fit
to be more diffuse. into one of the other four categories.
Acetylcholine - is a small-molecule
neurotransmitter that is in one major re- Pharmacology of Synaptic
spect like a professor who is late for a transmission and Behavior
lecture: Agonists - Drugs that facilitate the
Soluble-gas neurotransmitters - effects of a particular neurotransmitter
These neurotransmitters are produced Antagonists - Drugs that inhibit the
in the neural cytoplasm and immediately effects of a particular neurotransmitter
diffuse through the cell membrane into Receptor blockers - bind to
the extra- cellular fluid and then into postsynaptic receptors without activating
nearby cells. them and, in so doing, block the access
Endocannabinoids - are of the usual neurotransmitter.
neurotransmitters that are similar to Atropine - is the main active ingredient
delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol of belladonna, is a receptor blocker that
Pituitary peptides - contains exerts its antagonist effect by binding to
neuropeptides that were first identified muscarinic receptors, thereby blocking
as hormones released by the pituitary. the effects of acetylcholine on them.
Hypothalamic peptides - contains Botox - a neurotoxin released by a
neuropeptides that were first identified bacterium often found in spoiled food, is
as hormones released by the another nicotinic antagonist, but its
hypothalamus mechanism of action is
Brain−gut peptides - contains different: It blocks the release of
neuropeptides that were first discovered acetylcholine at neuromuscular
in the gut junctions and is thus a deadly

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poison. However, injected in minute other internal structures of the living
doses at specific sites, it has body.
applications in medicine (e.g., reduction Positron emission tomography (PET)
of tremors) and cosmetics (e.g., - first brain-imaging technique to provide
reduction of wrinkles) images of brain activity (functional brain
Endogenous - occurring naturally within images) rather than images of brain
the body structure (structural brain images).
Enkephalins - in the head Fluorodeoxyglucose - is injected into
Endorphins - endogenous morphine the patient’s carotid artery (an artery of
the neck that feeds the ipsilateral
cerebral hemisphere).
CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH METHODS Ligands - ions or molecules that bind to
OF BIOPSYCHOLOGY other molecules under investigation
Methods of Studying the nervous Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) -
System is a structural brain-imaging procedure
in which high-resolution images are
Methods of visualizing and constructed from the measurement of
Stimulating the Living human Brain radio-frequency waves that hydrogen
Contrast x-ray techniques - involve atoms emit as they align with a powerful
injecting into one compartment of the magnetic field.
body a substance that absorbs x-rays Spatial resolution - the ability to detect
either less than or more than the and represent differences in spatial
surrounding tissue. location
Cerebral angiography - uses the Functional MRI (fMRI) - produces
infusion of a radio-opaque dye into a images represent- ing the increase in
cerebral artery to visualize the cerebral oxygen flow in the blood to active areas
circulatory system during x-ray of the brain.
photography BOLD signal - the blood-oxygen-level-
Computed tomography (CT) - is a dependent signal
computer-assisted x-ray procedure that Temporal resolution - it is poor at
can be used to visualize the brain and specifying the timing of neural events

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Diffusion tensor imaging - is a method the surface of the scalp that are
of identifying those pathways along produced by changes in underlying
which water molecules rapidly diffuse patterns of neural activity.
Transcranial magnetic stimulation Electromyography - is the usual
(TMS) - is a technique that can be used procedure for measuring muscle
to turn off an area of human cortex by tension.
creating a magnetic field under a coil Electrooculography - technique for
positioned next to the skull recording eye movements
Transcranial direct current Plethysmography - refers to the
stimulation (tDCS) - is a technique that various techniques for measuring
can be used to stimulate (“turn on”) an changes in the volume of blood in a
area of the cortex by applying an particular part of the body (plethysmos
electrical current through two electrodes means “an enlargement”).
placed directly on the scalp.
invasive Physiological research
recording human Methods
Psychophysiological activity Stereotaxic atlas - is used to locate
Electroencephalography - is usually brain structures in much the same way
recorded from disk-shaped electrodes, that a geographic atlas is used to locate
about half the size of a dime, which are geographic landmarks.
attached to the scalp. Bregma - the point on the top of the
Alpha waves - are regular, 8- to skull where two of the major sutures
12-per-second, high-amplitude waves (seams in the skull) intersect.
that are associated with relaxed Stereotaxic instrument - has two parts:
wakefulness. a head holder, which firmly holds each
P300 wave - is the positive wave that subject’s brain in the prescribed position
occurs about 300 milli- seconds after a and orientation; and an electrode holder,
momentary stimulus that has meaning which holds the device to be inserted.
for the subject Aspiration - is frequently the method of
Magnetoencephalography (MEG) - choice.
measures changes in magnetic fields on

