Interior Design Dr.

Manoj Anaokar

Table of Contents

Unit 1 Fundamentals of Concept Development ................................................................. 1

1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Need of Interior Design ................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Importance of Interior Design .......................................................................................... 1
1.4 Stages of Development of an Interior Project .................................................................. 1
1.4.1 Study of Project Site ................................................................................................. 2
1.4.2 Plan the Project Design ............................................................................................. 2
1.4.3 Budget ....................................................................................................................... 2
1.4.4 Presentation and Communication with Client .......................................................... 2
1.4.5 Project Schedule........................................................................................................ 3
Unit 2 Space Management ................................................................................................... 4
2.1 Concept and Need of Space Management ....................................................................... 4
2.2 Proportions of a Room ..................................................................................................... 4
2.2.1 Influence of Proportion ............................................................................................. 4
2.2.2 Determining Proportions ........................................................................................... 6
2.3 Sequencing of Spaces ...................................................................................................... 7
2.3.1 Composing a House in Plan ...................................................................................... 7
2.3.2 Circulation and Relationships between Rooms ........................................................ 8
2.3.4 Composing a House in Section ................................................................................. 8
2.4 Space Management of Commercial Units ....................................................................... 8
Unit 3 Colour and Texture Management ........................................................................... 9
3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 9
3.2 Theory of Light and Colours............................................................................................ 9
3.3 Colours Theory .............................................................................................................. 10
3.3.1 Three Colour Schemes ............................................................................................ 10
3.3.2 Additive Colour Theory .......................................................................................... 11
3.3.2 Subtractive Colour .................................................................................................. 12
3.5 Colour temperature ........................................................................................................ 14
3.4 Description of Colour .................................................................................................... 15
3.6 Spectral Energy Distribution and Colour Rendering ..................................................... 16
3.7 Characteristics of Colours and their Applicability......................................................... 17
3.7.1 Red Colour .............................................................................................................. 17
3.7.2 Orange Colour ......................................................................................................... 19

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Interior Design Dr. Manoj Anaokar

3.7.3 Yellow Colour ......................................................................................................... 19

3.7.4 Green Colour ........................................................................................................... 21
3.7.5 Blue Colour ........................................................................................................ 23
3.7.6 Indigo Colour .......................................................................................................... 24
3.7.7 Violate Colour .................................................................................................... 26
3.7.8 Neutral Colours .................................................................................................. 26
3.7.9 Black and White ...................................................................................................... 27
3.8 Types of Paints .......................................................................................................... 27
3.8.1 Distemper Paint ....................................................................................................... 27
3.8.2 Acrylic Emulsion Paint ........................................................................................... 28
3.8.3 Enamel Paint ........................................................................................................... 28
3.8.4 Metallic Paint .......................................................................................................... 29
3.8.5 Oil Paint .................................................................................................................. 29
3.9 Process of Painting .................................................................................................... 29
3.9.1 Process of Painting for the Newly Plastered Wall Surface ..................................... 29
3.9.2 Process of Painting for Re-painting the Old Wall Surface ..................................... 30
3.10 Texture Management ............................................................................................. 30
3.10.1 Ways to Add Texture to any Room ...................................................................... 30
Unit 4 Environment Creation through Lighting Management and other Systems ...... 32
4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 32
4.2 Lighting Systems ........................................................................................................... 32
4.3 Terminologies ................................................................................................................ 32
4.3.1 Visual Tasks ............................................................................................................ 32
4.3.2 Solid Angle ............................................................................................................. 32
4.3.3 Illuminating Power (or Luminous Intensity) .......................................................... 33
4.3.4 Candela OR Candle Power (CP) ............................................................................. 33
4.3.5 Standard Candle ...................................................................................................... 33
4.3.6 Phot ......................................................................................................................... 33
4.3.7 Intensities of illumination ....................................................................................... 33
4.3.8 Lux .......................................................................................................................... 34
4.3.9 Luminous Flux ........................................................................................................ 34
4.3.10 Lumen ................................................................................................................... 34
4.3.11 Utilisation Factor .................................................................................................. 34
4.3.12 Lamp lumen depreciation factor (LLD) ................................................................ 34
4.3.13 Mean Spherical Candle, power (M.S.C.P) ............................................................ 34

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4.3.14 Mean Hemispherical Candle-power, M.H.C.P ..................................................... 35

4.3.15 Reduction Factor(r) ............................................................................................... 35
4.4 Laws of Illumination ...................................................................................................... 35
4.5 Types of Lighting in Buildings ...................................................................................... 36
4.6 Types of Artificial Light Sources .................................................................................. 37
4.7 The Luminous Efficacy and Efficiency of a Source ...................................................... 39
4.8 Design of modern lighting ............................................................................................. 39
4.9 Lighting for different types of Interior Spaces .............................................................. 39
4.9.1 Lighting for Retail Store Lighting .......................................................................... 39
4.9.2 Lighting for Offices ................................................................................................ 40
4.9.3 Lighting in Schools ................................................................................................. 40
4.9.4 Lighting for Hospitals ............................................................................................. 40
4.9.5 Lighting for Homes ................................................................................................. 41
4.10 Selecting a Size of a Chandelier for a Room ............................................................... 42
4.11 Special features required and minimum level of illumination required for physically
handicapped and elderly in building types........................................................................... 42
4.12 Plumbing System ......................................................................................................... 43
4.12.1 Pillar taps .............................................................................................................. 43
4.12.2 Bib Tap and Stop Valve ........................................................................................ 43
4.12.3 Shower Rose ......................................................................................................... 44
4.12.4 Mixing Valve ........................................................................................................ 44
4.12.5 Aerated Faucets ..................................................................................................... 45
4.13 Heating Ventilation Air Conditioning (HVAC) System .............................................. 45
4.13.1 Ventilation............................................................................................................. 45
4.13.2 Functional Requirements of Ventilation ............................................................... 46
4.13.3 Systems of Ventilation .......................................................................................... 48
4.13.4 General Rules for Natural Ventilation .................................................................. 49
4.13.5 Evaporative Cooling ............................................................................................. 50
4.13.6 Air Conditioning ................................................................................................... 50
4.13.7 Systems of Air Conditioning ................................................................................ 51
4.13.8 Estimation of Tonnage Size of Air Conditioner for a Room ................................ 54
Unit 5 Furniture and Decorative Elements ...................................................................... 55
5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 55
5.1.1 Factors Affecting Selection of Furniture ................................................................ 55
5.2 Use of Moulded and Folding Furniture for Interior Design .......................................... 56

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5.3 False Ceiling .................................................................................................................. 57

5.3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 57
5.3.2 Necessity of False Ceiling ...................................................................................... 57
5.3.3 Types of False Ceiling Based on Materials Used ................................................... 57
5.4 Decorative Wall Panels .................................................................................................. 61
5.4.1 Following are some of the advantages of decorative wall panels ........................... 61
5.5 Artifact and other Miscellaneous Decorative Elements................................................. 61
5.5.1 Importance of Art Elements in Interior Design ...................................................... 61
5.5.2 Benefits of having Art Elements in Interior Design ............................................... 62
5.5.3 Types of Artifact ..................................................................................................... 62

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List of Figures

Figure 2-1 Proportion of Rooms of Different Shapes 4

Figure 2-2 Furniture Arrangement in Square Living Room 5
Figure 2-3 Furniture Arrangement in Rectangular Living Room 5
Figure 2-4 Furniture Arrangement in Long and Tall Rooms 6
Figure 3-1 Newtons Prism Experiment 9
Figure 3-2 Colour Wheel and Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Colours 10
Figure 3-3 Additive Colour Theory 12
Figure 3-4 Subtractive Colour Theory 13
Figure 3-5 Subtractive Colour Chart 13
Figure 3-6 Warm and Cool Colours 14
Figure 3-7 Types of Colours According to their Nature 15
Figure 3-8 Spectral Energy Distribution 16
Figure 3-9 Colour Rendering 16
Figure 3-10 Red Highlighted Wall 18
Figure 3-11 Red Seating with Colour Balancing Scheme 18
Figure 3-12 Living Rooms using Orange Colour Theme 19
Figure 3-13 Living Room with Yellow Colour Theme 20
Figure 3-14 Dining Room with Yellow Theme 20
Figure 3-15 Bed Room with Yellow Theme 21
Figure 3-16 Green in Living Room for Furnishings 22
Figure 3-17 Use of Green Plants in Living Room 22
Figure 3-18 Use of Green in Bed Room 23
Figure 3-19 Green Kitchens 23
Figure 3-20 Bedroom in Blue Colour Theme 24
Figure 3-21 Bedroom in Blue Colour with Orange Featured Wall 24
Figure 3-22 Living Rooms in Indigo Colour Theme 25
Figure 3-23 Bedroom in Indigo Colour Theme 25
Figure 3-24 Violate Colour Theme for Bedroom and Study Room 26
Figure 3-25 Neutral Colour Theme for Different Rooms 26
Figure 3-26 Layering of Textures 31
Figure 4-1 (a) Plane Angle and (b) Solid Angle 33
Figure 4-2 Law of Inverse Square 35
Figure 4-3 Lambert's Cosine Law 36
Figure 4-4 Pillar Tap 43
Figure 4-5 Bib Tap 43
Figure 4-6 Shower Rose 44
Figure 4-7 Working of Window Air-Conditioner 51
Figure 4-8 Flow Diagram for Centralized Air-Conditioning System 53

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 Unit 1 Fundamentals of Concept Development
1.1 Introduction
Interior designing has become popular over the years and has been aiming to transform homes
offices or commercial spaces into something elegant and unique suiting to the requirement of
individual space.
1.2 Need of Interior Design
Over the years interior designing has taken a lead role in designing the spaces when it comes
to residential areas, office areas (like Chartered Accountant’s office, Doctor’s Clinic, etc.)
commercial spaces (like malls, banks, Cinema halls, Community halls, etc.) and institutions
(such as hospitals, schools, and religious centres, etc.). The Interior designing and a designer
is needed for handling the complexities of the interior design project in terms of space
management, lighting management, colour and texture management while simultaneously
keeping in to the mind the requirements and comforts of the owner.
1.3 Importance of Interior Design
An interior designer has become more prominent in recent years. Designing the interior spaces
is now not so simple and straight forward as many facets are involved in designing the
interiors. They not only include the beautiful décor, but there is a need of utility-based design,
taking care of safety of structure, safety of the client, etc. The job of an interior designer
involves a lot of aspects which need to be taken care of before a finalising the design. Many a
times clients have to settle down for their requirements of space. For example, they have the
requirement of three BHK and have to settle down on two BHK due to the budget constraints.
However, even if, the space is less but their requirements do not get reduced, so in small spaces
it is a challenge to accommodate all the requirements of clients in the available space. If the
spaces are very large like bungalows, then also space being costly one can’t afford it to keep
it vacant without any specific objective. In such cases it is a challenge to utilise the spaces
prudently without them being occupied just for the sake of occupation of space. It shouldn’t
look as if the objects are just dumped to fill the space. The interior designer has to understand
the psychology of his or her client, so they need to be psychologist. Interior designer also
needs to think about the safety of the structure. As the client doesn’t understand the
technicalities and the safety requirements, the interior designer has to convince the client for
alternative designs by advocating for the structural safety. He must have very good
communication skills for this. He should also check the safety of the client from the view point
of fire and other safety requirements.
1.4 Stages of Development of an Interior Project
Before we start any interior design project, we need to study the site, then we need to program
our project based on the client’s needs, functional utility, other constraints. Then it has to be
completed within the budget of the client, which governs the design alternatives. Thereafter,
we need to schedule the time within which, the project is to be completed in consultation with
the client and contractor.
Interior Design Dr. Manoj Anaokar

1.4.1 Study of Project Site

Before we start any interior design project, we need to study the site first for noting down the
age of a structure, availability of the space, natural light, existing furniture elements which are
going to continue and which need to be replaced and which need to be added to the available
space, then we need to program our project based on the client’s needs, functional utility, other
constraints such as furniture to be provided without any corners in the design when it is for
kids, etc. or the material constraints from the fire safety point of view, etc.
1.4.2 Plan the Project Design
Programming means planning the process of defining the needs of those who will use the space,
in advance of creating the design. Whether for a home kitchen renovation or for a newly
constructed restaurant, this exercise should evaluate the functional performance, opportunities,
and constraints of the existing space. Furthermore, the program should articulate what spaces,
features, or attributes must be added to improve functionality and give an appropriate and
compelling character to a space. The programmatic goals should be precisely qualified in a
brief, the written document that outlines all functional, dimensional, and relational
requirements. This list of objectives will form the basis for evaluating design solutions in
subsequent phases of the project.
Phases of Planning comprise of –
• Gathering Information & preparing data sheets- It includes site visit, field
observations, meeting with client to understand the needs, collecting every minute
detail about the project in a datasheet and preparing rough drawings/ sketches & notes
by taking measurements.
• Analysing Information – It includes matching the need versus available space, list the
issues for further discussions required if any,
• Documenting Information- Summarize the details to client and obtain client’s
approval for the program, submitting the project report to client and finalising the draft
alternative.
1.4.3 Budget
Budget is the main constraint and also the governing factor for the design. The Project Budget
can be classified in to two types- Approximate quotations and final detailed project budget.
After the initial site visits and data gathering and analysis, the alternative designs are prepared
in the stage of documenting the analysed information. Then while presenting it to the client the
approximate quotations are given for all the design alternatives. Thereafter, depending on the
budget of the client and after several meetings and discussions with client when the design is
finalised, the Final Project Budget is submitted to the client for the alternative work.
1.4.4 Presentation and Communication with Client
The design alternatives prepared by the designer are to be presented to the client along with the
quotation. Pros and cons of the alternative designs are to be explained to the client. Then the
ultimate decision is to be sought from the client based on the time and budget constraints.

