Lecture Series in Aerospace Technology

Aircraft Propulsion
Juan Pedro Mellado
Contents

1. Introduction

2. Fundamentals

3. Piston Engines and Propellers

4. Turbojet

5. Other Jet Engines

6. Jet Engine Components

7. Performance
 Propulsion

Definitions according to Merriam-Webster dictionary:

1. Propulsion: The action or process of propelling.
2. Propel: To drive forward or onward by or as if by means of a force that imparts motion.

We refer to that propelling force as thrust.

Propulsion system: A machine that converts one type of energy into thrust.
Aerospace vehicles need propulsion to balance the drag while cruising, to accelerate, to control attitude.
Manufactures: CFM International (Safran-GE Aviation joint venture), GE Aviation, Pratt & Whitney,
Rolls-Royce, Lycoming, ...
We will focus on aircraft propulsion; we will introduce spacecraft propulsion in the next lecture.

Introduction 2.61
 Available Thrust and Available Power

The study of aircraft performance needs the curves of available thrust and available power, which give
the variation of thrust and propulsive power with airspeed and altitude. What is behind these curves?

Introduction 3.61
Turbofans in Commercial Aircrafts – Rolls-Royce Trent 900
Power plant of A380

General characteristics
• Type: Three-shaft high bypass turbofan
• Length: 5.3 m
• Diameter: 3 m (fan)
• Dry weight: 6,300 kg
Components
• Compressor: Axial, 1-stage LP fan, 8-stage IP, 6-stage HP
• Combustor: Annular
• Turbine: 1-stage HP, 1-stage IP turbine, 5-stage LP
Performance
• Maximum thrust: 350 kN
• Overall pressure ratio: 38
• Bypass ratio: 8.5
• Air mass flow: 1,200 kg/s
• Fuel consumption: 5.4 kg/s
• Specific fuel consumption: 15.5 (g/s)/kN
• Thrust-to-weight ratio: 6

Introduction Source: Rolls-Royce 4.61

 Aims of the Lecture

1. Introduce the topic with an organized synthesis of fundamental aspects.

2. Familiarize yourself with the jargon.
3. Familiarize yourself with various engine types.
4. Understand the fundamental working principles.
5. Familiarize yourself with various engine performance parameters.
6. Familiarize yourself with various components.

Introduction 5.61
Contents

1. Introduction

2. Fundamentals

3. Piston Engines and Propellers

4. Turbojet

5. Other Jet Engines

6. Jet Engine Components

7. Performance
 Working Principle: Newtons’s Third Law of Action & Reaction

Consider a system of n bodies:

n
d X
Fext = ( mi vi ) . (1)
dt 1

For an isolated system (Fext = 0) starting from an initial condition vi = 0, we find

n
X
mi vi = 0 . (2)
1

Hence, one body alone (n = 1) cannot acquire a non-zero velocity starting from rest. However, one
body of mass M can acquire a velocity V if it confers opposite momentum to another body:
Pn n n
mi vi m X X
V=− 2
=− v, m≡ mi , v ≡ m−1 mi vi . (3)
M M 2 2

Hence, we need to move a second body to generate propulsion: the propellant.

Fundamentals 6.61
 Energy Balance

How much energy do we need?

n
1 1X 1  v
∆E = MV 2 + mi vi2 ≈ M V 2 1 + , (4)
2 2 2 2 V

having used the relationship M V = mv.

Hence, we need more energy than what we gain in the body of mass M .
For a given mass M and velocity V , the smaller the v, the better. Hence, since mv is constant, it is
more efficient to accelerate a large mass m a small velocity v.
These ideas lead to the concept of propulsive efficiency.

Fundamentals 7.61
 Concept 1: Propeller Propulsion – Shaft Engines
Thrust is the sum of pressure and friction
forces of the propellant (air) on the propeller.
As such, it is difficult to calculate. However,
Newton’s law can be used to express it in terms of
the change of momentum flux:

T = ṁa (Ve − V0 ) , (5)

where ṁa = ρ0 A0 V0 is the mass flux of air

through the propeller, V0 is the upstream velocity
(flight velocity), and Ve is the downstream velocity.
We refer to Eq. (5) as thrust equation.
We need an additional engine that supplies power to the shaft.