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Reversible lesions - are methods for genetic engineering
temporarily eliminating the activity in a Gene knockout techniques - are
particular area of the brain while tests procedures for creating organisms that
are being conducted. lack a particular gene under
investigation
Pharmacological research Methods Gene replacement techniques -
Cannula - drugs can be administered in replace one gene with another.
small amounts through a fine, hollow Transgenic mice - mice that contain
tube the genetic material of another species
Neurotoxins - selective lesions by Green fluorescent protein (GFP) - is a
injecting protein that exhibits bright green
Autoradiography - they are coated with fluorescence when exposed to blue
a photographic emulsion, stored in the light.
dark for a few days, and then developed Brainbow - pathways of neural axons
much like film. could be traced to their destinations
Cerebral dialysis - is a method of through the cellular morass.
measuring the extracellular Opsins - are light-sensitive ion channels
concentration of specific that are found in the cell membranes of
neurochemicals in behaving animals certain bacteria and algae
Immunocytochemistry - is a procedure Optogenetics - inserting an opsin gene
for locating particular neuroproteins in into a particular type of neuron, a
the brain by labeling their antibodies neuroscientist could use light to
with a dye or radioactive element and hyperpolarize or depolarize neurons.
then exposing slices of brain tissue to
the labeled antibodies. Behavioral research Methods of
In situ hybridization - technique for Biopsychology
locating peptides and other proteins in Behavioral paradigm - A single set of
the brain procedures developed for the
investigation of a particular behavioral
phenomenon

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neuropsychological testing them; they are not asked to remember
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale them. Then, at a later time, they are
(WAIS) - is often the first test because asked to complete a list of word
knowing a patient’s IQ can help a fragments
neuropsychologist interpret the results Wisconsin Card Sorting Test - is a
of subsequent tests. Also, a skilled component of many customized test
neuropsychologist can sometimes draw batteries because performance on it is
inferences about a patient’s sensitive to frontal-lobe damage
neuropsychological dysfunction from the
pattern of deficits on the 15 subtests of Behavioral Methods of Cognitive
the WAIS neuroscience
Digit span - the most widely used test Cognitive neuroscience - is predicated
of short- term memory) identifies the on two related assumptions
longest sequence of random digits that Constituent cognitive processes - first
a patient can repeat correctly 50 percent premise is that each complex cognitive
of the time; most people have a digit process results from the combined
span of 7 activity of simple cognitive processes
Token test - deficits in the use of
language can be inferred from a low Biopsychological Paradigms of
aggregate score on the verbal subtests animal Behavior
Sodium amytal test - involves injecting Species-common behaviors - are
the an- esthetic sodium amytal into those displayed by virtu- ally all
either the left or right carotid artery in members of a species, or at least by all
the neck. those of the same age and sex.
Dichotic listening test - sequences of Open-field test - the subject is placed
spoken digits are presented to in a large, barren chamber, and its
volunteers through stereo headphones. activity is re- corded
Repetition priming tests - have proven Thigmotaxic - rarely venture away from
instrumental in the assessment and the walls of the test chamber and rarely
study of this pattern. Patients are first engage in such activities as rearing and
shown a list of words and asked to study grooming. Rats are often fearful when

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they are first placed in a strange open Self-stimulation paradigm - animals
field, but this fearfulness usually press a lever to deliver electrical
declines with repeated exposure to the stimulation to particular sites in their
same open field. own brains; those structures in the brain
Elevated plus maze - is a test of that support self- stimulation have often
defensiveness commonly used to study been called pleasure centers.
the anxiolytic (anxiety-reducing) effects Conditioned taste aversion - is the
of drugs. avoidance response that develops to
Lordosis - male mounts the female tastes of food whose consumption has
from behind and clasps her been followed by illness
hindquarters. If the female is receptive, Radial arm maze - rats are placed each
she responds by assuming the posture day in a maze that has the same arms
Intromission - During some mounts, baited each day. After a few days of
the male inserts his penis into the experience, rats rarely visit unbaited
female’s vagina arms at all, and they rarely visit baited
Ejaculates - ejects his sperm arms more than once in the same
Lordosis quotient - the proportion of day—even when control procedures
mounts that elicit lordosis make it impossible for them to recognize
Pavlovian conditioning paradigm - odors left during previous visits to an
the experimenter pairs an initially neutral arm or to make their visits in a
stimulus called a conditional stimulus systematic sequence.
(e.g., a tone or a light) with an Morris water maze - rats are placed in
unconditional stimulus (e.g., meat a circular, featureless pool of cool milky
powder)—a stimulus that elicits an water in which they must swim until they
unconditional (reflexive) response (e.g., discover the escape platform—which is
salivation) invisible just beneath the surface of the
Operant conditioning paradigm the water.
rate at which a particular voluntary Conditioned defensive burying - rats
response (such as a lever press) is receive a single aversive stimulus (e.g.,
emitted is increased by reinforcement or a shock, air blast, or noxious odor) from
decreased by punishment. an object mounted on the wall of the

