``````Personality Theories in Psychology

Defining Personality
While personality is something that we talk about all the time ("He has such a great personality!"
or "Her personality is perfect for this job!"), you might be surprised to learn that psychologists
do not necessarily agree on a single definition of what exactly constitutes personality.
Personality is broadly described as the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
that make a person unique. In plain English, it is what makes you you.
Researchers have found while some external factors can influence how certain traits are
expressed, personality originates within the individual. While a few aspects of personality may
change as we grow older, personality also tends to remain fairly consistent throughout life.8
Because personality plays such an important role in human behavior, an entire branch of
psychology is devoted to studying this fascinating topic. Personality psychologists are interested
in the unique characteristics of individuals and similarities among groups of people.
Characteristics of Personality
To understand the psychology of personality, it is important to learn some of the key
characteristics of how personality works.9

 Personality is organized and consistent. We tend to express certain aspects of our

personality in different situations, and our responses are generally stable.
 Although personality is generally stable, it can be influenced by the environment.
For example, while your personality might make you shy in social situations, an
emergency might lead you to take on a more outspoken and take-charge approach.
 Personality causes behaviors to happen. You react to the people and objects in your
environment based on your personality. From your personal preferences to your career
choice, every aspect of your life is affected by your personality.

Investigating Personality Theories

Now that you know a bit more about the basics of personality, it's time to take a closer look at
how scientists actually study human personality. There are different techniques that are used in
the study of personality. Each technique has its own strengths and weaknesses.
Experimental Methods
Experimental methods are those in which the researcher controls and manipulates the variables
of interest and takes measures of the results. This is the most scientific form of research, but
experimental research can be difficult when studying aspects of personality such as motivations,
emotions, and drives.
These ideas are internal, abstract, and can be difficult to measure. The experimental method
allows researchers to look at cause-and-effect relationships between different variables of
interest.
Case Studies
Case studies and self-report methods involve the in-depth analysis of an individual as well as
information provided by the individual. Case studies rely heavily on the interpretations of the
observer, while self-report methods depend on the memory of the individual of interest.
Because of this, these methods tend to be highly subjective and it is difficult to generalize the
findings to a larger population.
Clinical Research
Clinical research relies upon information gathered from clinical patients over the course of
treatment. Many personality theories are based on this type of research, but because the research
subjects are unique and exhibit abnormal behavior, this research tends to be highly subjective
and difficult to generalize.
Key Terms to Know About Personality Theories
In addition to understanding some of the major theories of personality psychology, it is important
to know more about some of the key terms and concepts that are central to these theories.
Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a behavioral training technique that begins with a naturally occurring
stimulus eliciting an automatic response. Then, a previously neutral stimulus is paired with the
naturally occurring stimulus.
Eventually, the previously neutral stimulus comes to evoke the response without the presence of
the naturally occurring stimulus. The two elements are then known as the conditioned stimulus
and the conditioned response.
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is a behavior training technique in which reinforcements or punishments
are used to influence behavior. An association is made between a behavior and a consequence for
that behavior.
Unconscious
In Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality, the unconscious mind is a reservoir of feelings,
thoughts, urges, and memories that are outside of our conscious awareness. Most of the contents
of the unconscious are unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict.
According to Freud, the unconscious mind continues to influence our behavior and experiences,
even though we are unaware of these underlying influences.10
Id
According to Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality, the id is the personality component
made up of unconscious psychic energy that works to satisfy basic urges, needs, and desires. The
id operates based on the pleasure principle, which demands immediate gratification of needs.
Ego
According to Freud, the ego is the largely unconscious part of the personality that mediates the
demands of the id, the superego, and reality. The ego prevents us from acting on our basic urges
(created by the id) but also works to achieve a balance with our moral and idealistic standards
(created by the superego).
Superego
The superego is the component of personality composed of our internalized ideals that we have
acquired from our parents and from society. The superego works to suppress the urges of the id
and tries to make the ego behave morally, rather than realistically.