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1.4.5 Project Schedule

Interior designer needs to prepare the schedule based on the approved program and finalized
plans after consulting the contractor and the client for time constraints if any from the client’s
side. Depending on these timelines interior designer has to request the contractor to manage
the resources such as number of labours to be placed on the project, material procurement
schedule and cash flow availability.

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 Unit 2 Space Management
2.1 Concept and Need of Space Management
The shaping of space into rooms of specific configurations is the primary art of the interior
designer. Several issues impact the proportion of rooms and their location in plan, including
the intended functions of rooms, the way furniture and accessories will fill out the space, and
the limitations imposed by accessibility and building codes. To be more precise, spaces and
rooms can be knitted together in a sequence of spaces that cover both functional utility and
elegance.
There are two types of constraints, in small sized rooms many needs of the client are to be
accommodated in a limited space. Similarly, in large sized rooms consciously left vacant spaces
should be prudently used to enhance the elegance of the space and such large spaces shouldn’t
look like a furniture godown or showroom.
2.2 Proportions of a Room
In the disciplines of art and design, proportion is concerned with one of the fundamental
characteristics of shape: the aspect ratio of width to length. Significantly, the qualification of
the proportion of a shape does not concern itself with dimensions. When designers speak of the
proportions of a shape, they are usually discussing the relative width and length of a rectangle,
but they can also address the proportion of an oval or even complex and irregular forms such
as the proportions of a mango shaped swimming pool in a mango garden. Most typically,
proportions are considered when making design decisions about a series of related elements.
For example, the designer should consider the proportion of the wall space between windows
as well as the proportion of the windows themselves when designing an interior elevation. The
relative proportion of the shape of the wall and the shape of the window can be construed as a
more complex proportional relationship. Proportion is considered in two dimensions in
drawing and painting and when composing a plan or an elevation.

Figure 2-1 Proportion of Rooms of Different Shapes

2.2.1 Influence of Proportion

Rooms of Different Shapes for interior design, the proportion of a space or an object is qualified
by the relative length of three variables: width, length, and height. The character and use of a
room is strongly influenced by the proportion of the space. A room that is relatively long,
narrow, and tall is much different in character than a room that is square in plan with a low
ceiling. The relative proportion of a room qualifies whether a space is primarily meant as a path
or a place. Square rooms are the most geometrically stable, but are difficult to furnish and thus
used for ceremonial functions when large or as threshold spaces when small. Rectangular
spaces with proportions of less than 1:2 are the most common shape of place-rooms since they
can accommodate a variety of furniture arrangements and can be easily aggregated along
circulation armatures. Long, narrow rooms are typically circulation spaces, whether functional
corridors or spaces for processional rituals and ceremonies.
The pure geometry of square room demands symmetrical arrangement of furniture. The seating
arrangement in such rooms can be centre table with two parallel rows of seating in the form of
sofas or chairs on either side of table or a ‘C’ shaped seating arrangement. Figure 2-2 shows
two of such square living rooms, where an attempt is made to break the symmetry by using
different types of chairs or sofas on either side of a centre table.

Figure 2-2 Furniture Arrangement in Square Living Room

A rectangular space can be broken up into different zones to accommodate distinct seating
areas, as shown in Figure 2-3. After utilizing the space for seating arrangement remaining space
can be utilised for other furniture or decorative elements. As we can see in Figure 2-3 the sofa

Figure 2-3 Furniture Arrangement in Rectangular Living Room

chairs in the left picture are arranged in diagonally and not in traditional parallelly opposite or
‘C’ shaped form. In the picture on right we can observe that, the circulating space behind the
‘L’ shaped seating is provided for keeping standing Floor lamp and other decorative elements.
Interior Design Dr. Manoj Anaokar

Figure 2-4 Furniture Arrangement in Long and Tall Rooms

Long and tall rooms provide more flexibility for space utilization. In such rooms even there is
maximum freedom of utilising natural light and artificial lighting arrangements in the form of
chandeliers, sconces, etc. They provide the magnificent look to the room.
2.2.2 Determining Proportions
Proportions are determined and appreciated in one of the two ways: either through the informed
intuition of the designer or through a rule system established by the designer. When designers
use a rule-based proportioning system, they typically employ it opportunistically, that is the
rule system established by the designer like whole number or golden rule rectangle, etc.
Intuition for Proportion
When proportions are considered intuitively, expressions such as “relative weight,”
“balance,” and “designing the space in-between” may capture the synthesis of visual choices
during design. To speak of a “beautifully proportioned façade” suggests a recognition of an
overall balance among the proportions of the windows, the spaces between the windows, and
the proportion of the wall itself. When proportions are designed and appreciated intuitively,
the visual tastes of the creator and observer play an important role. Some designers prefer
dynamic compositions with strongly contrasting proportions, while others may seek stasis and
balance. The examples of dynamic and stasis can be viewed in Figure 2-4. In the left picture it
can be viewed that apart from following the regular form of ‘L’ shaped seating with the centre
table the design uses the spaces horizontally for the additional display table and chair as well
as vertical spaces are used asymmetrically for open showcase racks, TV unit, and some closed
cupboards dynamically. The right picture shows the case of more stasis design where the spaces
are static as the ‘C’ shaped seating with blank wall behind the TV makes design static.

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Whole Number Proportions

Andrea Palladio, an Italian, Venetian architect of sixteenth century was famous for using
classical forms, symmetry, and strict proportion in his designs. He used a whole-number
proportioning system to design and organize the rooms for the designs of palace and villas. The
plans of the rooms in Palladio’s buildings are typically organized in whole-number ratios of
1:1 (the square) or rectangles of 1:2, 2:3, and 3:5. Significantly, he avoided other ratios such
as 3:4 or 4:5 because the resulting shapes sit uncomfortably between the stable square and the
directionality of the rectangle.
The Golden Rectangle
More complex rule-based systems exploit the relationship among a class of rectangles that can
be generated from the geometric properties of the square. The most noteworthy of these is the
golden rectangle (also known as the golden section, the golden mean, and the magic rectangle).
To construct a golden rectangle, a square must first be subdivided into two rectangles, each
with 1:2 proportions. If the hypotenuse of one of the rectangles is drawn and then rotated to
follow the radius of a circle with its centre at the pivot point, a golden rectangle will result. The
golden rectangle has a proportion of 1:1.618. Taj Mahal in India, Toronto’s CN Tower,
secretariat building of United Nations, etc. are the examples, in the construction of which
golden rectangle rule is followed.
The Radical Two Rectangle
Another common rectangle in proportioning systems is the radical two rectangle (also known
as the root two rectangle). Its geometric construction is similar to the golden rectangle. In his
case, however, the full hypotenuse of the generating square is drawn and rotated. The resulting
proportion is thus less attenuated than that of the golden rectangle. The ratio of the radical two
rectangle is 1:1.414. Henri Labrouste used the radical two rectangle to organize the proportions
of the plans, sections, and façades of the Bibliothèque Ste. Geneviève in Paris.
2.3 Sequencing of Spaces
Although the art of composing a plan would seem to be the province of the architect, the interior
designer must be involved in choreographing the sequence of spaces, so that a project reflects
a single design approach. Acknowledging the Interior design typically begins with the plan.
Fundamental to the logic of the plan is the distinction between rooms that can serve as both
places and as routes for through circulation—such as the living room, dining room, and
kitchen—and rooms that, because of issues of privacy, require a separate circulation space or
network of spaces to access them—such as bedrooms and bathrooms.
2.3.1 Composing a House in Plan
Interior design typically begins with the plan. Fundamental to the logic of the plan is the
distinction between rooms that can serve as both places and as routes for through circulation—
such as the living room, dining room, and kitchen—and rooms that, because of issues of
privacy, require a separate circulation space or network of spaces to access them—such as
bedrooms and bathrooms.
A third type of space comprises closets, storage rooms, pantries, fireplaces, etc. When
composing a plan, it is useful to consider these consolidated smaller spaces as solid masses, in

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opposition to the open spaces of major rooms. Such spaces are called as “poche,” a term
borrowed from a drawing technique used in the nineteenth century at the École des Beaux Arts
in Paris (from the French poche means “to fill in”)
2.3.2 Circulation and Relationships between Rooms
Networks of rooms can be conceived by aggregating rooms, with the gap between each room
functioning as both a thick-wall poche zone and a threshold space. Rooms can also be created
by subdividing a space with thick-wall zones or chunks of poche
2.3.3 Composing a House in Section
If a house is conceived as a series of independent floor levels, then every room on each floor
will share the same ceiling height. Ideally, however, a house should have rooms whose ceiling
heights differ in proportion to the overall size of each space. The height of the living room
should be greater than that of the closet, for example. The simplest way to organize a mixture
of ceiling heights is to make one or several rooms double-height spaces, with the potential that
rooms on the second level can look onto these taller spaces. Le Corbusier organized houses
around double-height living rooms. Another strategy for varying spatial heights in a house is
to connect one-and-a-half-story rooms to adjacent one-story rooms via short stairs. Separating
sections of the house by partial-level stairs rather than the full-floor stairs of conventional house
designs offers numerous psychological and functional advantages.
2.4 Space Management of Commercial Units
The interior design of commercial premises differs from that of a residential premises in the
sense that, the typical rooms have similar functions and utilities in residential premises,
however, every commercial unit like general store, mini super market, dentist’s clinic,
stationary and xerox, differ in their functions. Therefore, in case of commercial premises
following points should be followed:
1) Complete process of working of the commercial premises should be discussed with the
client in order to understand the functions carried out in the premises.
2) Based on these functions the flow of work and furniture necessities should be worked
out.
3) Arrangement and the sequence of these furniture should be established based on this
work flow.
4) The number of occupants or staffs, their functions in the given office/ shop and the
relation between their work sequence should be taken in to account while
accommodating the space for the individual staff.
5) Ensure the safety of the premises and the occupants.
6) Aesthetics should be kept in mind while giving due consideration for safety and
functional utility.

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Unit 3 Colour and Texture Management

3.1 Introduction
Actually, they are the colours and textures which give the aesthetic look to the interior design,
and not the civil work carried out for the design of interior spaces. Interior design is the art and
science of understanding people's behaviour to create functional spaces within a building, while
interior decorating is the furnishing or adorning of a space with decorative elements to achieve
a certain aesthetic. The colour and texture are the important tools for achieving this objective.
The complete get-up of the space is changed and is dependent on these two elements. Before
proceeding further for understanding the applications and selection of colours and texture for
the residential and commercial spaces, it is necessary to understand certain basics related to the
colours.
3.2 Theory of Light and Colours
Our modern understanding of light and colour begins with Isaac Newton (1642-1726) and the
series of experiments that he published in 1672. He was the first to understand the rainbow
— he refracted white light with a prism, resolving it into its component colours: red, orange,
yellow, green, blue and violet. In the late 1660s, Newton started experimenting with his
‘celebrated phenomenon of colours.’

Figure 3-1 Newtons Prism Experiment

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3.3 Colours Theory

A primary colour is a colour that cannot be made from a combination of any other colours. A
secondary colour is a colour created from a combination of two primary colours. Tertiary
colour is a combination of three colours (primary or secondary).

Figure 3-2 Colour Wheel and Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Colours

Printers and artists have different definitions for primary colours. The traditional primary
colours that painters have used are red, yellow, and blue. Modern printing press primary colours
are magenta, yellow, and cyan. These two primary colour systems obviously do not agree.
Additive and subtractive are the two primary methods for reproducing a range of colour.
3.3.1 Three Colour Schemes
The three colour schemes which are mainly used are:
• RGB
• HSV
• CYMK
RGB
RGB refers to Red, Green, and Blue. It’s the colour scheme where specific colour we can
observe in our designs on the computer monitors. Interior Designers should therefore be careful
while specifying the colours as the colours in their printed report which are based on CMYK
colour scheme may be different in their shades or tints. RGB colour scheme pertains to additive
colour theory.
CMYK
CMYK refers to Cyan, Magenta, Yellow and Black. This is scheme pertains to subtractive
colour theory. This is mainly used by the printers and therefore, interior designers should take
care and specify the names of the colour shades on the colour cards rather than describing the
colour by any other means. This is necessary because the colours which are visible on the
monitors and in the printed reports submitted by the interior designers may differ.

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HSV
You might have noticed HSV (hue, saturation, value) in the colour picker of your graphics
software. This is the scheme that describes the way colours combine to create the spectrum we
see. Unlike RGB and CMYK, which use primary colours, HSV is closer to how humans
perceive colour. It has three components: hue, saturation, and value. This colour space
describes colours (hue or tint) in terms of their shade (saturation or amount of grey) and their
brightness value. Some colour pickers, like the one in Adobe Photoshop, use the acronym HSB,
which substitutes the term "brightness" for "value," but HSV and HSB refer to the same colour
model. The HSV colour wheel sometimes appears as a cone or cylinder, but always with these
three components:
Hue
Hue is the colour portion of the model, expressed as a number from 0 to 360 degrees:
• Red falls between 0 and 60 degrees.
• Yellow falls between 61 and 120 degrees.
• Green falls between 121 and 180 degrees.
• Cyan falls between 181 and 240 degrees.
• Blue falls between 241 and 300 degrees.
• Magenta falls between 301 and 360 degrees.
Saturation
Saturation describes the amount of gray in a particular color, from 0 to 100 percent. Reducing
this component toward zero introduces more gray and produces a faded effect. Sometimes,
saturation appears as a range from 0 to 1, where 0 is gray, and 1 is a primary color.
Value (or Brightness)
Value works in conjunction with saturation and describes the brightness or intensity of the
colour, from 0 to 100 percent, where 0 is completely black, and 100 is the brightest and reveals
the most colour.
3.3.2 Additive Colour Theory
Additive colour synthesis is the creation of colour by mixing colours of light. Human vision
relies on light sensitive cells in the retina of the eye. There are two basic kinds of sensors. These
are rods and cones. Rods are cells which can work at very low intensity, but cannot resolve
sharp images or colour. Cones are cells that can resolve sharp images and colour, but require
much higher light levels to work. The combined information from these sensors is sent to the
brain and enables us to see.
There are three types of cone. Red cones are sensitive to red light, green cones are sensitive to
green light, and blue cones are sensitive to blue light. The perception of colour depends on an
imbalance between the stimulation levels of the different cell types.
Additive colour processes, such as television, work by having the capability to generate an
image composed of red, green, and blue light. Since the intensity information for each of the
three colours is preserved, the image colour is preserved as well. The spectral distribution of

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the image will probably be wrong, but if the degree of intensity for each of the primary colours
is correct, the image will appear to be of the right colour.
The three primaries in light are red, blue, and green, because they correspond to the red, green,
and blue cones in the eye. Example 1 shows how the light from red, green and blue flashlights
would appear if shone on a dark wall.