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chamber just above the floor, which is The retina and Translation of light
littered with bedding material. into neural Signals
Receptors, p. 162
CHAPTER 6: THE VISUAL SYSTEM Blind spot, p - bundle of retinal
light Enters the Eye and reaches the ganglion cell axons to leave the eye,
retina there must be a gap in the receptor
Sensitivity - the ability to detect the layer.
presence of dimly lit objects Fovea - is an indentation, about 0.33
Acuity - the ability to see the details of centimeter in diameter, at the center of
objects the retina; it is the area of the retina that
Ciliary muscles - This increases the is specialized for high-acuity vision
ability of the lens to refract (bend) light Completion - visual system uses
and thus brings close objects into sharp information provided by the receptors
focus. When we focus on a distant around the blind spot to fill in the gaps in
object, the lens is flattened. your retinal images
Accommodation - process of adjusting Surface interpolation - the process by
the configuration of the lenses to bring which we perceive surfaces; the visual
images into focus on the retina system extracts information about edges
Binocular disparity - the difference in and from it infers the appearance of
the position of the same image on the large surfaces
two retinas—is greater for close objects Photopic vision - predominates in good
than for distant objects; therefore, your lighting and provides high- acuity (finely
visual system can use the degree of detailed) colored perceptions of the
binocular disparity to construct one world.
three-dimensional perception from two Scotopic vision - rod-mediated vision
two-dimensional retinal images Purkinje effect - interesting visual effect
can be observed during the transition
from photopic to scotopic vision
Fixational eye movements - Our eyes
continuously move even when we try to
keep them still

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Saccades, p - small jerky movements, amount of lateral inhibition produced by
or flicks a receptor is greatest when the receptor
Transduction, p - is the conversion of is most intensely illuminated, and the
one form of energy to another. inhibition has its greatest effect on the
Rhodopsin - was exposed to receptor’s immediate neighbors.
continuous intense light, it was bleached Receptive field - the area of the visual
(lost its color) and lost its ability to field within which it is possible for a
absorb light, but when it was returned to visual stimulus to influence the firing of
the dark, it regained both its redness that neuron.
and its light-absorbing capacity. Monocular - each neuron had a
receptive field in one eye but not the
From retina to Primary Visual Cortex other.
Retinotopic - is organized like a map of On-center cells - respond to lights
the retina. This means two stimuli shone in the central region of their
presented to adjacent areas of the retina receptive fields with “on” firing and to
excite adjacent neurons at all levels of lights shone in the periphery of their
the system. receptive fields with inhibition.
Parvocellular layers - they are Off-center cells - They respond with
composed of neurons with small cell inhibition and “off” firing in response to
bodies lights in the center of their receptive
Magnocellular layers - they are fields and with “on” firing to lights in the
composed of neurons with large cell periphery of their receptive fields.
bodies Simple cells - have receptive fields that
can be divided into antagonistic “on” and
Seeing Edges “off” regions and are thus unresponsive
Contrast enhancement - every edge to diffuse light. And like lower layer IV
we look at is highlighted for us by the neurons, they are all monocular.
contrast enhancing mechanisms of our Complex cells - are more numerous
nervous systems. than simple cells. Like simple cells,
Lateral inhibition - spreads laterally complex cells have rectangular
across the array of receptors. The receptive fields, respond best to