Thinkers Behind Personality Theories
Some of the most famous figures in the history of psychology left a lasting mark on the field of
personality. Learning more about the lives, theories, and contributions to the psychology of these
eminent psychologists can help one better understand the different personality theories.11
Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was the founder of psychoanalytic theory. His theories emphasized
the importance of the unconscious mind, childhood experiences, dreams, and symbolism. His
theory of psychosexual development suggested that children progress through a series of stages
during which libidinal energy is focused on different regions of the body.
His ideas are known as grand theories because they seek to explain virtually every aspect of
human behavior.
Although many of Freud's ideas are considered outdated by modern psychologists, he had a
major influence on the course of psychology, and some concepts, such as the usefulness of talk
therapy and the importance of the unconscious, are enduring.
Erik Erikson
Erik Erikson (1902-1994) was an ego psychologist trained by Anna Freud. His theory of
psychosocial stages describes how personality develops throughout the lifespan. Like Freud,
some aspects of Erikson's theory are considered outdated by contemporary researchers, but his
eight-stage theory of development remains popular and influential.
B. F. Skinner
B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) was a behaviorist best known for his research on operant conditioning
and the discovery of schedules of reinforcement. Schedules of reinforcement influence how
quickly a behavior is acquired and the strength of response.
The schedules described by Skinner are fixed-ratio schedules, fixed-variable schedules, variable-
ratio schedules, and variable-interval schedules.
Sandra Bem
Sandra Bem (1944-2014) had an important influence in psychology and on our understanding of
sex roles, gender, and sexuality. She developed her gender schema theory to explain how society
and culture transmit ideas about sex and gender. Gender schemas, Bem suggested, were formed
by things such as parenting, school, mass media, and other cultural influences.
Abraham Maslow
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) was a humanist psychologist who developed the well-known
hierarchy of needs. The hierarchy includes physiological needs, safety and security needs, love
and affection needs, self-esteem needs, and self-actualizing needs.
Carl Rogers
Carl Rogers (1902-1987) was a humanist psychologist who believed that all people have an
actualizing tendency—a drive to fulfill the individual potential that motivates behavior. Rogers
called healthy individuals fully functioning, describing them as those who are open to
experience, live in the moment, trust their own judgment, feel free, and are creative.

Personality makes us who we are, so it is no wonder why it has been the source of such
fascination in both science and in daily life. The various theories of personality that have been
proposed by different psychologists have helped us gain a deeper and richer understanding of
what makes each person unique.
By learning more about these theories, you can better understand how researchers have come to
know the psychology of personality as well as consider questions that future research might
explore.
Major Personality Theories
Personality psychology is the focus of some of the best-known psychology theories by a number
of famous thinkers including Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson. Some of these theories attempt to
tackle a specific area of personality while others attempt to explain personality much more
broadly.
Five of the main theories of personality are biological theories, behavioral theories,
psychodynamic theories, humanist theories, and trait theories.
Biological Personality Theories
Biological approaches suggest that genetics are primarily responsible for personality. In the
classic nature versus nurture debate, the biological theories of personality side with nature.
Research on heritability suggests that there is a link between genetics and personality traits. 1
Twin studies are often used to investigate which traits might be linked to genetics versus those
that might be linked to environmental variables. For example, researchers might look at
differences and similarities in the personalities of twins raised together versus those who are
raised apart.
Biological personality theories assert that brain structures and
neurophysiology are what determine your personality traits, according to 2016
research.
In other words, something as simple as higher neurotransmitter levels might
provide you with a more positive outlook, for example, than someone else.
Hans J. Eysenck and Jeffrey A. Gray both included neuropsychology in their
personality theories.

One of the best-known biological theorists was Hans Eysenck, who linked aspects of personality
to biological processes.
Eysenck argued that personality is influenced by the stress hormone cortisol. According to his
theory, introverts have high cortical arousal and avoid stimulation, while extroverts have low
cortical arousal and crave stimulation.2
Behavioral Personality Theories
Behavioral theorists include B. F. Skinner and John B. Watson. Behavioral personality theories
suggest that personality is a result of interaction between the individual and the environment. 3
Behavioral theorists study observable and measurable behaviors, rejecting theories that take
internal thoughts, moods, and feelings play a part as these cannot be measured.