Figure 3-3 Additive Colour Theory

Red + Green = Yellow

Red + Blue = Magenta
Green + Blue = Cyan
Printers' primaries—yellow, cyan, and magenta—are typically used by professional designers
and printing presses.
When all of the colours of the spectrum are combined, they add up to white light.
2 parts Red + 1 part Green = Orange
2 parts Green + 1 part Red = Lime
4 parts Red + 1 part Blue + 1 part Green = Brown
3.3.2 Subtractive Colour
Subtractive colour synthesis is the creation of colour by mixing colours of pigment, such as
paint or ink in your computer’s printer. This type of colour is what is used in the art and design
world. When learning basic colour theory, art students typically use familiar colours like red,
yellow, and blue.
Subtractive colour processes work by blocking out parts of the spectrum. The idea of
subtractive colour is to reduce the amount of undesired colour reaching the eye. If, for example,
you had a yellow image, you would want to have a dye that would let red and green reach the
eye, and block out blue. The additive secondaries become the printers’ subtractive primaries,
because each of the additive secondaries will reflect two of the additive primaries, and absorb
one of the additive primaries.
The three primaries on the artists’ colour wheel are red, blue, and yellow. Example 2 illustrates
subtractive colour by showing how primary colours mix on a piece of white paper.

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Figure 3-4 Subtractive Colour Theory

Yellow + Blue = Green

Yellow + Red = Orange
Blue + Red = Violet
When all of the colours are combined, they create black pigment.
Additive Primaries/Secondaries Absorption Chart
Colour Reflects Absorbs
Yellow Red and Green Blue
Magenta Red and Blue Green
Cyan Green and Blue Red

With this information, if we wanted red, we would mix magenta and yellow. Magenta would
absorb green, and yellow would absorb blue, leaving only red to be reflected back to the eye.
For black, a combination of all three would be used, which should block out all light in theory.
Printers use black as well, since the dyes used in printing are not perfect, and some light from
other parts of the spectrum gets through.

Figure 3-5 Subtractive Colour Chart

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Interior Design Dr. Manoj Anaokar

For printers’ mixing:

Yellow + Cyan = Green
Yellow + Magenta = Red
Cyan + Magenta = Blue
3.5 Colour temperature
It is a characteristic of visible light that has important applications in interior design, lighting,
photography, videography, publishing, manufacturing, astrophysics, horticulture, and other
fields. The colour temperature of a light source is the temperature of an ideal black body
radiator that radiates light of comparable hue to that of the light source. Colour temperature is
conventionally stated in the unit of absolute temperature, the Kelvin, having the unit symbol
‘K’.
Colour temperatures over 5,000K are called cool colours (bluish white), while lower colour
temperatures (2,700–3,000 K) are called warm colours (yellowish white through red). This
relation, however, is a psychological one in contrast to the physical relation implied by Wien's
displacement law, according to which the spectral peak is shifted towards shorter wavelengths
(resulting in a more blueish white) for higher temperatures.
Aggressive- 'Warm'. These come towards the eye more (spatially) and are generally 'louder'
than passive colours.
Passive - 'Cool'. These recede from the eye more (spatially) and are generally 'quieter' than the
aggressive colours.

Figure 3-6 Warm and Cool Colours

The whiter versions of both warm and cool are called as pestle colours, while those which
are neither warm nor cool are called as neutral colours. These colours are used to reduce
the extreme effects of warm and cool colours and thereby balance the colour scheme.

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Figure 3-7 Types of Colours According to their Nature

3.4 Description of Colour

Hue – Is the name of the colour itself, the dominant wavelength of light or the choice of
pigment.
Lightness (brightness) – Is the lightness or darkness of the colour, the amount of light reflected
or transmitted.
Saturation – Is the level of white, black or grey, ranges from neutral to brilliant (pastel to full
colour).
Tint – Base colour plus white.
Tone – Base colour plus grey.
Shade – Base colour plus black.
Value – How light or dark a colour is.

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3.6 Spectral Energy Distribution and Colour Rendering

A spectral energy distribution (SED) is a plot of brightness or flux density versus frequency or
wavelength of light. Two colour samples with different spectral reflectance may look identical
under a certain illuminating source, and are then said to be metameric under this light. Relation
between the spectral energy distribution of light and the corresponding perceived colour can
be demonstrated and explored.

Figure 3-8 Spectral Energy Distribution

The visible region contains all possible wavelengths of light described commonly by hue. The
630nm to 700nm is the colour red. Orange appears between 590 and 630nm. Yellow is
slightly shorter between 560 and 590nm. Green light occurs next between 480 and 560nm
and blue is the shortest wavelength between 460nm to 490nm. The energy corollary holds
in the visible region as well. Blue is shortest in wavelength and therefore should be the highest
energy. If one thinks of fire, it is true that a blue flame is hotter than an orange or red flame,
and thus exhibits higher energy.
In considering the visual colour percept ion process, light sources that are comprised of all of
the wavelengths of the visible region are most useful. These light sources will emit white light

Figure 3-9 Colour Rendering

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and include such sources as the sun, filaments of light bulbs, and fluorescent lamps. But we
know from experience that colours can look different whether viewed under a 60W light
bulb or outdoors under the bright sun. This is called colour rendition or the colour
rendering effect of the light source. Furthermore, there are other light sources such as
mercury vapour lamps which appear nearly white, but do not contain all possible wavelengths.
Therefore, it is important to know how much energy, if any, is present in the light source
wavelength by wavelength. This can be measured and is called the spectral energy (or power)
distribution of the light source.
We previously stated that our visual colour perception is dependent on the object modifying
the light from the source. Thus, the spectral energy distribution is important to understand and
control in colour matching. In that earlier example, we stated that the object would appear blue
since no modification was done to the blue wavelengths and the object reflected blue light
which was seen by the observer. However, if the light source was a red light which contained
no blue wavelengths, then obviously the object could not reflect blue light and we could not
perceive the colour of it as what we call “blue”. Moreover, our object could potentially be
perceived as being bluer in colour viewed under a cool white fluorescent lamp or sunlight.
3.7 Characteristics of Colours and their Applicability
At the time of deciding colour scheme, one can’t go for random selection of colours. Specific
colours of specific colour family go along with each other. While selecting the colours for wall,
covers of sofa and chairs, bedsheets, curtains, etc. not only the matching of colours but also the
tones of the colours, especially when, you want to select the monochrome colour scheme. The
best example of this can be a black and white picture, where all the components of a picture in
spite of being black and white they have different tones depending on what actual colours they
represent in the picture. Complementary colours are those which are opposite on the colour
wheels also give an attractive look to the room.
The characteristics of the different colours are as follows:
3.7.1 Red Colour
This is the very first colour in the seven colours of rainbow. This is a warm colour. It has the
longest wavelength and 630nm to 700nm is the colour red. and studies have shown that, it
excites brain and the human intellect. In the bullock races therefore, sometimes this colour
cloth is waved for stimulating the bullocks. That’s why this colour is colour is to be used
cautiously in the rooms of a home. How any particular colour will affect any person’s
psychology that depends on the original nature of the person and that’s how some people have
fond of certain colours whereas strong aversions for some of the others. Now a days there is a
trend of highlighting a particular wall in a living room. Figure 3-1 displays such a highlighted
wall using red colour.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Fcquw3235w

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Figure 3-10 Red Highlighted Wall

For which, sometimes red or the different tones of red are used and then colour on the remaining
walls and furnishing colours are balanced to reduce the highly stimulating effect of red. We
can use red colour for seating in living room. However, the colour balance should be achieved
as can be observed in Figure 3-2.

Figure 3-11 Red Seating with Colour Balancing

Scheme

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3.7.2 Orange Colour

The second colour in the rainbow after red is orange. It is a warm colour having wave length
between 590 and 630nm It is considered as a symbol of happiness, excitement,
consciousness and socialness. It is also connected with creativity. It is therefore used in
the living room for the feature wall. It is also used for one of the walls in the class rooms
or drawing rooms in the schools or colleges. Light cream or buff colours can be used for
balancing the orange colour.

Figure 3-12 Living Rooms using Orange Colour Theme

As we can see in Figure 3-3 the Feature Wall is painted in orange and then the colours for
remaining walls, sofa covers and carpet are balanced by using pestle and neutral colours. White
black and Green go well with orange.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Iyjjq57Ej7g

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zvGaRIMmUOM

3.7.3 Yellow Colour

The third colour in the rainbow after orange and is the second primary colour. It is the warm
and brightest colour with a wavelength between 560 and 590nm. It is considered as a
symbol of pleasantness. It is therefore used in the living room for the walls. The tone of
the yellow should be selected depending upon the natural light in the room. If the light is low
then dark shades of yellow shouldn’t be used and light should be used to tone down the colour
energy and avoid the feeling of advancing walls.

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Figure 3-13 Living Room with Yellow Colour Theme

Figure 3-14 Dining Room with Yellow Theme

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Interior Design Dr. Manoj Anaokar

Figure 3-15 Bed Room with Yellow Theme

Figure 2-12 shows the living room with the yellow theme. In this case, the flowerpots, one of
the centre tables and the pillow covers for the sofa are taken in yellow while to break the
monotony by yellow, another centre table is taken in green which goes well with the yellow.
The dining table cloth is taken in yellow. The cheerfulness of yellow helps for the better
digitation of food and then the pestle yellow on wall reduces the intensity of dark yellow table
cloth. Similarly, use of green with yellow on the table makes the combination attractive. As
far as possible yellow should be avoided for the bedrooms as it is the brightest colour.
However, if it is to be used then very light colour tints should be used for the same.
3.7.4 Green Colour
Nature exhibits this colour in monsoon. After monsoon we find the mountains and the valleys
wearing a green coat. The foliage that sprouts has parrot green. When the sun shines on the
green leaves of trees it exhibits yellowish green. Green is therefore an indication of
liveliness, freshness. It is therefore a cool colour having wavelength between 480 and
560nm.
It can be viewed from Figure 3-15 that; the green can be used for the sofa covers in living room.
Use of green for such places where family get-togethers are there, that helps to rejuvenate or
refreshing their minds. Figure 3-16 shows the use of green in the form of small plants kept in
the corner or on the tables apart from pale green sofa covers.
Use of green in the bed room for walls (Figure 3-17) or curtains and other furnishing helps to
keep the mind soothing thus providing the peaceful sleep.

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Figure 3-16 Green in Living Room for Furnishings

Figure 3-17 Use of Green Plants in Living Room

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Figure 3-18 Use of Green in Bed Room

Figure 3-19 Green Kitchens

Commonly, green is used for Kitchens because the heat in the Kitchen strains the eyes
which can be reduce by using this cool colour. (Figure 3-19)
3.7.5 Blue Colour
Blue colour of the sky gives peace to the mind and it indicates the limitlessness as well as
it’s an indication of inspiration. This colour is mainly used in the bedroom where we require
a peace for rest and sleep after a long hectic schedule of the day. This cool colour having a
wavelength between 460 to 490 nm therefore, sooths the eyes and reduces the strain on
them. However, the deep blue colour creates sadness in mind and should therefore be used
cautiously by balancing it with other colours. The navy-blue coloured walls help to reduce the
light on the eyes and is balanced by white table, bedsheets and red coloured chair (Figure 3-
20).

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Figure 3-20 Bedroom in Blue Colour Theme

Orange featured wall at the back of the bed helps to reflect and circulate the natural light
coming from the window and the light from the table lamp at night which is needed if
somebody has a habit of reading books before going to sleep (Figure 3-21).

Figure 3-21 Bedroom in Blue Colour with Orange Featured Wall

3.7.6 Indigo Colour

Many a time indigo is confused with blue but it’s a different colour. Blue has wavelength 460
to 490 nm whereas the cool indigo colour has wavelength between 440 nm to 460 nm. Indigo
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therefore doesn’t limit only to give the peace as blue gives but it indicates the peace obtained
in spirituality or speechlessness. For that reason, it is used for study rooms or bed cum
study rooms where one requires the concentration apart from peace for studies. For living
rooms if it’s used should be used trivially (Figure 3-22).

Figure 3-22 Living Rooms in Indigo Colour Theme

For bedrooms it can be used as a featured wall or for bedsheets and pillow covers
(Figure3-23).

Figure 3-23 Bedroom in Indigo Colour Theme

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3.7.7 Violate Colour

This last colour in rainbow is a cool colour with a wave length 420nm to 440nm completes
the circle on the colour wheel and a mediator between blue and red. It’s a sign of
passionless state and that’s why used for study room (Figure 3-24 (a)), meditation rooms,
yoga rooms, etc. Depending on the flair of client it can occasionally be used for bedrooms.
(Figure 3-24 (b)).