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straight-line stimuli in a specific Retinex theory - the color of an object
orientation, and are unresponsive to is determined by its reflectance—the
diffuse light. proportion of light of different
Binocular - respond to stimulation of wavelengths that a surface reflects.
either eye Although the wavelengths of light
reflected by a surface change
Seeing Color dramatically with changes in illumination
Component theory - there are three Dual-opponent color cells - visual
different kinds of color receptors cortex respond with vigorous “on” firing
(cones), each with a different spectral when the center of their circular
sensitivity, and the color of a particular receptive field is illuminated with one
stimulus is presumed to be encoded by wavelength, such as green, and the
the ratio of activity in the three kinds of surround (periphery) is simultaneously
receptors. illuminated with another wavelength,
Opponent-process theory - each of such as red.
the three classes of cells encoded two Cytochrome oxidase - distribution in
complementary color perceptions. One the primary visual cortex can be
class of color- coding cells signaled red visualized if one stains slices of tissue
by changing its activity in one direction with stains that have an affinity for this
(e.g., hyperpolarization) and signaled enzyme.
red’s complementary color, green, by
changing its activity in the other Cortical Mechanisms of Vision and
direction (e.g., depolarization). Conscious Awareness
Complementary colors - are pairs of Secondary visual cortex - are those
colors (e.g., green light and red light) that receive most of their input from the
that produce white or gray when primary visual cortex
combined in equal measure. Visual association cortex - are those
Color constancy - refers to the fact that that receive input from areas of
the perceived color of an object is not a secondary visual cortex as well as from
simple function of the wavelengths the secondary areas of other sensory
reflected by it. systems.

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Prestriate cortex - is the band of tissue prosopagnosia) or as a result of brain
in the occipital lobe that surrounds the injury
primary visual cortex. Agnosia - is a failure of recognition
Inferotemporal cortex -is the cortex of (gnosis means “to
the inferior temporal lobe. Areas of know”) that is not attributable to a
association cortex that receive visual sensory deficit or to verbal or intellectual
input are located in several parts of the impairment
cerebral cortex Visual agnosia - is a specific agnosia
Scotoma - an area of blindness—in the for visual stimuli. In other words, visual
corresponding area of the contralateral agnosics can see things, but they don’t
visual field of both eyes know what they are.
Hemianopsic - having a scotoma Fusiform face area - selectively
covering half of the visual field activated by human faces and be- cause
Conscious awareness - you assume electrical stimulation of this brain area in
that if a person sees something, he or humans can metamorphose a viewed
she will be consciously aware of seeing face into a completely different face
it. In everyday thinking, perceiving and Akinetopsia - is a deficiency in the
being aware are inseparable processes. ability to see movement progress in a
Blindsight - ability to respond to visual normal smooth fashion. Akinetopsia can
stimuli in a scotoma with no conscious be triggered by high doses of certain
awareness of them antidepressants
Dorsal stream - flows from the primary
visual cortex to the dorsal prestriate
cortex to the posterior parietal cortex
Ventral stream - flows from the primary
visual cortex to the ventral prestriate
cortex to the inferotemporal cortex
Prosopagnosia - a visual agnosia for
faces that can be acquired either during
development (developmental

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CHAPTER 7: MECHANISMS OF Functional segregation - Organization
PERCEPTION into different areas, each
Principles of Sensory System of which performs a different function;
Organization for example, in sensory systems,
Primary sensory cortex - An area of different areas of the secondary and
sensory cortex that receives most of its association cortex analyze different
input directly from the thalamic relay aspects of the same sensory stimulus.
nuclei of one sensory system. Parallel processing - The simultaneous
Secondary sensory cortex - An area analysis of a signal in differ- ent ways by
of sensory cortex that receives most of the multiple parallel pathways of a
its input from the primary sensory cortex neural network.
of one sensory system or from other
areas of secondary cortex of the same Auditory System
system. Fourier analysis - A mathematical
Association cortex - An area of cortex procedure for breaking down a complex
that receives input from more than one waveform into component sine waves of
sensory system. various frequencies.
Hierarchical organization - Tympanic membrane - The eardrum
Organization into a series of levels that Ossicles - The three small bones of the
can be ranked with respect to one middle ear: the malleus, the incus, and
another; for example, in sensory the stapes.
systems, primary cortex, secondary Oval window - The membrane that
cortex, and association cortex perform transfers vibrations from the ossicles to
progressively more detailed analyses. the fluid of the cochlea.
Sensation - The process of detecting Cochlea - The long, coiled tube in the
the presence of stimuli. inner ear that is filled with fluid and
Perception - The higher-order process contains the organ of Corti and its
of integrating, recognizing, and auditory receptors.
interpreting complete patterns of Organ of Corti - The auditory receptor
sensations. organ, comprising the basilar