According to behavioral theorists, conditioning (predictable behavioral responses) occurs
through interactions with our environment which ultimately shapes our personalities.
Psychodynamic Personality Theories
Psychodynamic theories of personality are heavily influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud and
emphasize the influence of the unconscious mind and childhood experiences on personality.4
Psychodynamic theories include Sigmund Freud's psychosexual stage theory and Erik Erikson's
stages of psychosocial development.
Freud believed the three components of personality were the id, ego, and superego. The id is
responsible for needs and urges, while the superego regulates ideals and morals. The ego, in turn,
moderates the demands of the id, superego, and reality.
Freud suggested that children progress through a series of stages in which the id's energy is
focused on different erogenous zones.
Erikson also believed that personality progressed through a series of stages, with certain conflicts
arising at each stage. Success in any stage depends on successfully overcoming these conflicts.
Humanist Personality Theories
Humanist theories emphasize the importance of free will and individual experience in personality
development.5 Humanist theorists include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.
Humanist theorists promote the concept of self-actualization, which is the innate need for
personal growth and how personal growth motivates behavior. According to this approach,
people are inherently good and have a natural tendency to want to make themselves and the
world better.
Trait Personality Theories
The trait theory approach is one of the most prominent areas in personality psychology.
According to these theories, personality is made up of a number of broad traits.
A trait is a relatively stable characteristic that causes an individual to behave in certain ways. It is
essentially the psychological "blueprint" that informs behavioral patterns.
Some of the best-known trait theories include Eysenck's three-dimension theory and the five-
factor theory of personality.
Trait theory is one of the most popular types of personality theories. It
proposes that people’s personalities vary according to which basic personality
traits are more dominant.
In this sense, each trait is seen as a continuum.
Take kindness, for example. Rather than viewing this as an optional
personality trait — some people are kind while others are not — you can think
of it as a sliding scale. Everyone falls somewhere on the kindness continuum.
And you’re either more kind or less kind, compared with someone else.
One of the best-known trait theories is the five-factor theory, also known as
the Big 5, proposed by Donald W. Fiske. This theory states that personality is
made up of five distinct traits:

 agreeableness
 conscientiousness
 extraversion
 neuroticism
 openness to experience

Each trait has a range that goes from one extreme to another, and each
person falls somewhere along that range.
Other known trait theories include those developed by Gordon Allport,
Raymond Cattell, and Hans Eysenck. Eysenck’s theory, for example, focused
on just three trait continuums for everyone: extraversion, neuroticism, and
psychoticism.

Eysenck utilized personality questionnaires to collect data from participants and then employed a
statistical technique known as factor analysis to analyze the results. Eysenck concluded that there
were three major dimensions of personality: extroversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism. 6
Eysenck believed that these dimensions then combine in different ways to form an individual's
unique personality. Later, Eysenck added the third dimension known as psychoticism, which
related to things such as aggression, empathy, and sociability.
The humanistic approach to theories of personality involves understanding not
only behavior and thought patterns, but also what someone believes gives
their life meaning.
Humanistic theories propose that someone’s personality depends heavily on
what they think of themselves — who they believe they are.
Abraham Maslow’s humanistic hierarchy of needs, for example, suggested
that personality is the result of someone being able to meet — or not meet —
basic needs like safety, self-esteem, and belongingness.
Carl Rogers explored the concept of self-actualization. This theory asserts
that people are driven by their need for personal growth. The quest for
learning and growing is what structures someone’s personality.

Later, researchers suggested that a person's personality has five broad dimensions, often referred
to as the Big 5 theory of personality.
The Big 5 theory suggests that all personalities can be characterized by five major personality
dimensions: openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism,
collectively referred to by the acronym OCEAN

Expectancy-value theory
Another behaviorism-based model of human personality is Julian Rotter’s
framework.
Rotter proposed human behavior is motivated by the expected rewards or
punishment it can gain. This expectation comes from past experiences and
whether or not you thought the consequences of your actions were under your
control.