Figure 3-24 Violate Colour Theme for Bedroom and Study Room

3.7.8 Neutral Colours

After the passionless state of mind, the next stage is the person reaches to disaffected state. The
neutral colours are disaffected in the sense they are neither warm nor cool. The natural colour
examples of neutral colours are the colours of stones, coconut coir, wood, etc. In smaller rooms
they tend to create a feeling of increased size Different textures are also highlighted when used

Figure 3-25 Neutral Colour Theme for Different Rooms

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with neutral colours. Figure 3-25 (a) through (d) show the different rooms in neutral colour
theme. It can be observed that this theme looks sober and attractive.
3.7.9 Black and White
Black and White are not the colours but the complete absence and complete presence of all the
colours respectively. White indicates the openness whereas black gives the feeling of closeness.
Very few of the clients may have the taste for black and white theme for the different rooms as
shown in Figure 3-26 (a) through (c),

3.8 Types of Paints

Following are the common types of paints used for painting the interior walls of a room:
• Distemper
• Acrylic Emulsion
• Enamel
• Texture
• Metallic
• Oil
3.8.1 Distemper Paint
• Features
• Distemper paint comprises chalk, lime, water and some coloring agents. This
type of paint is commonly known as ‘whitewash’.
• Pros

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• Distemper paint is also known as cement paint because it can be applied directly
onto the plastered surface without the use of any primer.
• These paints do not crack in the presence of sunlight.
• Distemper paint is very economical and can be used on both the interior and
exterior walls.
• Cons
• Distemper paint is not fully washable; it has the tendency to come off when
wetted.
3.8.2 Acrylic Emulsion Paint
• Features
• Acrylic emulsion paints are water-based and some of the most preferred paints
for homes.
• Pros
• Emulsion paint is quick-drying, with a very low level of VOCs (volatile organic
compounds).
• The paint is available in various finishes, such as matte, satin and silk.
• The paint is extremely durable and long-lasting.
• Emulsion paint is washable, and stains can be removed by simply wiping the
surface with a damp cloth dipped in water or a mild soap solution.
• It is resistant to fungus and mildew.
• Another plus is that emulsion paints contain non-yellowing agents, which
ensures good stability of colours that do not fade in the presence of sunlight.
• The paint is acrylic based, which makes the paint elastic and highly resistant to
cracking.
• Cons
• Acrylic Emulsion paints require a coat of primer before application of the paint.
• Another drawback is that the glossy finishes of emulsion paint show up all the
imperfections and undulations of the walls.
3.8.3 Enamel Paint
• Features
• Enamel paint is a solvent- or oil-based paint.
• Pros
• Enamel paint is highly durable
• It is glossy, which imparts a rich finish to the walls.

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• Enamel paint is best suited for areas that are subject to high moisture and humidity.
• Cons
One disadvantage is that enamel paint is less flexible in comparison to emulsion paint.
It may develop cracks over a period of time.
• Enamel paint takes a longer time to dry.
• Another minus is that this paint emits strong odors, which may also be harmful to
health.
• Solvents such as turpentine are required to clean the paint brushes.
3.8.4 Metallic Paint
• Features
Metallic paint is a water-based paint that contains minute particles of metal, such as
aluminum, copper, bronze or stainless steel, and is best suited for an accent wall.
• Pros
This type of paint has a metallic finish which imparts a high-look luxurious look to the
space.
Metallic paint works as a great alternative to wallpaper.
• Cons
These paints are very expensive, but, on the other hand, it takes only a small section of
wall painted with metallic paint to create a stunning effect.
3.8.5 Oil Paint
• Feature
Oil paint is used for painting iron grills, wood frames of door and windows.
• Pros
This type of paint has a shiny finish.
• Cons
While repainting it is difficult to scrub and remove.
3.9 Process of Painting
The process of painting is slightly different in case of newly plastered wall surfaces and for the
re-painting. They are as follows:
3.9.1 Process of Painting for the Newly Plastered Wall Surface
Initially the wall surface must be applied with the white colour putty that is a powder which is
to be mixed in water and made the toothpaste like consistency so as to make it smooth. It is
then applied on the plastered wall surface vertically using stainless steel 6-inch wall putty knife
known as ‘palti or putty patra’ in site language are applied in the upward direction. This is done

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to prepare the smooth surface for receiving paint. After it dries it is scrubbed with 150 grade
black coloured water paper. This helps to remove any excess application of putty on the wall
and also the dry putty powder accumulated on the surface doesn’t absorb the paint, thus making
it possible the uniform application of paint on the surface. Then the first coat of the paint is
applied on the wall with the brush by using horizontal strokes. The paint is applied from the
top of wall towards the bottom of wall. Normally if it’s a plastic type of paint then, in the 4
litres of can of paint, the coverage is 500 square feet. The second coat is then applied after
drying the first coat.
3.9.2 Process of Painting for Re-painting the Old Wall Surface
Initially the old wall surface to be painted should be scrubbed with 150 grade sand paper in
order to remove the stains and make the wall surface smooth for receiving primer. After
scrubbing, the surface should be cleaned with a cloth to remove the scrubbed powder from the
surface. Any old nails should be removed and depressions on the wall surface must be filled
with putty using 6-inch stainless steel putty knife (patra). After this filled putty dries then it
should again be scrubbed with sand paper. In case of old surface paint can’t be applied directly
on such prepared surface but it is to be applied with the primer coat. This coat hides any earlier
markings or stains on the walls and gives better paint finish. The primer coverage is normally
120 to 140 square feet in one litre of primer. 4-inch brush and 6-inch sponge roller are used for
applying the primer coat. The use of sponge roller removes the visible brush strokes and
absorbs the excess paint by making the painted surface smooth and the paint film is evenly
applied on the wall surface. After the primer dries the first coat of paint is applied with 6-inch
brush with horizontal strokes from top to bottom of wall.
3.10 Texture Management
Texture is, quite simply, an object's physical feeling or visual appearance. It is the precise art
of blending the rough with the smooth and knowing how to create visual texture. A room's
overall textural feel translates to physical and visual texture, and it also touches on how we
perceive things. Lighting, for example, is neither physically or visually textured itself, but it's
one of the biggest contributors of texture in the home. Its ambient glow can transform an entire
space into one of incredible softness or, conversely, one that’s hard and harsh.
Texture is also a way to create accents. Interior designers will use texture to add what’s referred
to as ‘visual weight’. In other words, how an object or section of the room is able to draw
attention to itself. Contrasting textures is one way to make certain aspects stand out more than
others.
3.10.1 Ways to Add Texture to any Room
1. Layer Different Textures
Layering in interior design is key to producing a scheme that’s rich and full of depth.
Multiple sources of texture are blended by not relying on just fabric or furniture finishes.
But, Matte versus glazed, a polished surface with a rough surface, etc. As can be viewed
from Figure 3-26, the left or side black wall is smooth having some textured design on
it in white. The right or front wall at right angles to it is a rough texture wall. The carpet
has more granular texture as compared to sofa covers with mild or very soft textured
fabric. The timber structure of the cupboard is balanced by glass plant-pots on its top.

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Figure 3-26 Layering of Textures

2. Use of Contrasting Fabrics

In Figure 3-26 the sofa cover texture is somewhat smooth as compared to pillow cover
which is giving the effect of wavy rough texture to suit the carpet texture.
3. Adding a Textured Furniture
Furniture texture is worthy of exploring, especially as you’re most likely to come into
physical contact with it. Imagine running your hand over a cool, smooth marble table,
eating off a rustic oak dining table.
4. Add Textured Home Accessories
Vases, ornaments, sculptures and mirrors are accessories ripe for playing with texture.
You could purposefully create an arrangement of objects with alternating textures to
really make a statement as shown in Figure 3-26.
5. Decorate With Plants and Flowers
Use of cactus along with sofa covers, carpet creates one integrated effect.
6. Use of Lighting
Lighting is another feature in the room with a dual texture aspect. The look and feel of
the lamp itself play a role in providing texture. A high-shine chrome floor lamp adds
very different texture to a hammered bronze wall sconce, for example. But it is the rays
of light themselves where texture takes on a more visual character.

Warm white light (approximately 300 kelvins) produces a far softer, more ambient glow
than cool white light (around 500 kelvins) which has a brighter, more contemporary
beam that can cause a room’s atmosphere to feel harsher.
The integrated effect of texture creates harmony and the overall effect in adding the aesthetics
to the room by highlighting certain elements while toning down the others.

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Unit 4 Environment Creation through Lighting Management

and other Systems
4.1 Introduction
Interior Design is not only about the mood creation by space, colour and texture management
but it has much wider perspective in creating the environment of any interior space with the
help of many other systems. These systems include management of lighting system, plumbing
system and Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC). All these systems together they
create an integrated effect for creating the environment of any interior space which results in
the more robust system of interior design. We will therefore study these systems in this chapter.
4.2 Lighting Systems
Before we actually learn about the lighting systems, we need to understand some fundamental
concepts related to lighting. They are as follows:
4.3 Terminologies
4.3.1 Visual Tasks
Reading a book, passing a thread through a needle, typing on computer, cutting vegetables,
operating a lathe, carry out different process in a factory are all the examples of the visual tasks.
Thus the need to detect and recognize very small parts of the total visual field is called as Visual
Tasks. Most national standards and codes of practice for lighting are concerned primarily with
task illumination. Accomplishment of these visual tasks swiftly and comfortably is the
requirement in sports hall lighting, art gallery design, in lobbies and passages as well as in
factories, offices, schools, etc. Task lighting is important in case of buildings and is a part of
lighting design. This is done by identifying in every case visual demand for every situation and
specific task needs.
Factors affecting visual tasks
a) Task illumination requirements- level and distribution i.e. amount of illumination
and area of spread of light e.g. reading table in library should have 200 to 500 lux of
illumination is required and it should cover the table area.
b) Contrasts within the task- If you are in restaurant or on the dining table and eating
the green vegetables with the pieces of green chilly, then it is difficult to identify
those pieces of chilly if sufficient light is not there. But if vegetable contains red
chilly pieces they can be easily identified.
c) Contrast between the tasks and its surroundings- letters written on grey paper
require more light for reading them compared to same font with same size typed on
white paper
d) Background Glare- If the glare coming from the window is more than the level of
comfort then to perform the tasks within the room, we require illumination inside the
room
4.3.2 Solid Angle
The definition of intensity involves the concept of a solid angle. A solid angle is a 3D angular
volume that is defined analogously to the definition of a plane angle in two dimensions. A
plane angle, (Figure 4.1 (a)) θ, made up of the lines from two points meeting at a vertex, is

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defined by the arc length of a circle subtended by the lines and by the radius of that circle, as
shown below. The dimensionless unit of plane angle is the radian, with 2π radians in a full
circle.

Figure 4-1 (a) Plane Angle and (b) Solid Angle

A solid angle, (Figure 4.1.(b)) ω, made up of all the lines from a closed curve meeting at a
vertex, is defined by the surface area of a sphere subtended by the lines and by the radius of
that sphere, as shown below. The unit of solid angle is the steradian, with 4π steradians in a
full sphere.
4.3.3 Illuminating Power (or Luminous Intensity)
Illuminating power of a source is defined as the amount of light energy per unit time on to a
unit area of a surface placed at a unit distance from the source, when the rays of light are
incident normally on the surface.
4.3.4 Candela OR Candle Power (CP)
It is defined as the illuminating power of the flame of a standard candle, in a horizontal
direction.
4.3.5 Standard Candle
It is made of a special type of wax (spermaceti wax). It weighs 1/6 pound and has a diameter
of 7/8 inch. It burns at the rate of l20 grains (i.e. 7.776 g) per hour.
4.3.6 Phot
It is the unit of intensity of illumination. A phot is the intensity of illumination produced on the
inner surface of a sphere of radius one centimetre, when a standard candle or a source of candle
power is held at its centre also called 1 cm candle.

1 𝐶𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
1 Phot (cm candle) =
(1𝑐𝑚)2
4.3.7 Intensities of illumination
Intensity of illumination of surface at any point is defined as the amount of light energy
reaching per unit time on a unit area of the surface around that point when the rays of light are
incident normally on the surface. It is denoted by 'E'

𝐼𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Intensity of Illumination =
(𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)2

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4.3.8 Lux
It is also a unit of intensity of illumination. A lux is the intensity of illumination produced on
the inner surface of a sphere of radius one meter, when a standard candle or a source of 1 C.P.
is held at its centre. One Lux is also called one metre candle.
1 𝐶𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
1 Lux (metre candle) = Also, 1 Phot = 104 Lux.
(1𝑚)2

4.3.9 Luminous Flux

The total amount of energy emitted by a source in a unit time is called the luminous flux of the
source. It is denoted by Q.
Q = E x A i.e. Luminous flux = Intensity of Illumination x area,
Luminous flux = 4 x 3.14 x Illuminating Power of the source
4.3.10 Lumen
Lumen is the unit of measurement of luminous flux. It is defined as the luminous flux passing
through a unit area of a sphere of unit radius, when a standard a candle or a source of 1 Candle
Power is held at its centre.
1 𝐿𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛
1 Lux =
1 𝑠𝑞 𝑚
4.3.11 Utilisation Factor
Utilisation factor (UF) is the proportion of the luminous flux emitted by the lamps which
reaches the working plane. It is a measure of the effectiveness of the lighting scheme. Factors
that affect the value of UF are as follows:
(a) Light output ratio
(b) Flux distribution
(c) Room proportions
(d) Room reflectance
(e) Spacing/mounting height ratio
4.3.12 Lamp lumen depreciation factor (LLD)
A factor that represents the reduction of lumen output over time. The factor is commonly used
as a multiplier to the initial lumen rating in illuminance calculations, which compensates for
the lumen depreciation. The LLD factor is a dimensionless value between 0 and 1.
4.3.13 Mean Spherical Candle, power (M.S.C.P)
The intensity of illumination from a lamp varies in different directions. M.S.C.P. is the average
value in all directions. One MSCP is equivalent to all the light emitted from all directions of
one standard spermaceti candle.
Since 1 c. p. emits 4pi lumens M.S.C.P. lumens/ 4π

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4.3.14 Mean Hemispherical Candle-power, M.H.C.P

Upper or lower. It is the average candle power of a light source in all direction in a plane
through centre of the source and perpendicular to its axis.
4.3.15 Reduction Factor(r)
The ratio of M.H.C.P./ M.S.C.P.
4.4 Laws of Illumination
Illumination is governed by the two laws of Illumination.
(1) Law of Inverse Square
The illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
the surface and the light source provided that the distance between the surface and the source
is sufficiently large so that the source can be regarded as a point source (Figure 4-2) . In other

9A

4A
A
P

1d
2d
3d
Figure 4-2 Law of Inverse Square

words, the farther away, the less illumination.