Fundamentals Hill and Peterson [1992] 8.61

 Concept 2: Jet Propulsion – Rocket Engines

Thrust is the sum of pressure and friction

forces of the propellant on the interior surface.
As such, it is difficult to calculate. However,
Newton’s law can be used to express it in terms of
a change in momentum flux:

T ≈ ṁVe , (6)

where ṁ = ρ0 A0 V0 is the mass flux through the

engine, and Ve is the mass-averaged exhaust
velocity.
This concept represents rocket engines, where all
propellant is carried on the vehicle.
The velocity Ve is then relative to the vehicle.
There is no upper limit of V0 .

Fundamentals Hill and Peterson [1992] 9.61

 Concept 3: Jet Propulsion – Air-Breathing Engines
A second class of jet engines use air as propellant.
In this case, the thrust equation reads:

T ≈ ṁa (Ve − V0 ) , (7)

where ṁa = ρ0 A0 V0 is the mass flux through the

engine, V0 is the upstream velocity (sometimes
denoted by V∞ ), and Ve is the exhaust velocity.
This concept represents turbojets, turbofans, turboshafts, ramjets.
According to the thrust equation, T increases with size (cross-sectional area A0 ), with the propellant
density (ρ0 ), and with the velocity increase (Ve − V0 ).
In the thrust equation, we are neglecting a contribution Ae (pe − p0 ) to T and a correction due to the
fuel mass, for simplicity.

Fundamentals Anderson [2016], Fig. 9.14 10.61

 Energy Balance: Propulsion Efficiency

The useful or propulsive power is T V0 , but we need to accelerate the propellant (the second body),
and we need a mechanical power
1
Ẇout = ṁa (Ve2 − V02 ) . (8)
2
Using the thrust equation, T = ṁa (Ve − V0 ), one finds
1
Ẇout = ṁa (Ve − V0 )V0 + ṁa (Ve − V0 )2 = T V0 + ṁa (Ve − V0 )2 , (9)
2
The last term is the kinetic energy of the exhaust gases in the earth frame of reference; we lose it. We
define the propulsion efficiency as
T V0 2
ηp = = (10)
Ẇout 1 + Ve /V0

It is more efficient to accelerate a large mass of air ṁa by a small velocity Ve − V0 . The propeller is the
most efficient propulsive system, but the thrust is limited by its tip speed. Jet engines provide greater
thrust, but less efficiently.

Fundamentals 11.61
 Energy Source: Engine

We need a mechanical power Ẇout , and an engine is a machine to convert one form of energy
into mechanical energy.
Depending on the energy source, we distinguish:
1. Heat engines: Use thermal energy (gases at high temperature).
1.1 Combustion engines: Chemical energy to thermal energy.
1.2 Electrothermal engines: Electrical energy to thermal energy.
2. Electric engines: Use electrical energy.
2.1 Electrostatic (ion propulsion): Electric field to accelerate ions.
2.2 Electromagnetic (magnetoplasma): Electromagnetic field.

We will focus on internal combustion engines:

1. Intermittent combustion: Piston engines.
2. Continuous combustion: Gas-turbine engines.

Sometimes, we can distinguish the subsystem that converts chemical energy into mechanical energy
(motor) from the subsystem that converts mechanical energy into thrust (propulsor), e.g., propellers.
Fundamentals 12.61
 Energy Balance: Thermal Efficiency

The thermal efficiency is the fraction of the thermal energy released during the combustion that is
transformed into mechanical energy (work):
1 2
Ẇout 2 ṁa (Ve− V02 )
ηth ≡ = , (11)
Q̇in ṁf QR

where Q̇in is the caloric power, ṁf is the fuel mass flux, and QR is the heat of reaction.
Notes:
• Thermodynamical laws set theoretical upper limits to ηth .
• QR depends on fuel-oxidizer combinations; the larger, the better.
• Chemistry and maximum turbine temperature set the fuel-to-air ratio.
Hence, we have limits of the velocity increment that we can obtain.