When someone believes they have control over an outcome, they’re more
motivated to action. This is particularly so when they anticipate a positive
outcome because similar actions have been rewarded in the past.
Example
You’ve learned that studying at least 4 hours before a test leads to you
passing said test.
The next time a test is scheduled, you’re more motivated to study for 4 hours
to achieve a pass.
Evolutionary theories
Charles Darwin first introduced the concepts of evolution and natural selection
in the mid-1800s. His work sparked an entire field of evolutionary biology.
Later, other scientists explored Darwin’s premises to explain human behavior.
According to this framework of evolutionary theories, human personality is
primarily the result of genes and most useful traits.
Ultimately, evolutionary theory states that personality characteristics that
increased your ancestors’ chances for survival are the traits you may have at
the core of your personality today.
Example
Your fear of snakes may feel instinctual, but evolutionary theory states it may
result from your ancestors learning that snakes could be dangerous.

Research Methodology

Research methodology is a way of explaining how a researcher intends to carry out

their research. It is a logical, systematic plan to resolve a research problem.
A methodology details a researcher's approach to the research to ensure reliable, valid
results that address their aims and objectives. It encompasses what data they are going
to collect and where from, as well as how it's being collected and analyzed.
Types of research methodology

When designing a research methodology, a researcher has several decisions to make.

One of the most important is which data methodology to use, qualitative, quantitative, or
a combination of the two. No matter the type of research, the data gathered will be as
numbers or descriptions, and researchers can choose to focus on collecting words,
numbers, or both.
Here are the different methodologies and their applications:

Qualitative

Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing written or spoken words and
textual data. It may also focus on body language or visual elements and help to create a
detailed description of a researcher's observations. Researchers usually gather
qualitative data through interviews, observation, and focus groups using a few carefully
chosen participants.
This research methodology is subjective and more time-consuming than using
quantitative data. Researchers often use a qualitative methodology when the aims and
objectives of the research are exploratory. For example, when they perform research to
understand human perceptions regarding an event, person, or product.

Quantitative
Researchers usually use a quantitative methodology when the objective of the research
is to confirm something. It focuses on collecting, testing, and measuring numerical data,
usually from a large sample of participants. They then analyze the data using statistical
analysis and comparisons. Popular methods used to gather quantitative data are:
 Surveys
 Questionnaires
 Test
 Databases
 Organizational records
This research methodology is objective and is often quicker as researchers use
software programs when analyzing the data. An example of how researchers could use
a quantitative methodology is to measure the relationship between two variables or test
a set of hypotheses.

Mixed-method

This contemporary research methodology combines quantitative and qualitative

approaches to provide additional perspectives, create a richer picture, and present
multiple findings. The quantitative methodology provides definitive facts and figures,
while the qualitative provides a human aspect. This methodology can produce
interesting results as it presents exact data while also being exploratory.

Examples of sampling design in research methodology

When creating a sample design, a researcher decides from who or what they'll collect
data. They also choose the techniques and procedures they'll use to select items or
individuals for the sample. There are several types of sample design that fall into two
main categories:

Probability sampling
This sampling method uses a random sample from the pool of people or items you're
interested in, called the population, and is random or chance sampling. Every person or
item in the population has an equal chance of being selected. Using this method is the
best way to get a truly representative sample, and researchers can generalize the
study's results to the entire population.

Nonprobability sampling
Nonprobability sampling is not random, as the researcher deliberately selects people or
items for the sample. Researchers also refer to this method as deliberate sampling,
judgment sampling, or purposive sampling.
Every person or item in the population does not have an equal chance of being
selected, and the results are typically not generalizable to the entire population.

Common data collection methods

Once a researcher has finalized their population sample, they need to decide how to
collect data. There are several options for data collection, and the best research method
to use will depend on the research topic, methodology, type of data, and population
sample.
Although there are many ways to collect data, people often broadly group them in these
ways:
 Interviews: Researchers can carry out interviews in a structured, semi-
structured, or unstructured format, depending on how formal the questions are.