The illuminance can be calculated by:

𝑰
𝑬= 𝒍𝒖𝒙 Equation 4-1
𝒅𝟐

Where ‘E’ is illuminance, ‘I’ is Luminous intensity and ‘d’ is distance.

(2) Lambert’s Cosine Law
According to this law the illumination at any point on a surface is proportional to the cosine of
the angle between the normal at that point and the direction of luminous flux. A surface which
obeys Lambert's law is said to be Lambertian, and exhibits Lambertian reflectance.
𝑰
𝑬= × 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 Equation 4-2
𝒅𝟐

Where ‘E’ is illuminance, ‘I’ is Luminous intensity, ‘d’ is distance and ‘’ is the angle between
the normal at that point and the direction of luminous flux
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𝒉
𝒅= Equation 4-3
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽

Where ‘h’ is the vertical distance from the light source to the floor and ‘d’ is the inclined
distance from the light source to the point where we want to know the illuminance as shown in
the Figure 4-3.

d
h

Figure 4-3 Lambert's Cosine Law

𝑰
𝑬= 𝒉 𝟐 × 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 Equation 4-4
( )
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽

𝑰
𝑬= × 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽𝟑 Equation 4-5
𝒉𝟐

4.5 Types of Lighting in Buildings

To ensure that you will achieve the desired effect for your rooms, it is important that you first
understand the four basic types of home lighting.
1. Ambient or general lighting - illuminates the whole room. You probably notice it
from recessed and track lighting. Certain wall scones are yet another example. A
dimmer can be installed with track and recessed lights so that there is added flexibility
in adjusting the brightness.

Recessed Lighting: Lights are fitted in a recess. Recessed lighting offers a clean,
streamlined look in a home. It can increase the amount of light in a room, highlight
artwork or other special features, and open up spaces so they look and feel bigger.
Track Lighting: Lights are fitted on track. Track lights are perfect when you want to
accent objects with light or work under a directional task light.
2. Task lighting - provides sufficient light to help you perform the task at hand, e.g.,
reading, cooking, shaving, etc. Task lighting should be glare free. And it should make
things easy to see without tiring or straining your eyes.

3. Accent lighting - is focused lighting that is used to illuminate a sculpture, piece of

art, or architectural element in a room. Accent lighting is about three times as bright
as ambient lighting.

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4. Natural lighting - comes through windows, doors, and skylights. Depending on the
time of day, season, or weather, it can vary in brightness and intensity.

4.6 Types of Artificial Light Sources

1) Incandescent Bulb: An incandescent bulb consists of a filament that glows when electricity
is passed through it.
2) Halogen Lamp: A halogen lamp is a type of incandescent lamp where high-pressure
halogen gas is inside the bulb allowing the filament to burn hotter and longer.
3) Gaseous Discharge Lamps: This technology passes electricity through a gas, which excites
the gas and causes it to glow. Fluorescent, high-intensity discharge lights (HID) and low-
pressure sodium lights use this technology. HID lamps use different gases to produce light:
(i) Mercury Vapour Lamps –Fluorescent Tubes (Tube Lights), CFL, CCFL
All fluorescent light bulbs have two cathodes (one at each end). In a standard CFL, the
cathodes are made of coiled tungsten filaments that are heated to approximately 900 degrees
Fahrenheit each time the light bulb is turned on. That heat releases electrons. The electrons
shoot back and forth between the cathodes and react with the mercury to create ultraviolet
radiation, which in turn reacts with the phosphor coating on the inside of the glass envelope
to create light. Standard CFLs are hot cathode light bulbs.
In a cold cathode fluorescent light bulb, the cathodes are made of a solid metal thimble,
which is more durable than the thin coils in standard CFLs. The cathodes only heat up to
about 200 degrees Fahrenheit (certainly not “cold”, but relatively cooler than the hot cathode
filament, hence the name). The voltage potential within the tube excites the mercury to
cause current flow.
(ii) Metal Halide Lamps- A metal-halide lamp is an electric light that produces light by
an electric arc through a gaseous mixture of vaporized mercury and metal halides
(compounds of metals with bromine or iodine
(iii) Sodium Vapour Lamps- A sodium vapour lamp is a gas discharge lamp that uses
sodium in an excited state to produce light. There are two varieties of such lamps: low
pressure and high pressure. Low-pressure sodium lamps are the most efficient electrical light
sources, but their yellow light restricts applications to outdoor lighting such as street lamps.
High-pressure sodium lamps have a broader spectrum of light but poorer colour rendering
than other types.
These types of lights require ballast, which is a device that starts the lamp and regulates its
operation.
(iv) GFL Technology
To produce light, the Hg-free GFL employs the physics of DBD to generate the UV source
as the first step. The electrons are driven by a AC source to discharge within the sealed
chamber. The discharged electrons hit the Xe gas and generate UV light, the emitted UV
source are mainly on the wavelength of 147nm and 172nm. The UV in this range can only
transmit in vacuum and decay very soon in air or glass media. This UV is so called Vacuum
UV (VUV) because it can only exist in vacuum. This feature bring another advantage of

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Hg-free GFL: no UV can be leakage outside the lamp. The transmission of VUV to glass is
zero. No UV is possible to reach user. This leads the Hg-free GFL not only an environment
friendly product but also a healthy one
(1) Non-toxic product
The Hg-free GFL (Green Flat fluorescent Lamp) is designed to be an environmental
friendly light source. Different with conventional Hg-base lamp (e.g. CCFL), this Hg-
free GFL does not use the Hg as the lighting material, the Hg is notorious and it is
toxic to human being and environment. The Hg-free GFL by uses Xenon(Xe) gas as
lighting material.
(2) Born to be flat
Another feature of GFL is “FLAT”, this lamp is born to be flat. This “flat” feature can
easily extend the lighting application in wide aspects, a typical example is to apply this
flat lamp as the backlight of TFT-LCD. The TFT-LCD can not emit light itself, it
needs a flat backlighting to enable the vivid pictures. The flat, slim, bright
characteristics of Hg-free GFL just perfectly meets the requirement of LCD
backlighting

4) LED
LED’s are the newest type of artificial light and were born out of the electronics and computer
industry. An LED is a tiny electronic device that emits light
Spectral Energy Distribution and Colour Rendering:
A spectral energy distribution (SED) is a plot of brightness or flux density versus frequency
or wavelength of light. Two colour samples with different spectral reflectances may look
identical under a certain illuminant, and are then said to be metameric under this light. Relation
between the spectral energy distribution of light and the corresponding perceived colour can
be demonstrated and explored.
The visible region contains all possible wavelengths of light described commonly by hue. The
700nm end is the colour red. Orange appears between 590 and 630nm. Yellow is slightly
shorter between 560 and 590nm. Green light occurs next between 480 and 560nm and blue is
the shortest wavelength below about 480nm. The energy corollary holds in the visible region
as well. Blue is shortest in wavelength and therefore should be the highest energy. If one thinks
of fire, it is true that a blue flame is hotter than an orange or red flame, and thus exhibits higher
energy.
In considering the visual colour percept ion process, light sources that are comprised of all of
the wavelengths of the visible region are most useful. These light sources will emit white light
and include such sources as the sun, filaments of light bulbs, and fluorescent lamps. But we
know from experience that colours can look different whether viewed under a 60W light bulb
or outdoors under the bright sun. This is called colour rendition or the colour rendering
effect of the light source. Furthermore, there are other light sources such as mercury vapour
lamps which appear nearly white, but do not contain all possible wavelengths. Therefore, it is
important to know how much energy, if any, is present in the light source wavelength by
wavelength. This can be measured and is called the spectral energy (or power) distribution of
the light source.

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We previously stated that our visual colour perception is dependent on the object modifying
the light from the source. Thus, the spectral energy distribution is important to understand and
control in colour matching. In that earlier example, we stated that the object would appear blue
since no modification was done to the blue wavelengths and the object reflected blue light
which was seen by the observer. However, if the light source was a red light which contained
no blue wavelengths, then obviously the object could not reflect blue light and we could not
perceive the colour of it as what we call “blue”. Moreover, our object could potentially be
perceived as being bluer in colour viewed under a cool white fluorescent lamp or sunlight.
4.7 The Luminous Efficacy and Efficiency of a Source
It is a measure of the efficiency with which the source provides visible light from electricity.
The luminous efficacy of radiation describes how well a given quantity of electromagnetic
radiation from a source produces visible light: the ratio of luminous flux to radiant flux. Not
all wavelengths of light are equally visible, or equally effective at stimulating human vision,
due to the spectral sensitivity of the human eye; radiation in the infrared and ultraviolet parts
of the spectrum is useless for illumination. In some systems of units, luminous flux has the
same units as radiant flux. The luminous efficacy of radiation is then dimensionless. In this
case, it is often instead called the luminous efficiency, and may be expressed as a percentage.
A common choice is to choose units such that the maximum possible efficacy, 683 lm /W,
corresponds to an efficiency of 100%. The luminous coefficient is luminous efficiency
expressed as a value between zero and one, with one corresponding to an efficacy of 683 lm
/W.
4.8 Design of modern lighting
The lighting can make or break a room; it sets the mood and should work to enhance your
design scheme as a whole. While there are many options to choose from, it doesn’t need to be
overwhelming. Hence while designing the lighting for any specific type of building first
determine the lighting needs for each room, and decide whether it requires ambient, task or
accent lighting.
4.9 Lighting for different types of Interior Spaces
4.9.1 Lighting for Retail Store Lighting
Retail store lighting is very important and this can affect the success of your business. Whether
your retail store is catering to the young and old population, you can make use of these lighting
tips. Customers will stay away from dimly lit retail stores because they won’t be able to see the
products with ease. Besides, a welcoming atmosphere should be created and this can be
achieved through proper lighting. The ideal lighting is from about 750 to 1500 lux because this
can ensure maximum visibility. One of the greatest factors that you need to consider is the type
of products that you’re selling.
For instance, if you are selling clothing items or gift items, you can make use of ambient
lighting that is similar to that used in galleries. Accent lighting can emphasize your best
products in the store. This will send out a message to your customers – that your store is selling
quality and slightly expensive items. People who want to buy quality products will want to
check out the store once they see the low ambient lighting.

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4.9.2 Lighting for Offices

The following points should be borne in mind while providing the lighting for offices.
1. Task Lighting
For computer work, filing and other focus-intensive tasks, you’ll want a well-defined light
source dedicated to what you are doing. An adjustable or articulated desk lamp can put light
exactly where you need it and support a variety of tasks. If your home office has multiple work
stations – say a desk for computer and phone work, a filing area, and a table for reviewing
photos and layouts – you’ll want dedicated task lighting for each station.
2. Natural Light
Don’t overlook the unique benefit of natural light coming from a window, skylight or other
portal. Sunlight can produce warm lighting that really improves the work environment. On the
other hand, you may need to account for direct sunlight that creates overwhelming glare during
certain times of day. A simple blind or even a standing screen will do a nice job of diffusing
sunlight shining into a window.
3. Accent and Decorative Lighting
As discussed above, most offices will feature ambient lighting that is diffused throughout the
space and task lighting that is focused on specific work stations. Beyond these two functional
lighting types, you may want to add decorative and accent lighting to help improve the visual
character of your office. Accent lighting like mantel or picture lights draw attention to objects
or other elements in the room, while decorative lights—such as wall sconces—provide direct
visual appeal.
4.9.3 Lighting in Schools
Good lighting doesn’t just enable us to see, it affects how we feel.
Children need a creative and stimulating atmosphere in the classroom. Dynamic Lighting helps
them concentrate better and learn more easily. And because every lesson is different, you can
control the light to create exactly the right ambience - whatever the time of day or lesson.
What’s more, research shows that better lighting also improves grades with a significant effect
on learning behaviour.
4.9.4 Lighting for Hospitals
A hospital is a very demanding environment for lighting planning. The wide variety of tasks
being performed demands a number of different lighting solutions e.g. requirements for
examination room, wards, corridors, etc. Different types of lighting are required. New drugs or
treatments are given much attention, while good lighting is down on the priority list – but we
should not underestimate the effects of lighting on human health and wellbeing. In this area
there is still plenty of research to be done before we know the full effects of lighting on human
beings. However, it is not so much what we do not know about health and lighting, it is what
we know. That poor lighting has adverse effects on wellbeing and health and is therefore
counterproductive to the efficient hospital. Since patients do not stay in an examination room
for a long period of time, ceiling-mounted luminaries are the best way of reaching the 500 lux
average. Just like in an intensive-care unit, examination room lamp mounted on a trolley, the

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wall or on the ceiling will add the necessary light for examinations and treatment. A halogen
examination lamp is best suited due to its good colour rendering and focused beam. By using
a multi-beam examination/procedure light, shadows are eliminated. In the intensive-care unit,
just like the ward, up lighters are the best choices for general lighting as they provide evenly
distributed luminance. If specified correctly they will even cover the need for simple
examinations giving a shadow-free light. High-frequency ballasts provide the users with
flicker-free lighting while extending lamp life even more and lowering power consumption.
Dimming may also prove beneficial in lighting the ward.
4.9.5 Lighting for Homes

Lighting in your home is one of those items that you don’t always notice when it has a good
presence and feeling when you’re in the space. Although, when the lighting is poor and you
are trying to perform a task, or you feel the opposite of how you would like to feel in the space,
you notice it immediately. Lighting is for ambiance, aesthetics, tasks, and seeing better in your
home. Think about your home and if it has all the lighting qualities you would like. If your
answer is no, here are some tips on how to choose the perfect lighting for you and your family.