Fundamentals 13.61
 Energy Balance: Thermal Efficiency

The thermal efficiency is the fraction of the thermal energy released during the combustion that is
transformed into mechanical energy (work):
1 2
Ẇout 2 ṁa (Ve− V02 )
ηth ≡ = , (11)
Q̇in ṁf QR

where Q̇in is the caloric power, ṁf is the fuel mass flux, and QR is the heat of reaction.
Alternatively, using the thrust equation, one finds
 
T V0 T
Q̇in ≈ +2 . (12)
2ηth ṁa V0

Hence, for a given thrust, flight speed, and thermal efficiency, the largest the airflow rate, the lower the
fuel consumption.

Fundamentals 13.61
 Energy Balance: Overall Efficiency
Together with the propulsive efficiency, we
obtain the global or overall efficiency of the
propulsion system:
T V0
ηo ≡ = ηth ηp . (13)
Q̇in

Typical values are relatively low.

An important engine performance parameter
is the thrust specific fuel consumption:
ṁf V0
TSFP ≡ = . (14)
T ηo QR

The higher the efficiency for a given speed,

the less the fuel consumption.

Fundamentals Mattingly [1992] 14.61

 Summary: Fundamentals

1. Besides the vehicle, we also need to move a second body, the propellant.
2. Hence, we need more mechanical energy than needed for propulsion: propulsion efficiency.
3. We need an engine to generate this mechanical energy from some other energy form: Combustion
to obtain it from chemical energy.
4. There is a thermal efficiency associated with this transformation.
5. The product of this two efficiencies forms the overall efficiency.
6. Various classifications of aircraft engines according to different criteria:
6.1 Shaft engines or jet engines.
6.2 Air-breathing or rocket engines.
6.3 Combustion engines or electric engines.
6.4 Continuous combustion or intermittent combustion.
7. Thrust equation T = ṁa (Ve − V0 ) + (pe − p0 )Ae , and ṁa = ρ0 A0 V0 .
8. Thrust decreases with decreasing ρ0 , i.e., with increasing altitude, with increasing air temperature,
and with decreasing air pressure (p = ρRT ).

Fundamentals 15.61
Contents

1. Introduction

2. Fundamentals

3. Piston Engines and Propellers

4. Turbojet

5. Other Jet Engines

6. Jet Engine Components

7. Performance
 Introduction

First type of airplane engine used: Wright brothers (1903), horizontally opposed four-stroke 12 hp
engine, allowed for V0 ≈ 45 km/h. By 1945, radial engines allowed for 2200 hp and 800 km/h.
Most aircraft engines are piston engines. Short missions 300-400 miles, altitudes below 15,000 ft, small
general aviation airports.

Piston Engines and Propellers El-Sayed [2016] 16.61

 Piston (or Reciprocating) Engine Terminology

Compression ratio:
Vmax
rc = (15)
Vmin
(Not to be confused with the pressure
ratio in gas-turbine engines.)
Two types:
• Spark ignition (gasoline)
• Compression ignition (Diesel)

Piston Engines and Propellers El-Sayed [2016] 17.61

 Four-Stroke Piston Engine

Working principle Components Flame type Efficiency Ideal cycle

Spark-Ignition Engine Compress the fuel-air mix- Carburator Premixed Lower Otto
ture, and then ignite it. Spark plug
Compression-Ignition Engine Compress the air above fuel Injector Diffusive Higher Diesel
auto-ignition temperature,
and then inject the fuel

Piston Engines and Propellers El-Sayed [2016] 18.61

 Two-Stroke Piston Engine

Two-stroke engines, although higher power-to-weight ratio and easier maintenance, are only used in
ultralight airplanes and model airplanes, because they consume more, pollute more, have less thermal
efficiency, and are noisier.

Piston Engines and Propellers El-Sayed [2016] 19.61

 Ideal Thermodynamic Cycle: Otto Cycle

0-1 Constant-pressure suction.

1-2 Isentropic compression.
2-3 Constant-volume heat addition.
3-4 Isentropic expansion.
4-5 Constant-volume heat rejection.
5-0 Constant-pressure exhaust.