 Surveys: Surveys can be online or in-person and have either free-answer,
essay-style questions, or closed, multiple-choice style questions. Depending on
the data required, a survey could also use a mixture.
 Focus groups: Focus groups have interviewees give their thoughts, opinions,
perspectives, and perceptions on specific topics. A moderator usually leads the
group to help guide the discussion and ensure everyone has a chance to share
their thoughts.
  Observations: Direct observation involves observing the spontaneous behavior
of participants without interference from the researcher, while participant
observation is more structured, and the researcher interacts with the participants.
 Documents and records: Researchers collect data such as published reports
and official documents of international bodies, government agencies, or private
institutes and internal records such as employees' payroll, raw material
quantities, and cash receipts.

Common data analysis methods

Researchers use different data analysis methods depending on whether the data is
qualitative or quantitative. For example:

Qualitative data analysis

Qualitative data is usually in spoken or written information, such as interview transcripts,
video and audio recordings, notes, images, and text documents. Qualitative data
analysis involves identifying common patterns in participants' responses and critically
analyzing them to achieve research aims and objectives.
The most commonly used qualitative data analysis methods are:
 Content analysis: This is one of the most common methods used to analyze
documented information and is usually used to analyze interviewees' responses.
 Narrative analysis: Researchers use this method to analyze content from
several sources, including interviews, observations, and surveys. It focuses on
using people's stories and experiences to answer research questions.
 Discourse analysis: This method analyzes spoken or written language in its
social context and aims to understand how people use language in day-to-day
situations.
 Grounded theory: This method uses qualitative data to discover or construct a
theory explaining why something happened. It uses a comparative analysis of
data from similar cases in different settings to derive explanations.

Quantitative data analysis

Quantitative data analysis involves turning numbers into meaningful data by applying
rational and critical thinking. Most researchers use analytical software to assist with
quantitative data analysis.
The first stage in analyzing quantitative data is validating, editing, and coding the data.
Once completed, the data is ready for analysis.
The most commonly used quantitative data analysis methods are:

 Descriptive analysis: This method uses descriptive statistics like mean, median,
mode, percentage, frequency, and range to find patterns.
 Inferential analysis: This method shows the relationships between multiple
variables using correlation, regression, and variance analysis.
Factors to consider when choosing a research
methodology
Here are some factors to consider when choosing a research methodology:
 The research objective: Consider the research project objective. When
researchers know what information they require at the end of the project to meet
their objectives, it helps them select the correct methodology and research
method.
 Significance of statistics: Another factor to consider is whether you require
concise, data-driven research results and statistical answers. Or whether the
research questions require an understanding of reasons, perceptions, opinions,
and motivations.
 Nature of the research: If the aims and objectives are exploratory, the research
will probably require qualitative data collection methods. However, if the aims
and objectives are to measure or test something, the research will require
quantitative data collection methods.
 Sample size: How big does the sample need to be to answer the research
questions and meet the objectives? The sample size can determine your data-
gathering methods, such as whether to use in-person interviews or smaller
samples or online surveys for larger ones.
 Time available: If there are time constraints, consider techniques like random or
convenience sampling and tools that allow for data collection in a few days. If
there's more time available for data collection, in-person interviews and
observations are possible.

Research Methodology Importantance

A research methodology gives research legitimacy and provides scientifically sound
findings. It also provides a detailed plan that helps to keep researchers on track, making
the process smooth, effective, and manageable. A researcher's methodology allows the
reader to understand the approach and methods used to reach conclusions.
Having a sound research methodology in place provides the following benefits:
 Other researchers who want to replicate the research have enough information to
do so.
 Researchers who receive criticism can refer to the methodology and explain their
approach.
 It can help provide researchers with a specific plan to follow throughout their
research.
 The methodology design process helps researchers select the correct methods
for the objectives.
 It allows researchers to document what they intend to achieve with the research
from the outset.
the six basic research methods?