• Determine what your lighting goals are: Direct or task lighting is focused in the
space you are trying to work. Ambient or indirect lighting is used for ambiance and
for overall lighting of a space. Once chosen you can begin to choose lighting
options. Each room in your home should have a mood you want to set, as well as
a function you want your lighting to serve
• Provide lighting for safety and security on the exterior of your home: Walkways,
sidewalks, perimeter of your house, and the front entry should be lit with
ambient lighting. Too dim of lighting on the exterior is a welcome sign for
intruders. While too bright of exterior lighting is costly and disturbing to
neighbours. Consider installing flood lights at the exterior corners of your home that
are motion activated to further deter intruders. Follow the aesthetics and security
lighting of your neighbourhood for further guidelines as to what to implement at your
own home.
• Use exterior wall sconces for décor: Outdoor lighting doesn’t have to only be
utilitarian. Wall sconces can provide washes of light against the exterior walls of
your home to create ambiance in the evening hours. Directional sconces pointing
upwards or downwards can focus on architectural elements on your home, and draw
attention to exterior niches and plantings around your home.
• Inside your home use multiple light sources for one space: For rooms like the
kitchen, bedrooms, and living spaces, multiple light sources will help you achieve a
variety of functions and activities in that space. In the kitchen, under counter lights
can provide great task lighting. While in a living room, opt for a floor lamp next to a
couch or favourite reading chair. In bathrooms the lighting at the mirror should be
free from shadows and glaring light.
• For high ceilings and modern décor use recessed lighting: “Can” light fixtures, so
called because of the metal recessed “can” that is inserted into the ceiling and the light
fixture fits inside. These fixtures are subtle and can be directional, and can be
connected to dimmer switches to give a range of light from subtly dim to full
brightness to illuminate an entire room.
• In nurseries and kid’s rooms, remember night lighting: Think about the lighting
for when children sleep when planning lighting requirements. Night lights can help
small children from being scared, but can also help parents navigate through dark

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rooms. For nurseries consider a dim wall sconce, or table lamp that can be used for
changing diapers, or rocking infants to sleep.
• In formal living and dining areas, research chandeliers wisely: In spaces that a
formal chandelier is considered, choose one that will not date your space. Often time’s
chandeliers are bought without thinking of the space and the décor that surrounds
it. Chandeliers come in extremely simple designs that include faux candles, small
bulbs, or a few lights to the ornate and expensive crystal varieties. Whichever is your
décor choice, measure out the space, and ceiling height before ordering to ensure
enough head room will be available below the hanging chandelier.

Table 4-1 Recommended Illumination Levels

Visual Task at Educational Residential Offices Industries

the type of a Institutions Buildings
building
Required 150-300 100-200 150-300 150-300
Minimum
Illumination
(Lux)

4.10 Selecting a Size of a Chandelier for a Room

If you want to use a chandelier for a room then it shouldn’t be bulky or oversized nor it should
be very small. For selecting a perfect size of a chandelier following thumb-rule can be used
However, the style and visual weight of the chandelier will also affect the size you select. A
visually heavy chandelier can be a little bit smaller while a visually light chandelier can be a
little wider.
A simple way to determine a chandelier size is to add the dimensions of the room together in
feet and then convert the answer to inches. The answer in inches should be equal to the diameter
of the fixture, so if your room measures 10' x 14' the diameter of the fixture should be about
24". Following are the size ranges for different sized rooms:
• If the room is smaller than 10' x 10' the fixture should be 17" to 20" wide.
• If the room is around 12' x 12' the fixture should be 22" to 27" wide.
• If the room is around 14' x 14' the fixture should be 24" to 32" wide.
However, if you're buying a chandelier to hang above a dining table, you'll also have to take
the size of the table into account. The diameter of a dining room chandelier should be about
one-half to two-thirds the width of the table over which it will be hanging.
4.11 Special features required and minimum level of illumination required for
physically handicapped and elderly in building types
• Switches for electric light and power as well as door handles and other fixtures and
fittings should be between 900 mm - 1200 mm from finished floor.
• Power point for general purpose should be fixed between 400-500 mm from the
finished floor.

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4.12 Plumbing System

In the plumbing systems for interior mainly we need to learn about the terminal fixtures. They
are as follows:
4.12.1 Pillar taps

Figure 4-4 Pillar Tap

The pillar tap is a draw off tap with a vertical inlet and an up-tilted or a horizontal free outlet
(Figure 4-4). The pillar taps are made of cast brass and are nickel chromium plated. The taps
must be free from laps, blowholes and pitting. The gland or shifting box is packed with packing
material suitable for cold and hot water. Capstan heads are fitted on squared end of the
spindle. Hot and cold-water taps are suitably indicated on top of the capstan using fire red and
blue colours respectively. Washer plates are provided with a stud for attaching a washer.
The stud is threaded and provided with a nut. The pillar taps are manufactured to
withstand an internal pressure of 2-MPa (2-kg/cm2) maintained for a period of two
minutes, during which period they should not leak.
4.12.2 Bib Tap and Stop Valve
A bib-tap is a draw off tap with a horizontal inlet and free outlet and available in sizes
from 10 mm to 25 mm. A stop valve is a valve with suitable means of connection, for
insertion in a pipeline for controlling or stopping flow and available in all sizes up to 50
mm. Screw down bib tap or stop valve. A bib tap or stop valve closed by means of a disc
carrying a renewable non-metallic washer which shuts against the water pressure on a
seating at right angles to the axis of the threaded spindle which operates it (Figure 4-5).

Figure 4-5 Bib Tap

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Bib-tap and stop valves are made of cast brass. The bodies, bonnets and spindle are machined
to fit properly when assembled. Bib taps are generally brightly polished and nickel chromium
plated. The stop valve mayor may not be polished and or nickel chromium plated. Stop valves
have generally both external and internal threads.
4.12.3 Shower Rose
Shower rose is used for obtaining spray of water from pipe connection for bathing purposes in
bathrooms. Shower rose is made of metal and vitreous China, plastic etc. Shower rose is
manufactured in round or octagonal shape. It is of generally of 100 mm diameter with15
mm diameter inlet. Shower rose has generally 145 holes each of 1.2 mm diameter (Figure
4-6). The shower rose holes should be placed uniform and when fixed at 2.10 m from the

Figure 4-6 Shower Rose

floor and

operated at 3 m pressure should wet an area of 450 mm on the floor.

4.12.4 Mixing Valve
It is an appliance into which hot and cold water entering through separate valve ports are mixed
in a specially formed chamber and then delivered through a single common outlet, the
temperature of the mixed water being controlled through a nominal range by the operation of
a single handle. Mixing valves are normally available in sizes of 15, 20 and 25-nun. The size
of a mixing valve is denoted by the nominal size of the bore of the inlets, which should always
be of equal diameters. The head loss through mixing valve increases with increase in flow rate.
There are three methods in use for temperature control in mixing faucets - manual, pressure
and thermostatic.
In the manual controlled mixing valves, the cold and hot water have a common outlet, the
mixture of waters occurring in the chamber. Manipulating each valve handle as required
controls the temperature. Such faucets are usually satisfactory for bathtubs, kitchen sinks, and
lavatories. A pressure controlled mixing valve is so constructed that a change in pressure on
one side of a movable piston inside the mixing valve will cause the piston to move and increase
the flow from the low pressure supply. Readjustment of pressure may regulate the flow to some
extent and danger from sudden chill or scalding is avoided.

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A thermostatically controlled mixing valve is capable of maintaining a closely controlled

temperature. Such valves are useful in hospitals and in industries and laboratories where sudden
or wide fluctuations of water temperature cannot be tolerated.
The head-loss shall be the difference in pressure at the inlet and outlet connections with the
flow control in the mid-position, that is, between fully open and fully closed positions.
4.12.5 Aerated Faucets
Aerators reduce the water coming through the faucets by mixing it with air. The aerator acts as
a sieve, sending a separating a single flow of water into many tiny streams. This introduces the
air into the water flow. Also, because there is less space for the water to flow through, the water
flow is reduced. However, the water pressure is maintained, which is why most people don't
notice a difference in the amount of water coming out of an aerated faucet. Since the water is
passing through a reduced area by an aerator, it may even increase the water pressure in a
faucet.
4.13 Heating Ventilation Air Conditioning (HVAC) System

HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning) is the technology of indoor

environmental comfort. HVAC system design is a major sub discipline of mechanical
engineering, based on the principles of thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer.

HVAC is important in the design of medium to large industrial and office buildings such
as skyscrapers where, safe and healthy building conditions are regulated with respect to
temperature and humidity, using fresh air from outdoors.

The three central functions of heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning are interrelated,
especially with the need to provide thermal comfort and acceptable indoor air quality
within reasonable installation, operation, and maintenance costs. HVAC systems can
provide ventilation, reduce air infiltration, and maintain pressure relationships between
spaces. How air is delivered to, and removed from spaces is known as room air
distribution.

The starting point in carrying out a heat estimate both for cooling and heating will depend
on the ambient and inside conditions specified. However before taking up the heat load
calculation, it is necessary to find fresh air requirements for each area in detail, as
pressurization is an important consideration.

4.13.1 Ventilation

It may be defined as supply of outside fresh air in to an enclosed space or the removal of
inside air from the enclosed space. Ventilation may be achieved either by natural or
artificial means.

Ventilation is necessary for the following reasons:

• For human respiration;

• To dilute inside air to reduce body heat and odours;

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• To remove products of combustion;

• To remove any contaminants in air;

• To provide thermal environment to assist in the maintenance of the heat balance of the body
in order to prevent discomfort and injury to the health of the occupants;

• To prevent suffocation conditions in conference rooms, committee halls, cinema halls etc.

4.13.2 Functional Requirements of Ventilation

Table 4-2 Relative Humidity, Climate and Measures Adopted

Ventilation system provided for any building should meet the following functional
requirements from the viewpoint of human comfort:-

(a) Humidity: Air contains certain amount of water vapour or humidity in it. Relative
humidity is the amount of water vapour in a mixture of air and water vapour; specifically, it is
the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapour in the air-water mixture to the saturated
vapour pressure of water at the prescribed temperature. For climate control in buildings
using HVAC systems, the key is to maintain the relative humidity at a comfortable range - low
enough to be comfortable but high enough to avoid problems associated with very dry air.

Thus, the relative humidity of saturated air is 100 per cent. Relative humidity within the
range of 30 to 70 percent at the working temperature of 21°C is considered to be desirable.
For higher temperatures, low humidity and greater air movements are necessary for removing
greater portion of heat from the body. (Table 4-2)

In hot periods, the human body gives out moisture by way of perspiration to regulate its
temperature. There is no discomfort as long as there is scope for absorption of such moisture
in the air. Movement of air during such conditions removes saturated air from the vicinity of
the body and brings fresh air into its contact. This gives relief although there may not be any
change in room temperature. Therefore, air movement and the use of prevailing wind are very
important during periods of high humidity.

(b) Quality of Air: The air in habitable rooms should never contain more than 0.06 per
cent of CO2, This can be achieved by proper ventilation.

(c) Effective Temperature: The general temperature difference between inside and
outside is kept not more than 8oC. The effective temperature, that affects the human body,
is an index, which combines into a single value, the effect of air movement, humidity and
temperature. This is a temperature at which a person will experience sensation of some

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degree of cold or warmth as in quiet air fully saturated (i.e. 100% humidity) at the same
temperature. The common values of effective temperatures in winter and summer are
20°C and 22°C respectively. (Table 4-3)

Dry bulb temperature is the temperature that is usually thought of as air temperature, and it
is the true thermodynamic temperature. It is the temperature measured by a regular
thermometer exposed to the airstream.

The wet-bulb temperature is the lowest temperature that can be reached under current
ambient conditions by the evaporation of water only; it is the temperature felt when the
skin is wet and exposed to moving air. Wet-bulb temperature is largely determined by both
actual air temperature (dry-bulb temperature) and humidity, the amount of moisture in the air.
Table 4-3 Dry Bulb Temperature and Humidity

Refer Table 4-3.

(d) Air Changes (or Air Movement) per Hour: Air changes per hour are a measure of
how many times the air within a defined space (normally a room or house) is replaced.
The volume of outside air allowed into a room in one hour compared with the volume of the
room. Where people are working or living, in an enclosed space, air has to be moved or changed
to cause proper ventilation. The minimum rate of air change is one (1) per hour while the
maximum rate of air change is sixty (60) per hour. Air change per hour is the volume of outside
air allowed in the room or enclosed space per hour compared to the volume of the room.

(e) Recommended Values of Air Changes: The standard values of air changes are based on
control of body odour or the removal of products of combustion when no other contaminants
are present in the air.

• Living room and bedrooms - six air-changes per hour;

• Kitchen - Minimum three air-changes to remove steam, heat, and smell and fumes
generated in cooking and to prevent excessive rise of temperature and humidity.

• Kitchens - restaurant - Minimum twelve air-changes;

• Bathroom and water closets - minimum six air changes desirable after use; and

• Passages - no need as it is open

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Heat Balance of the Body:

The prime need for ventilation is to provide fresh air and to maintain heat balance of body
to prevent discomfort and injury to health. The excess heat might be either from increased
metabolism, due to physical activities, or gain from a hot environment has to be offset to
maintain normal body temperature (37°C). Heat exchange of the human body with respect
to surroundings is determined by temperature and humidity gradient between the skin
and surroundings, and therefore depends on air temperature (dry bulb temperature),
relative humidity (or wet bulb temperature), radiation from the surroundings and air
movement (Table 4-4).

Table 4-4 Relation Between Wet Bulb and Dry Bulb Temperature

The volume of outside air to be circulated through the room is, therefore, governed by the
physical considerations controlling the temperature, air distribution or air movement.
Air distribution and air movement may, however, be achieved by re-circulation of the inside
air rather than outside air. However, fresh air supply or the circulated air reduce heat stress
by dissipating heat from body by evaporation of the sweat particularly when relative humidity
is high and the air temperature is below or near body temperature.
4.13.3 Systems of Ventilation

There are two systems by which desired ventilation can be obtained -natural and artificial.
Natural ventilation is one in which ventilation is effected by the elaborate use of doors,
windows, ventilators and skylights. It is suitable for residential buildings and small houses.