Analysis of the cycle leads to the following thermal efficiency:

Ẇout 1
ηth ≡ = 1 − γ−1 , (16)
Q̇in rc
where γ is the ratio of specific heats, about 1.4. Hence, we are interested in high compression ratios,
but these are limited to 10 or less because of auto-ignition of the fuel-air mixture. For rc ≈ 10, one
finds ηth ≈ 0.6. Actual efficiencies are 0.25 − 0.30.
Piston Engines and Propellers El-Sayed [2016] 20.61
 Ideal Thermodynamic Cycle: Diesel Cycle

Change the approximation of the

combustion process from
constant-volume heat addition to:
2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition.
The remaining processes are the same as
in the Otto cycle.

Analysis of the cycle leads to the following thermal efficiency:

Ẇout 1 βγ − 1
ηth ≡ = 1 − γ−1 , (17)
Q̇in rc γ(β − 1)
where β ≡ V3 /V2 is the cut-off ratio. Lower efficiency than Otto cycle for a given rc , but Diesel allows
for higher rc and hence higher efficiency in the end. For rc ≈ 12 − 24 and V3 = 0.5(V2 + V4 ), one finds
ηth ≈ 0.7. Actual efficiencies are 0.30 − 0.35.
Piston Engines and Propellers El-Sayed [2016] 21.61
 Turbocharger

It allows piston engines to develop maximum power at high altitudes or boost its power during takeoff.

It consists of a compressor and a turbine. The compressor is mounted between the air-intake and the
carburetor or injector and it raises the pressure and density of the incoming air (≈20–50 kPa pressure
increase). The compressor is powered by a turbine mounted in the exhaust stream
Piston Engines and Propellers El-Sayed [2016] 22.61
 Types of Cylinder Arrangements

Radial V-type Horizontally Opposed

Pratt & Whitney R2800 Rolls-Royce V12 Merlin Lycoming O-360

• Good power-to-weight ratio • Reduced frontal area • Reduced frontal area
(smaller crank-shaft) • Typically water cooled • Water cooled or air cooled
• Good air cooling • Reciprocating forces cancel
• Large frontal area each other; smooth run

Piston Engines and Propellers 23.61

 Propellers

Propeller transforms shaft mechanical power to thrust by accelerating the airstream passing through it.

Originally proposed as a better alternative to rocket propulsion for low velocity:

• Most propellant need not be carried on the vehicle.
• Better efficiency.
Wright brothers (1903) designed, tested (wind tunnel) and manufactured the first air propeller.
Piston Engines and Propellers Hill and Peterson [1992], Anderson [2016] 24.61
 Blade Element Considerations

Propellers consist of several blades, each To maintain a good flow over the blade, we need
behaving as a wing. The angle between the chord • a small angle of attack, to avoid detachment,
and the rotation plane is the pitch angle. It
• subsonic relative velocity, to avoid wave drag.
decreases from hub to tip (torsion), to follow the
change in relative velocity caused by rotation. Conventional propellers work for V0 . 500 km/h.

Piston Engines and Propellers Hill and Peterson [1992], Anderson [2016] 25.61
 Propeller Efficiency

• Efficiency is zero at rest.

• For a fixed pitch angle, it decreases when the
flight speed is too high and the angle of attack
decreases.
• Increasing the pitch allows to reach higher
speed, but reducing the efficiency at lower
speed.
• Current variable-pitch propellers have high
propulsive efficiency, 0.83-0.90.

Piston Engines and Propellers Hill and Peterson [1992], Anderson [2016] 26.61
 Types of Propellers

According to the control:

• Fixed pitch: Simpler design but lowest performance.
• Variable pitch: The pitch angle change according to the flight speed, either manually or
automatically.

According to the material:

• Wood: First types.
• Metal: Aluminium alloys nowadays. Thinner sections than wood ones.
• Composites: Carbon fiber nowadays: light weight, high specific strength, stiffness and excellent
fatigue resistance, and its resistance to erosion are three times that of aluminum alloys.