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membrane, the hair cells, and the Inferior colliculi - The structures of the
tectorial membrane. tectum that receive auditory
Hair cells - The receptors of the input from the superior olives.
auditory system Medial geniculate nuclei - The auditory
Basilar membrane - The membrane of thalamic nuclei that receive input from
the organ of Corti in which the hair cell the inferior colliculi and project to
receptors are embedded. primary auditory cortex.
Tectorial membrane - The cochlear Tinnitus - Ringing in the ears.
membrane that rests on the hair
cells. Somatosensory System: touch and
Auditory nerve - The branch of cranial Pain
nerve VIII that carries auditory signals Free nerve endings - Neuron endings
from the hair cells in the basilar that lack specialized structures on them
membrane. and that detect cutaneous pain and
Retinotopic - Organized, like the changes in temperature.
primary visual cortex, according to a Pacinian corpuscles - The largest and
map of the retina. most deeply positioned cutaneous
Tonotopic - Organized, like the primary receptors, which are sensitive to sudden
auditory cortex, according to the displacements of the skin.
frequency of sound. Stereognosis - The process of
Semicircular canals - The receptive identifying objects by touch.
organs of the vestibular system Dermatome - An area of the body that
Vestibular system - The sensory is innervated by the left and right dorsal
system that detects changes in the roots of one segment of the spinal cord.
direction and intensity of head Dorsal-column medial-lemniscus
movements and that con- tributes to the system - The division of the
maintenance of balance through its somatosensory system that ascends in
output to the motor system. the dorsal portion of the spinal white
Superior olives - Medullary nuclei that matter and tends to carry signals related
play a role in sound localization. to touch and proprioception.

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Anterolateral system - A major Anosognosia, - The common failure of
somatosensory pathway that ascends in neuropsychological patients to
the anterolateral portion of the spinal recognize their own symptoms.
cord and tends to carry information Contralateral neglect - A disturbance
related to pain and temperature. of the patient’s ability to respond to
Dorsal columns - The somatosensory stimuli on the side of the body opposite
tracts that ascend in the dorsal portion to a site of brain damage, usually the left
of the spinal cord white matter. side of the body following damage to the
Medial lemniscus - The somatosensory right parietal lobe.
pathway between the dorsal column Rubber-hand illusion - The feeling that
nuclei and the ventral posterior nucleus an extraneous object, usually a rubber
of the thalamus. hand, is actually part of one’s own body
Ventral posterior nucleus - A thalamic Anterior cingulate cortex - The cortex
relay nucleus in both the of the anterior cingulate gyrus.
somatosensory and gustatory systems. Periaqueductal gray (PAG) - The gray
Somatotopic - Organized, like the matter around the cerebral aqueduct,
primary somatosensory cortex, which contains opiate receptors and
according to a map of the surface of the activates a descend- ing analgesia
body. circuit.
Somatosensory homunculus - The Endorphins - A class of endogenous
somatotopic map in the primary opioids.
somatosensory cortex. Neuropathic pain - Severe chronic pain
Astereognosia - An inability to in the absence of a recognizable pain
recognize objects by touch that is not stimulus.
attributable to a simple sensory deficit or
to an intellectual impairment. chemical Senses: Smell and taste
Asomatognosia - A deficiency in the Flavor - The combined impression of
awareness of parts of one’s own body taste and smell.
that is typically produced by damage to Pheromones - Chemicals that are
the right parietal lobe. released by an animal and elicit through

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their odor specific patterns of behavior Ageusia - The inability to taste.
in its conspecifics.
Olfactory mucosa - The mucous Selective Attention
membrane that lines the upper nasal Selective attention - The ability to
passages and contains the olfactory focus on a small subset of the multitude
receptor cells. of stimuli that are being received at any
Olfactory bulbs - Their output goes one time.
primarily to the amygdala and piriform Top-down - A sort of neural mechanism
cortex. that involves activation of
Olfactory glomeruli - Discrete clusters lower cortical areas by higher cortical
of neurons that lie near the areas.
surface of the olfactory bulbs. Bottom-up - A sort of neural
Chemotopic -Organized, like the mechanism that involves activation of
olfactory bulb, according to a map of higher cortical areas by lower cortical
various odors. areas.
Piriform cortex - An area of medial Cocktail-party phenomenon - The
temporal cortex that is adjacent to the ability to unconsciously monitor the
amygdala and that receives direct contents of one conversation while
olfactory input. consciously focusing on another.
Medial dorsal nuclei - The thalamic Change blindness - The difficulty
relay nuclei of the olfactory system. perceiving major changes to
Orbitofrontal cortex - The cortex of the unattended-to parts of a visual image
inferior frontal lobes, adjacent to the when the changes are introduced during
orbits, which receives olfactory input brief interruptions in the presentation of
from the thalamus. the image.
Taste buds - Clusters of taste receptors Simultanagnosia - A difficulty attending
found on the tongue and in parts of the to more than one stimulus at a time.
oral cavity.
Solitary nucleus - The medullary relay
nucleus of the gustatory system.
Anosmia - The inability to smell.

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