Artificial ventilation is the one, in which some mechanical arrangements are made to
increase the rate of airflow. This system is more useful for large buildings, assemblies,
theatres etc. It involves the use of some mechanical equipment offering effective air
circulation. The following systems are normally used -

Extraction system, plenum system, extraction - plenum and air-conditioning.

Natural Ventilation: The rate of ventilation by natural means through windows or other
openings depends on --

• Direction and velocity of wind outside;

• Size and disposition of openings (wind action);

• Convection effects arising from temperature or vapour pressure difference (or both) between
inside and outside the room; and

• Difference of height between the outlet and inlet openings (stack effect).

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4.13.4 General Rules for Natural Ventilation

The following rules are broadly followed for obtaining the efficient natural ventilation:-
• Inlet opening in the building should be well distributed and should be located on the windward
side at a low level and outlet openings should be located on the leeward side near the top. When
outlets serve also as inlets, they should be located at the same level.
• Inlet openings should be free from all obstructions - trees, buildings, signboards etc;
• Greatest flow per unit area of openings can be achieved when inlet and outlet openings are
equal in areas;
• Openings may be arranged to take advantage of constant and dependable stream of wind. In
case of variable wind direction, openings have to be provided in all directions;
• Natural ventilation occurs by stack effect when air inside a building is at a different
temperature than air outside. Thus in buildings where hot processes are carried on, the outside
air will tend to enter through openings at lower level and warm air will tend to leave through
openings at higher level.
• The amount of outside air entering by natural infiltration through doors /windows and other
openings depends on direction and velocity of wind outside and/or convection effects arising
from temperature or vapour pressure difference (or both) between inside and outside of the
workroom.

Amount of Fresh Air Required:

When the sources of heat gain namely, transmission, heat from sun, heat given off by machines,
occupants and other sources are known and the temperature-rise (difference of exit temperature
and the temperature of air at the inlet openings), which would be acceptable, is determined in
advance, the amount of outside air required by mechanical ventilation for the removal of heat
in m3/hour may be calculated from –
𝟑.𝟒𝟔𝟐 𝒙 𝒌𝒔
𝑸= Equation 4-6
𝑻

Where Q = Quantity of fresh air required in m3/hour;

Ks= Sensible heat gained in Kcal/hour;

T = Temperature-rise allowable in degree C.

If latent heat gained from moisture given off by men and other sources is also known, as
acceptable rise in vapour pressure is determined in advance, then-

𝟒𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝒌𝑳
𝑸= Equation 4-7
𝒉

Where Q = Quantity of air, m3/hour;

KL = Latent heat gained in Kcal/hour, and

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h = Vapour pressure difference allowable in mm of mercury.

Sensible heat is heat exchanged by a body thermodynamic system that has as its sole effect a
change of temperature.

The term is used in contrast to a latent heat, which is the amount of heat exchanged that is
hidden, meaning it occurs without change of temperature. For example, during a phase change
such as the melting of ice, the temperature of the system containing the ice and the liquid is
constant until all ice has melted.

Temperature in which extraction (exhaust) fans are used for the exit of the vitiated air from the
room and fresh air supplied through system.

4.13.5 Evaporative Cooling

Evaporative cooling is used in the regions where high day-temperatures prevail with reasonably
low humidity. This system may be employed effectively to lower the temperature of the air to
near the wet bulb temperature. It produces an air supply cool enough to take care of the indoor
sensible heat loads without exceeding the upper safe limits.

By positive ventilation this air may be supplied to produce cooler environments with lower air
volume than would be normally required. Although the relative humidity of supply of air will
be increased but due to the large sensible heat loads the resultant relative humidity of the air
will be sufficiently lowered after mixing with the inside air to produce body cooling.

Evaporative cooling with positive ventilation using central system consisting of a water-spray
chamber and a fan to supply outside air into the area of occupancy through a distribution duct
is preferable to spray head system, which will humidify the air within space. The cooling
capacity of the air will be improved very little, and none of the air that absorbs the heat given
off by men and machine and other sources is removed from buildings under these
circumstances.

4.13.6 Air Conditioning

It is the process of treating air so as to control simultaneously its temperature, humidity, purity
and distribution to meet the requirement of the conditioned space. Willis Haviland Carrier
(1876- 1950) who is known as the 'Father of Air Conditioning' engineered and installed the
first year-round air-conditioning system, providing for the major functions of heating, cooling,
humidifying and dehumidifying. He made use of air-washers for controlling the dew point of
air by heating or chilling re-circulated water. Carrier presented 'Rational Psychometric
Formulae' related to the dry bulb, wet bulb and dew point temperature of air with its sensible,
latent and total heats, and presented a theory of adiabatic saturation.

Moist air is the working substance in air-conditioning system. It is a mixture of two gases –
dry air and water vapour. Dry air is a mixture of a number of gases and water vapour may exist
in a saturated or superheated state. Dry air is considered as fixed part and the water vapour is
considered as the variable part. As both dry air and water vapour can be considered as perfect
gases since both exist in the atmosphere at low pressure, perfect gas laws can be applied to
them individually.

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Therefore, the air conditioning system must be able to vary the temperature and humidity of
the conditioned space according to the outside conditions. That means -

• In hot-arid regions it must reduce temperature and Increase humidity;

• In hot-humid regions, reduce both temperature and humidity;

• In cold-humid regions, increase temperature and reduce humidity; and

• In cold-dry regions, increase both temperature and humidity.

4.13.7 Systems of Air Conditioning

All air conditioning system can be broadly classified in two categories - Direct expansion (DX)
systems and chilled water (indirect) system.

Direct Expansion System:

It is the system where the refrigerant is utilized to cool the air directly. The term "expansion"
refers to the method used to introduce the refrigerant into the cooling coil. The liquid refrigerant
passes through an expansion device (usually a valve) just before entering the cooling coil (the
evaporator). This expansion device reduces the pressure and temperature of the refrigerant to
the point where it is colder than the air passing through the coil. The components of the DX
unitary system refrigeration loop (evaporator, compressor, condenser, expansion device and
even some unit controls) may be packaged together, which provides for factory assembly and
testing of all components, including the electrical wiring, the refrigerant piping, and the
controls. This is called a Packaged DX system.

The common examples are room air conditioners, packaged units, and central direct expansion
plants.

Working of Room Air-conditioner

An air conditioning system, or a standalone air conditioner, provides cooling, ventilation, and
humidity control for all or part of a house or building.

Figure 4-7 Working of Window Air-Conditioner

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The refrigeration cycle uses four essential elements to create a cooling effect. (Figure 4-7)
The system refrigerant starts its cycle in a gaseous state. The compressor pumps the
refrigerant gas up to a high pressure and temperature. From there it enters a heat
exchanger (sometimes called a "condensing coil" or condenser) where it loses energy
(heat) to the outside. In the process the refrigerant condenses into a liquid. The liquid
refrigerant is returned indoors to another heat exchanger ("evaporating coil" or
evaporator). A metering device allows the liquid to flow in at a low pressure at the proper
rate. As the liquid refrigerant evaporates it absorbs energy (heat) from the inside air,
returns to the compressor, and repeats the cycle. In the process heat is absorbed from
indoors and transferred outdoors, resulting in cooling of the building.

In variable climates, the system may include a reversing valve that automatically switches from
heating in winter to cooling in summer. By reversing the flow of refrigerant, the heat pump
refrigeration cycle is changed from cooling to heating or vice versa. This allows a space to be
heated and cooled by a single piece of equipment, by the same means, and with the same
hardware. A ton of refrigeration (commonly abbreviated as RT) is a unit of power used to
describe the heat-extraction capacity of refrigeration and air conditioning equipment. It
is defined as the latent heat absorbed by melting a short ton of pure ice at 0°C (32°F) in
24 hours. It is equivalent to the consumption of one ton of ice per day and originated
during the transition from stored natural ice to mechanical refrigeration.
A refrigeration ton is approximately equivalent to 12,000 BTU per hour or 3,517 watts.
Other features are as follows: -
• Purifying filters and de-odouring filters are just some examples of the extra filters provided
to for the better performance and capacity to these filters. The function of the main filter
is mainly to protect several components inside the system, of large particles that may get
inside the appliance and damage it.
• The constant humming sounds of the AC, even if not very loud (between 44dB to 51dB);
can be quite annoying to the ear.
• While installing an air-conditioner (whether split or room AC), its place of installation is an
important criterion, which affects the performance of the air conditioner. An AC should be
installed as high above the room floor level as possible. This is because cold air tends to
settle at the bottom, and if an AC is installed at a good height, it will allow-the air released
from the AC to cool the entire room (from top-down), whereas if an AC is installed at floor
level, the cold air will settle at the bottom from the start, leaving the upper portions of the room
rather hot.
• An AC should optimally distribute air with the same air speed and temperature at all
directions of the room. This allows for even cooling of the room. An AC should be located
on shady side of the house or building and direct sunlight does not fall on AC as this reduces
its efficiency. An AC should be protected from dust and rain.
• When you expect to stay home throughout the day, and a hot day is expected, turn on the air
conditioner early rather than waiting for the building to become hot.
• If your AC has adjustable louvers, adjust them towards the ceiling.

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A split air-conditioning system has a coil and fan inside the room and the noisier components
(the compressor, fan and condenser) are on the outside. Split air-conditioners are slightly more
expensive to buy and install, but they are much quieter on the inside, more versatile than
conventional types, and if you need air conditioning in more than one room, some models have
an outside unit that can supply two or more fan/coil units on the inside.

Indirect Expansion (Centralized Air Conditioning System)

In this system chilled water is produced in the refrigeration plant housed in the main plant
room. Chilled water is then carried through insulated chilled water piping to air handling unit
or fan-coil unit, where the return air and the fresh-air mixture is filtered, cooled and
dehumidified and then distributed to the conditioned space through galvanised iron and
aluminium ducting and grills/diffusers. The return air is brought back to the air-handling unit
through the annular space formed around the supply air duct and the false ceiling enclosure.
Here it is mixed with the fresh air or ventilation air and then passed through the filters and the
cooling coil.

There are two types of systems in common use - using air for heating and cooling and
using water and air. The former includes fixed and variable-air-volume systems while the
latter include combined system using air for ventilation along with coils at such zone for
heating and cooling. There are many combinations of these systems, but an understanding of a
few basic systems will permit the proper design of hybrids of the basic system. The central
air conditioning system consists of four main parts: - central plant; distribution system;
terminal devices and controls.

In a fixed volumetric flow rate air system of heating and cooling, an outside fresh air flows

Figure 4-8 Flow Diagram for Centralized Air-Conditioning System

through the filter, cooling coil, heating coil, humidifier and fan to the conditioned space. It has
a large capacity plant located at the basement of a large building and supplies conditioned air
through a system of ducts to the entire building. The system is more useful for factories, hotels,
assembly halls and big residential buildings where it is uneconomical to install separate units
for each room. Refer Figure 4-8.

The main components of this system are the same as direct expansion system but a chiller is
the additional item. The system has the following components---

• Compressor (reciprocating or re-circulating);

• Condenser (mostly water-cooled);

• Chillers (direct expansion or flooded type);

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• Air handling unit with chilled water coil and/or fan coil unit or chilled water air washers;

• Cooling tower;

• Chilled water and condenser water pump sets;

• Air distribution ducting and grills.

4.13.8 Estimation of Tonnage Size of Air Conditioner for a Room

If you buy an AC with a higher than required capacity, you will end up paying more for the
purchase, besides getting large power bills. When buying an AC, consider size of your room,
tonnage of the air conditioning unit, the direction of your window, the energy that it will
consume. There are two methods of calculating A.C. tonnage. One is areas method and the
other is volume method. The volume method is more precise as you take the height of your
room in addition to area so complete volume to be cooled is considered.
Area Method: To calculate, multiply the length and breadth of the room (in feet), take square-
root of the answer and divide by 10. The resulting number will give the desired tonnage.
Volume Method: Alternatively, multiply the length, breadth and height of a room (in feet).
Divide the answer by 1000. This is the tonnage required.
Smaller ton will continuously run in a larger area as it will take time to cool. This will
increase your electric bill with minimal cooling effectiveness. A larger ton AC can cool
quickly but causes a sticky and clammy feeling. This is because an air conditioner also
removes moisture from the air. This takes time. If the AC doesn't run long enough, the
moisture does not get extracted properly and causes the sogginess.
Few points to be remembered while selecting tonnage of A.C.:
• You can increase the tonnage by half ton or more if :
• the rooms are exposed to direct sunlight
• there are more people in the room than normal
• if the room is located on the topmost floor
• if room is located near kitchen
• outside temperature is more than normal
• Outdoor units must be installed
• in areas not exposed to rain or sunlight

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Unit 5 Furniture and Decorative Elements