According to the number of blades:

• 2, 3: blade element theory as isolated airfoils is good enough.
• 4, 6, 8: More thrust (and required torque) for a given diameter, but more difficult to design
because of strong interaction among blades. Needs to be treated as a cascade.

Piston Engines and Propellers 27.61

 Summary: Piston Engines and Propellers

1. First developed and most common for flight velocity below 500 km/h and less than 15,000 ft.
2. Advantages and disadvantages:
• Best propulsion efficiency at low speeds and low altitudes.
• Small velocity to avoid compressibility effects in blade tips: V0 . 500 km/h.
• Low altitudes to have a large enough density: h . 15,000 ft.
3. Propellers can be driven by turbine-based engines (turboprops), instead of piston engines,

Piston Engines and Propellers 28.61

Contents

1. Introduction

2. Fundamentals

3. Piston Engines and Propellers

4. Turbojet

5. Other Jet Engines

6. Jet Engine Components

7. Performance
 Introduction

Around 1930, propeller propulsion limited speeds to less than 250 km/h and altitudes to less than
10,000 ft. Originally developed to overcome these limitations, the jet engine was a game changer:
• Reduced travel costs by increasing speed and plane size.
• Larger thrust per unit weight, which improves payload and range.
• Larger thrust per unit cross-sectional area, which helps fit engine into plane and reduces engine
nacelle drag.
• Easier maintenance, improved aircraft safety.
• Made supersonic flight possible.

Developed simultaneously in England by Frank Whittle (first flight in 1941), and in Germany by Hans
von Ohain (first flight in 1939). First supersonic flight in 1947.
Challenges:
• Compressor efficiency.
• Turbine operation temperature.

Turbojet 29.61
 Gas Generator

Provides gas at high pressure and high temperature.

Three components:
• the compressor increases pressure,
• the combustor converts chemical energy into thermal
energy, and
• the turbine extracts power to move the compressor.

We can use the energy of the hot gases for different

purposes, not only for aeronautical applications but also for
power plants.

Turbojet Mattingly [1992] 30.61

 Turbojet

We use the energy of the hot gases to generate

thrust. Recall that the thrust is

T ≈ ṁa (Ve − V0 ) . (18)

Hence, increasing the exhaust velocity, Ve ,

increases T .
We add two components to the gas generator:
• the nozzle accelerates the flow, i.e., converts
the thermal energy remaining after the turbine
into mechanical energy, and
• the inlet compresses the air and provides
smooth, subsonic flow to the compressor.

Turbojet Mattingly [1992] 31.61

 Properties Variations Along the Turbojet

Turbojet Mattingly [1992]. Note: 1 psia = 6895 Pa ≈ 0.07 bar 32.61

 Thrust Build-Up

Turbojet Anderson [2016]. Note: 1 lbf=4.448 N 33.61

 Ideal Thermodynamic Cycle: Brayton Cycle

2-3 Isentropic compression

3-4 Constant-pressure heat addition
4-9 Isentropic expansion
9-2 Constant-pressure heat rejection

Analysis of the cycle leads to the following thermal efficiency:

Ẇout T2 1
ηth ≡ =1− =1− , (19)
Q̇in T3 (p3 /p2 )(γ−1)/γ

where γ = cp /cv is the heat capacity ratio, about 1.4. Hence, we are interested in increasing the
pressure ratio p3 /p2 as much as possible. For a typical value p3 /p2 = 40, one finds ηth ≈ 0.65.
Actual efficiencies are ηth ≈ 0.45.
(Most efficient is the Carnot cycle, where ηth = 1 − T2 /T4 , with a typical value of 0.8.)

Turbojet Mattingly [1992] 34.61

 Summary: Turbojets

Advantages and disadvantages:

+ Higher altitude and speed operation.
+ Larger thrust-to-weight ratio.
- Lower efficiency at low speed and low altitude.
- Longer take-off runway.

Turbojet 35.61
Contents

1. Introduction

2. Fundamentals

3. Piston Engines and Propellers

4. Turbojet

5. Other Jet Engines

6. Jet Engine Components

7. Performance
Mass and Size Advantages of Turbojets Led to Extended Applications

Other Jet Engines Hill and Peterson [1992] 36.61

 Turboprops

Part of the expansion work in the turbine stage drives a propeller.