The six basic research methods, or tools for collecting information, are:
 Social surveys
 Interviews
 Experiments
 Ethnography
 Longitudinal studies
 Participant observation

choose the right research methodology

You can choose the right research methodology by determining the type of data
necessary for answering your research question. For instance, you may require
numerical data to generate concrete measurements or test your hypothesis. If you want
to explore more abstract concepts, consider collecting qualitative data.
Researchers might also choose between primary and secondary data when determining
whether they want to collect data first-hand or analyze vast amounts of existing
information. Additionally, note that experimental methods are appropriate for
establishing relationships between variables while descriptive methods can help you
better understand the characteristics of whatever you're studying.





To choose the right research methodology

You can choose the right research methodology by determining the type of data
necessary for answering your research question. For instance, you may require
numerical data to generate concrete measurements or test your hypothesis. If
you want to explore more abstract concepts, consider collecting qualitative data.
Researchers might also choose between primary and secondary data when
determining whether they want to collect data first-hand or analyze vast amounts
of existing information. Additionally, note that experimental methods are
appropriate for establishing relationships between variables while descriptive
 methods can help you better understand the characteristics of whatever you're
studying

Primary vs. secondary research

Primary research is any original data that you collect yourself for the purposes of

answering your research question (e.g. through surveys, observations and

experiments). Secondary research is data that has already been collected by other

researchers (e.g. in a government census or previous scientific studies).

If you are exploring a novel research question, you’ll probably need to collect primary

data. But if you want to synthesize existing knowledge, analyze historical trends, or

identify patterns on a large scale, secondary data might be a better choice.

 Pros  Cons

 Can be collected to answer your  More expensive and

Primary
specific research question. time-consuming to

 You have control over the collect.

sampling and measurement  Requires training in data

methods. collection methods.

 Easier and faster to access.  No control over how data

Secondar
 You can collect data that spans was generated.
y
longer timescales and broader  Requires extra

geographical locations. processing to make sure

it works for your analysis.

Descriptive vs. experimental data
In descriptive research, you collect data about your study subject without intervening.

The validity of your research will depend on your sampling method.

In experimental research, you systematically intervene in a process and measure the

outcome. The validity of your research will depend on your experimental design.

To conduct an experiment, you need to be able to vary your independent variable,

precisely measure your dependent variable, and control for confounding variables. If it’s

practically and ethically possible, this method is the best choice for answering questions

about cause and effect.

 Pros  Cons

 Allows you to describe your  No control over

Descriptive
research subject without confounding variables.

influencing it.  Can’t establish causality.

 Accessible – you can gather

more data on a larger scale.

 More control over  You might influence your

Experimenta
confounding variables. research subject in
l
 Can establish causality. unexpected ways.

 Usually requires more

expertise and resources to

 collect data.

Example of a methodology in a research paper

The following example of a methodology in a research paper provides insight into the
structure and content to consider when writing your own:
This research article discusses the psychological and emotional impact of a mental
health support program for employees. The program provided prolonged and tailored
help to job seekers via a job support agency that kept contact with applicants beyond
initial job placement to give different forms of assistance. I chose a 50% random
selection of respondents who participated in the employment agency's support program
between April and October and met the research criteria I created based on prior and
comparable studies.
My colleagues and I randomly allocated the 350 resultant patients to the treatment or
control groups, which included life skills development and career training in an in-house
workshop setting. My colleagues and I assessed the 350 participants upon admission
and again after they reached the 90-day employment requirement. The psychological
functioning and self-esteem assessments we conducted revealed considerable
evidence of the impact of treatment on both measures, including results that
contradicted our original premise.
We discovered that, rather than demonstrating better functioning and higher self-
esteem, participants in the therapy group exhibited poorer cognitive and emotional
functioning and self-esteem. These findings prompted my study team and me to
conclude that people who consider themselves unfulfilled in their jobs often endure a
substantial decline in performance as a consequence of increased workplace stress
and lower emotional well-being, irrespective of their mental health status.