5.1 Introduction
After setting the right environment the last but not the least component of interior design is the
selection of right furniture and decorative elements. Numerous options are available in physical
and online stores for furniture and these decorative elements. One gets lost while selecting
these items and obviously confused because of this state of mind. However, selecting the right
furniture and decorative elements is essential for your room in order to avoid a mismatch with
the theme and your functional requirements and ultimately these items become redundant or
out of theme looking very odd.
5.1.1 Factors Affecting Selection of Furniture
Following factors can be remembered while selecting the right furniture for your room:
The factors considered in selection of furniture in general are the comfort, expressiveness,
style, beauty, utility, scale and construction.
Functional Utility
The furniture requirements of every room should be carefully studied and planned. Before
making the final purchase, their utility should be analysed in terms of the space available and
their functional utility.
Furniture unit usually built against a wall makes the most economical use of space within a
room and simplifies cleaning. Storage compartments designed within the furniture can be great
space savers. For instances beds may have drawers underneath, useful for storing blankets,
linen/other articles. Occasionally tables often include space for magazines, books, and lift-up
tops can be used to store toys, needlework etc.
The most utilitarian furniture procurable is the modem furniture units consisting of cupboards,
shelves, tables, radio, Television, music systems Hi-Fi recorders, cabinets, desks etc, following
units designed to fit into a compact, group. The unit should be in line with architectural features,
which gives an effect of the pleasing conti-nuity, simplicity and orderliness.
Balance and scale
The actual dimensions of a piece of furniture are basic in determining its scale and proportions,
the way it is designed can sometimes have suitable effects in providing comfort and
aesthetically pleasant. A room where most of the furniture is squeezed into one area looks un-
balanced.
Comfort
The next most important consideration while selecting a piece of furniture is comfort. The
liveability of a home depends largely on its comfortable furniture items and furnishings. The
ready-made furniture available in the market is according to certain standard measurement,
considering the average population. People who are larger or smaller inbuilt than the average
population standards, needs to go in for customer made or ergonomically designed furniture,
which are presently in vogue. Comfort in furniture depends on shape, size, design, materials
used, the finish and the workmanship. Upholstered furniture’s are more comfortable than the
basic ones.
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Expressiveness
The theme of the room limits the choice of furniture. For example, a cottage style expresses
informality, comfort and simplicity and calls for furniture of the same characteristics. Some of
the ideas that are expressed in homes consciously or unconsciously –repose, naturalness,
sophistication, formality, coolness, delicacy, strength, freshness, antiquity etc. Formal drawing
room may include sofa set with coffee table, a rocking chair and a few other furniture items
like display units, television, music systems etc. A room with potted plants and large natural
flower arrangements may express freshness. Use of glass and plastics may look modern,
whereas carved antique and heavy upholstered furniture gives a gorgeous look.
Style
Sometimes furniture’s are bought because they represent certain styles. The three possible
choices of style can generally be grouped as period/cottage, modern and abstract. The style of
construction of the house should also be kept in mind while selecting the furniture style. If the
house is constructed in a cottage style, the furniture items used in such a house should also be
of the same style. For example, divan has become an important piece of furniture with bolsters
and cushions and one or two piris or low stools adorning the living room gives an appeal of
traditional/ cottage style. Along with Indian colour schemes, these houses present a decor-
typically Indian. Modular spaces saving furniture with moulded or folded furniture are well
suited for modern homes, which are known for comfort, space saving and good built in storage
units.
Beauty
One general rule to follow as a guide in the selection of furniture is simplicity which is the
better choice in the long run. Simplicity should be the thumb rule in the selection of beautiful
furniture items along with comfort, expressiveness and style. Simple furniture items are easy
to maintain, beautiful, and functional. Modern styles of furniture are simple, beautiful and easy
to maintain. Antique and heavily carved furniture are appreciated for their beauty, but collects
dust easily and needs a regular dusting and maintenance.
Firmness and rigidity
Firmness depends largely on how the different parts are joined. The legs and frame should be
fastened together with glue and also with the dowels, screws, steel clips, and corner metal
plates. These joints should not break or make creaky noise when the furniture is put to use. The
joints in wood are of various types. Mortise and tenon or dowel are the two common types of
joints that are widely used in furniture construction.
5.2 Use of Moulded and Folding Furniture for Interior Design
In metro cities in India the prices of real estate are soaring like anything. Therefore, many a
times clients’ major part of the budget is utilised in purchasing the property and in spite of that
they have settle at the smaller spaces than their expectations. In such cases for both the reasons
of space saving and budget saving a multi-purpose furniture or a moulded and folded furniture
is required to be designed on a customer made basis.

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The examples of the multi-functional furniture are Kitchen Cabinet with its door as folding
dining table, wardrobe with its door as bed, Kitchen platform having folding dining table at its
front side, study cabinet or book rack with its folding door as writing table, and many more.
The following points should be considered while designing the multi-purpose moulded and
folded furniture:
1) The design of such furniture should be space saving.
2) It should cater at least two different functions.
3) It should be attractive.
4) It should be economical.
5) It should have portability, that is it can be used if the home is changed.
6) It should be strong and durable.
7) It should be safe to use and should not be a cause for accidents.
5.3 False Ceiling
5.3.1 Introduction
As the name suggests, it is the false or secondary ceiling under the main or actual ceiling. False
Ceilings are now a latest trend for the ceiling and many builders offer at the time of selling the
new homes. Normally, for the living room and bedrooms false ceilings are provided.
5.3.2 Necessity of False Ceiling
False ceilings are provided to conceal different kinds of wirings very well – electrical wiring,
network cables, lighting fixtures, ducts and pipes meant for cooling and heating devices,
sprinklers and so on.
5.3.3 Types of False Ceiling Based on Materials Used
• Plaster of Paris false ceilings
• Gypsum false ceilings.
• Wooden false ceilings.
• Fibre false ceilings.
• Metal false ceilings.
• Glass false ceilings.
• PVC false ceilings.
• Fabric and synthetic leather false ceilings.
Plaster of Paris (PoP) False Ceiling:
The POP’s full form is plaster of Paris and it is nothing but gypsum. POP is one of the popular
false ceiling materials used to design the ceiling area. This material is available in powder form
in the market which can be used to make a paste and applied on wooden board and fibre board
with desired shape and design. POP material is highly durable and provides good insulation
against cold and heat in the room. The false ceiling made from POP looks very appealing and
attractive after proper lighting and paintwork.
Pros:
• POP ceiling is 20-30% cheaper compare to Gypsum board ceiling.

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• It is a highly durable material with minimum wear and tears during a life period
• They can be easily molded in any shape.
Cons
• POP material needs high skill to use and apply to the ceiling to give desired shape and
design.
• The extra quantity of POP is required to prepare because there is not possible to
calculate the exact quantity.
• It created a messy place where it is used.
Gypsum False Ceiling
Gypsum board consists of a core of set gypsum surfaced with specifically manufactured paper
firmly bonded to the core. It is designed to be used without the addition of plaster on walls,
ceilings, or partitions and provides a surface suitable to receive either paint or paper. Gypsum
Board is one of the widely used construction materials mainly in interior design works. Gypsum
Board is used as surface material and its applications are prominent in wall and ceiling
construction. The gypsum board has superior properties like fire resistance, soundproof and
lightweight it is used as drywall. It is an excellent construction material for wall, ceiling, and
partition walls in residential and commercial structures. The gypsum board comes in some
standard sizes like 600 mm x 600 mm. They are placed as tiles on a metal frame that is hanging
from the original ceiling.
Pros
The installation is really simple and easy.
It gives a seamless appearance because it is fixed to the original ceiling without too many metal
fixtures.
They are manufactured in factories; hence their quality and strength are excellent.
Cons:
The major disadvantages are that it is easily affected by moisture and water.
Wooden False Ceiling
Wood is one of the most used and popular interior and exterior decoration materials. Wood can
be used to create a beautiful false ceiling for your room. Its main benefit is that it can be cut in
any shape and size before being used. Wood is an excellent building material that can be used
in combination with other materials like gypsum, glass, metal, etc. The wood comes in form of
hollow bricks boards and panels to be used as false ceiling materials. It is also available in
different finishes such as natural varnished, laminated, lacquers, and melamine.
Pros:
• Wooden panels are available in various patterns and designs.
• It can be painted as you want.
• It is suitable for cold climate conditions.

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• The wood can in fitted to the ceiling with the help of nails and screws. So, the
installation process of wood ceilings is easy compared to others.
• A ceiling made with good quality wood is durable and last long for years.
Cons
• It is not eco-friendly
• The wooden ceiling is costlier compared to other ceiling materials.
• Its maintenance cost is also high.
• Wood is susceptible to termite attack.
PVC False Ceiling
PVC full form is Polyvinyl Chloride is one of light weighted and cost effect false ceiling
materials used by homeowners. PVC panels are also used as exterior wall cladding of
residential and commercial buildings. PVC is a strong plastic material and since it is
manufactured in a factory, the finished surface is seamless. It can be any manufactured desired
shape and size according to requirement. PVC material is extremely water-resistant which
makes it is the perfect solution for water leakage problems from the ceiling. It is lightweight,
termite-proof, and needs very minimal maintenance compared to other false ceiling types.
Pros:
• PVC ceilings are strong and durable material. It can be used for many years without
any significant wear and tear.
• PVC panel are flexible and non-brittle nature which is make its handling easy without
breakage.
• It cost effective ceiling compared to other materials.
• Its installation is easy and fast, also does not make place messy with materials.
Cons:
• PVC ceiling is give plastic appearance which may not good for nature lovers.
• Joint sometimes visible between panels.
• It is easily damaged due to heat as it is plastic materials.
Metal False Ceiling
A metal false ceiling is made of steel, aluminium, or galvanized iron. The metal false ceiling
is available in form of panels, planks, and ceiling tiles. The metal false ceiling is easy to install
as it components are prefabricated. The metal ceiling panels are manufactured in different sizes
and shapes for ceiling work. They are fixed on a steel metal grid which is supported by a cross
or T section hung from the ceiling roof. It is the most durable and long-lasting material
compared to others. The thickness of metal panels is generally in the range of 0.4 mm to 1 mm
used for false ceiling work. The metal surface coating is in the form of power which is utilized
in aluminium and steel false ceilings. The shape of metal panels used for the false ceiling is
square type or plank type or perforated type.
Pros:

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• Metal false ceilings are highly durable materials that offer good wear and tear resistance
during the utility periods.
• The metal false ceilings are highly resistant to fire. Therefore, it is the best choice for
commercial and office buildings.
• They keep their original shapes during the utility period. Its maintenances cost is less
compared to others.
Cons:
• They are costlier
• They require protective coating
Glass False Ceiling
Glass is one of the popular false ceiling materials used in the world. The glass material is non-
crystalline and has brittle and transparent properties. It is popularly used for decoration and
lighting work in the home. As it has good heat insulation properties is used for false ceilings
for office and residential buildings. Glass is available in different shapes, sizes, and colours
which makes it the most versatile material used in the construction industry. Because of its
transparent nature, it makes smaller spaces looker bigger in size. Glass is used in form of panels
which is a better ceiling solution for restaurants, offices, libraries, etc.
Pros:
• Create an illusion of a small room that looks bigger.
• Heat and moisture resistant.
• Offer a premium appearance to the space.
Cons:
• Its handling work is difficult because with small mistakes they get a break.
• Its installation requires special fixtures and skilled labour work.
• Glass panel needs regular cleaning as it gets affected by dust.
Fibre False Ceiling
The fibre false ceiling material is made by mixing synthetic and natural materials like tars,
vegetable fibre, and bitumen and wood fibres. It is popularly known for its excellent insulation
properties like soundproofing and acoustic nature. Because fibre works as reinforcement, it
gains the properties like hardness, toughness, and resistance to fire that is make it a highly
recommended false ceiling material for commercial buildings such as retail shops, shopping
malls, and offices.
Pros:
• Provide better acoustic and sound insulation.
• Resistance to fire is excellent.
• It is strong and durable material.
Cons:
• It gets damages by water and moisture easy.

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• It required regular maintenance.

Fabric and Synthetic Material False Ceiling
For making the false ceiling of fabric and synthetic, the most popular materials used are cloth
and leather. As the materials are manufactured in factories, they can be made with the required
shape and size. The ceiling made with fabric and synthetic materials gives an excellent visual
appearance. Its light transferring properties are quite low compared to others and also can get
easily affected by dust, it is only recommended for temporary building and tents false ceiling
work.
Pros:
• Its installation process is fast and does not require any specialist work for that.
• Its false ceiling is aesthetically appealing.
Cons:
• It is easily affected by dust and moisture.
• It is recommended for temporary work.
5.4 Decorative Wall Panels
Decorative wall panels are a great way to add colour, texture and depth into a simple space and
give it an extraordinary transformation. These wall panels can be made of various materials
like MDF, glass, vinyl, fabric, PVC and so on. are the perfect way to introduce a visual focus
in your room. They are available in a range of sizes, these panels are installed directly onto
your wall. Typically made of waterproof fibreboard, these are then overlaid with paper,
laminate or fabric of choice — resulting in a wide selection of colours, finishes, patterns and
motifs. As a wall treatment option well-suited for Indian homes, decorative wall panels offer
unique advantages over other choices.
5.4.1 Following are some of the advantages of decorative wall panels
• They are easy to install
• They provide enhanced aesthetics
• They hide the uneven wall surfaces
• They hide the seepages and fungi on the wall
• They conceal electrical cables
• They are reusable
5.5 Artifact and other Miscellaneous Decorative Elements
5.5.1 Importance of Art Elements in Interior Design
Art can either make or break a room, so it is important to understand the role art plays in any
space, whether it be your living room or a work office. Many designers use art in the form of
paintings, murals, sculptures, and other artifacts to help achieve a variety of things such as, to
tell a story, add life to a space or to create a focal point.
One of the most effective ways to elevate the quality of your everyday life is to incorporate art
into your home or workspace. The size of an artwork is also very important to consider, as art

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that is too small could be overwhelmed by the room, and art that is too big could overwhelm
the room.
They are important for the following reasons:
• Art Provides An Colour Palette
• Art makes a room feel finished
• Adds Texture to a Space
• Adds aesthetics to a space
5.5.2 Benefits of having Art Elements in Interior Design
• Art allows people to express their personality and their beliefs.
• Art encourages dialogue and inspires our imaginations. Especially, children are
fascinated by art, as it can expand their perceptions of reality and teach them how to be
creative.
• Art improves the quality of our lives and our living spaces. It adds warmth and texture
to your space.
• Art lets us think about new ideas, explore and experience new perspectives in life. It
helps us take a moment away from our busy lives.
5.5.3 Types of Artifact
There are variety of artifacts those can be used in interior decoration. Some of them are as
follows:
• Theme painting for specific rooms
• Murals in copper or wood
• Digital Paintings
• Small models of waterfalls
• Digital waterfalls
• Handicrafts
• Pebbles
• Bids
• Artificial gems, etc.

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