• Better power-to-weight ratio and less frontal area than piston engines.
• Advantages of the propeller: Excellent performance during take-off, low-speed low-altitude flight.
• Limitations of the propeller: Small velocity and low altitude.
• Gear transmission between shaft and propeller is complex and heavy, which imposes a limitation on
maximum size of turboprops.

Other Jet Engines Mattingly [1992], Wikipedia 37.61

 Turboshafts

Part of the expansion work in the turbine drives a shaft.

• Similar to turboprops.
• Turboshaft engines are used primarily for helicopters and auxiliary power units.

Other Jet Engines Mattingly [1992], Wikipedia 38.61

 Turbofans

Part of the expansion work in the turbine drives a ducted fan, and only part of the airflow pass
through the engine core.

Bypass ratio (BPR): ratio of the bypass airflow rate to

the core airflow rate.
Engine of choice for high-speed (subsonic) commercial
aircrafts.
Compromise between turboprops and turbojets:
• Intake allows favorable fan aerodynamics up to
M ≈ 0.85. Avoids gearbox.
• Less fuel consumption than turbojet, because of
larger specific thrust, T /ṁa , and larger thermal
efficiency, ηth .
• Less noise than a turbojet, because of smaller exhaust velocity Ve .
• However, lower thrust-to-weight ratio and larger frontal area, lower efficiency at high altitude.

Other Jet Engines Mattingly [1992], Wikipedia 39.61

 Types of Turbofan Depending on the Bypass Ratio (BPR)

High BPR Low BPR

More than 1-2. Less than 1-2.
Typically used in commercial aircrafts. Typically used in military aircrafts.

Other Jet Engines Mattingly [1992], Wikipedia 40.61

 Ramjets

No turbomachinery, only ram compression.

Inlet Fuel injection Nozzle
(M>1) (M=1)
Flame holder

Compression Combustion Exhaust

(M<1) chamber (M>1)

• Allows for M & 3.

• Allows high temperature operation (high thermal efficiency), high thrust-per-weight and high
specific thrust.
• Needs another propulsion system for the vehicle to reach supersonic speeds.
• Subsonic combustion. The deceleration of the flow from supersonic to subsonic in the inlet can
lead to substantial losses, and beyond M ≈ 6 combustion is inefficient (ionization rather than
combustion).

Other Jet Engines Mattingly [1992], Wikipedia 41.61

 Scramjets

Supersonic combustion ramjets, to allow higher velocity.

Inlet body Fuel injection Nozzle

Supersonic Combustion Supersonic

Compression Exhaust

• Under research: Problems to have a combustion process that is fast enough.

Other Jet Engines Mattingly [1992], Wikipedia 42.61

Contents

1. Introduction

2. Fundamentals

3. Piston Engines and Propellers

4. Turbojet

5. Other Jet Engines

6. Jet Engine Components

7. Performance
 Inlet or Intake

The inlet
1. reduces airflow speed and increases
pressure (diffuser), and
2. provides smooth, subsonic flow to the
compressor.

Two types:
• Subsonic: divergent form.
• Supersonic: convergent form.

Jet Engine Components Anderson [2016] 43.61

 Compressor

The compressor
1. increases the pressure of the incoming air to increase the efficiency of the combustion process and
the power extraction process after combustion, and
2. bleeds air for other aircraft subsystems.

Very challenging component: The pressure increases downstream, and this adverse pressure gradient
can lead to the detachment of the boundary layer and big pressure losses and instabilities.
Two types:
• Centrifugal
• Axial

Jet Engine Components 44.61

 Centrifugal Compressor

Air enters the compressor near the hub of the

impeller and is then compressed by the rotational
motion of the impeller. The compression occurs by
first increasing the velocity of the air (through
rotation) and then diffusing the air where the
velocity decreases and the pressure increases.
The diffuser also straightens the flow, and the
manifold serves as a collector to feed the air into
the combustor.

• Large pressure ratios per stage, 3:1 to 5:1.

• Robust, lower price, acceptable performance in a wide rpm range.
• Used in compact jet engines, turboshafts, turboprops, and APUs.
• Lower efficiency, large frontal area.
• Multi-stage designs suffer from efficiency losses due to inter-stage ducts.

Jet Engine Components Mattingly [1992] 45.61

 Axial Compressor

The air flows in an axial direction

through a series of stages. Each stage
consists of rotating rotor blades and
stationary stator vanes that are
concentric with the axis of rotation.
Blades lengths decrease downstream for
a constant flow speed.
• Small pressure ratio per stage, 1.1:1 or 1.2:1; hence, multi-stage designs.
• High efficiency, smaller frontal area, higher flexibility with multi-spool designs (LPC & HPC).
• Smaller airflow at lower speed and stall possibility.
• Highest efficiency in a narrow rotational speed range.
• Bigger starting torque required.

The tip of the first-stage is limited in allowable Mach number as in a propeller, but the intake substan-
tially reduces the flow velocity approaching the blade, which allows for supersonic flow.

Jet Engine Components Mattingly [1992] 46.61

 Combustor or Main Burner

The combustor
1. burns a mixture of fuel and air, and
2. delivers the resulting gases to the turbine at a
uniform, controlled temperature.

Only about 25% of the air entering the burner

mixes with the fuel and burns (primary stream).
The rest is used for cooling (secondary stream).

Lean mixtures so that the turbine inlet temperature does not exceed the allowable structural tempera-
ture: Air-to-fuel mass fraction of 40:1 instead of 15:1 reduce the temperature from the adiabatic flame
temperature 2400 K for kerosene to 1700 K.

Jet Engine Components Mattingly [1992] 47.61

 Combustion Chambers

1. Can or Tubular:
Cheap but too long and heavy, obsolete in
aviation, for industrial purposes.
2. Annular:
Lighter and smaller pressure drop. Expensive.
Combustion instabilities.
3. Can-annular:
Compromise between annular reduced size and
tubular strength.

Jet Engine Components Mattingly [1992] 48.61

 Turbine

The turbine converts kinetic energy from the expanding gases into
shaft power to drive compressor and accessories.
About 75% of all the energy available from the products of
combustion is required to drive the compressor.
Each stage consists of stator vanes and rotor blades.
• Generally multi-staged. Less stages than compressor because
the pressure gradient is favorable instead of adverse.
• Can be multi-spooled (HPT & LPT).
• Limits combustion temperature. Blade cooling techniques
allow turbine inlet temperature up to 1700 K, despite melting
temperatures of 1600 K.
• Single-crystal fabrication allow higher stress at
high-temperature. Current research of ceramic coating and
even ceramic blades.

Jet Engine Components Mattingly [1992] 49.61

 Nozzle

The nozzle
1. increases the velocity to the exhaust value Ve , decreasing the pressure, and
2. collects and straighten gas flow from the turbine.
Convergent Convergent-Divergent
For subsonic exit velocity. For supersonic exit velocity.

(Nozzle pressure ratio less than 2.)

Jet Engine Components Mattingly [1992] 50.61
 Afterburner

Thrust augmentation device in which additional fuel is burned after the turbine stage. (Recall that
combustion uses a lean fuel-air mixture to reduce combustion temperature for the turbine, so we still
have available oxidizer to burn more fuel.)

Afterburning produces large thrust gains at the expense of fuel economy (military aircrafts).

Jet Engine Components Mattingly [1992] 51.61

 Other Components and Designs

Thrust vectorizing Thrust reversal

Ability to manipulate the direction of the thrust Ability to deflect the direction of the exhaust
to increase maneuverability or VTOL operation. stream to help stop the plane after touchdown.

Harrier Jump Jet CFM56 mounted on a A321.

Typical values are 135◦ deflection. One deflects

the fan airstream (main thrust).
Jet Engine Components 52.61
Contents

1. Introduction

2. Fundamentals

3. Piston Engines and Propellers

4. Turbojet

5. Other Jet Engines

6. Jet Engine Components

7. Performance
 Engine Type Depends on Mission Requirements

Designer Aims:
1. High thrust-to-weight ratio: more payload
and fuel.
2. Small frontal area: less drag.
3. Reduced emissions.
4. Small noise footprint.
5. Low fuel consumption.
Priorities depend on mission requirements,
which leads to many types of engines: e.g.,
high thrust in military aircrafts, but low fuel
consumption in commercial aircrafts.

Performance Hill and Peterson [1992], El-Sayed [2016] 53.61

 Engine Performance Parameters

1. Thrust
2. Propulsive efficiency
3. Thermal efficiency
4. Overall efficiency
5. Thrust specific fuel consumption
ṁf
TSFC = . (20)
T

Performance Hill and Peterson [1992] 54.61

 Efficiency

Performance Hill and Peterson [1992], Mattingly [1992] 55.61

 Efficiency

Performance Hill and Peterson [1992], Mattingly [1992] 55.61

 Specific Thrust and Specific Consumption

Specific Thrust Specific Consumption

Performance Hill and Peterson [1992], Mattingly [1992] 56.61

 References and Further Reading

J. D. (Jr.) Anderson. Introduction to Flight. Mc Graw Hill, eighth edition, 2016.

A. F. El-Sayed. Fundamental of Aircraft and Rocket Propulsion. Springer, 2016.
P. G. Hill and C. R. Peterson. Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Propulsion. Pearson Education, Inc., second edition, 1992.
J. D. Mattingly. Elements of Propulsion: Gas Turbines and Rockets. AIAA, second edition, 1992.

Performance 57.61
 Turbofans in Military Aircrafts – Eurojet EJ200
Power plant of Eurofighter Typhoon

General characteristics
• Type: Two-shaft turbofan with afterburner
• Length: 4 m
• Diameter: 0.7 m
• Dry weight: 1,000 kg
Components
• Compressor: Axial, 3-stage LP, 5-stage HP
• Combustor: Annular
• Turbine: 1-stage LP, 1-stage HP
Performance
• Maximum thrust: 60 kN (90 kN with afterburner)
• Overall pressure ratio: 26
• Bypass ratio: 0.4
• Air mass flow: 76 kg/s
• Fuel consumption: 1.3 kg/s (4.3 kg/s with afterburner)
• Specific fuel consumption: 22 (g/s)/kN (48 (g/s)/kN with afterburner)
• Thrust-to-weight ratio: 6 (9 with afterburner)

Appendix Source: Wikipedia 58.61

Turboprops in Military Transport Aviation – Europrop TP400
Power plant of A400M

General characteristics
• Type: Three-shaft turboprop
• Length: 3.5 m
• Diameter: 0.9 m (propeller diameter: 5.30 m)
• Dry weight: 1,900 kg
Components
• Compressor: 5-stage IP, 6-stage HP (two rows of variable stators)
• Combustor: Annular
• Turbine: 1-stage HP, 1-stage IP, 3-stage power turbine
Performance
• Maximum power output: 8,000 kW
• Overall pressure ratio: 25
• Air mass flow: 26 kg/s
• Fuel consumption: 0.45 kg/s
• Specific fuel consumption: 10.7 (g/s)/kN (in cruise)
• Power specific fuel consumption: 0.2 (kg/h)/kW (in cruise)
• Power-to-weight ratio: 4.4 kW/kg

Appendix Source: Wikipedia 59.61

Piston Engines in General Aviation – Lycoming O-360 A1A
Power plant of Cessna 172

General characteristics
• Type: Four-cylinder, horizontally opposed, four-stroke aircraft engine
• Bore: 130 mm
• Stroke: 111 mm
• Displacement: 5,916 cc
• Dry weight: 117 kg
Components
• Fuel type: 91/96 aviation gasoline minimum grade
• Oil system: 8 l wet sump
• Cooling system: air-cooled
Performance
• Power output: 134 kW at 2700 rpm
• Compression ratio: 8.5:1
• Fuel consumption: 30 l/h to 34 l/h

Appendix Source: Wikipedia 60.61

 Engine Type Depends on Mission Requirements

If we focus into thrust:

Appendix 61.61