FLOATING STRUCTURES

Chapter 7: Hull Structure

Contents
➢ Hull and Deck Definition
➢ Structural Design Considerations
➢ Hull Structure Design
➢ Local Strength Design
➢ Hydrostatic Loading
➢ Plate Thickness
➢ Stiffener Sizing
➢ Framing
➢ Global Strength
➢ Buckling
➢ Fatigue
1. Hull and Deck Definition
The term “hull” generally refers to that section of a platform that provides buoyancy.
In the offshore industry, the term “deck” generally refers to the supported functional superstructure.
However, for a hull, the term is also used to refer to the horizontal flats separating compartments in the
hull. In the discussion on hull structures, to make a distinction, deck structure above and between the
columns will be referred to as the “superstructure.”
The term “deck” will be reserved to refer to the horizontal, local parts of the superstructure. With most
production structures, spars, TLPs and most semi-submersibles, the superstructure deck is a physically
separate structure.
For semi-submersibles and TLPs, the pontoons, columns, deck and bracing system compose a single,
integral structural system.
2. Structural Design Considerations
General
Structural design of floating platforms can be broken down in two fundamental levels:
▪ Local Strength
▪ Global Strength
In addition, the buckling strength needs to be checked and this may be on either level or, more likely,
involves stresses from both global and local effects.
Besides buckling, fatigue needs and endurance needs are to be checked.
2. Structural Design Considerations
Local Strength
Design for local loading is mostly based upon
empirical, classification rules and gravity buoyancy
loading, although stress-based checks are made for
some components.
The empirical equations given in the scantling rules
have been long established and are the product of
considerable service experience and research.
The loaded structure functions also in a global context.
Pontoons and the column shell plating, while locally
designed for hydrostatic loading, assembled as a hull
element, are the primary strength elements too.
Figure 88 shows the assembled hull element as part
of the hull global strength system of several typical
floating offshore structure forms.

Figure 88. Hull elements in offshore structure

2. Structural Design Considerations
Global Strength
Consideration of global strength uses stress-based, rational analysis to examine the entire structure as a
space frame or, in the case of a ship-type hull or a spar, as a single slender beam.
Both the distributed gravity buoyancy loading and the combination with environmental loading are applied.
In addition to the effects of wind, current, and wave load, environmental loading includes the inertial forces
due to vessel motions and also the reactions of mooring lines or tendons.
The wave loading and the corresponding inertia load are the most important environmental load on floating
structures.
In some cases, transportation and/or installation loading can form controlling design loads.
2. Structural Design Considerations
Global Strength
Exclusive of buckling, the allowable stress is given as Fallowable =Fy/FS where the factor of safety (FS) is:

Where buckling is a consideration, the allowable stress is given as Fallowable =Fcr/FS where Fcr is the critical
buckling or shear stress and the FS is:
2. Structural Design Considerations
Buckling Strength
Most floating platform designs are controlled by the local and global strength considerations.
Buckling may be controlled in special cases of slender chords and braces in truss structures and the upper
deck of a ship shaped vessel that is subjected to a hogging condition under still water loading conditions.
Fatigue
Except for designs that do not rely on space frame bracing, fatigue is almost invariably in the bracing
connections to the columns or to other braces, invariably at a weld, and usually associated with a known
form of stress raiser.
Fatigue design is important for ships and spars in the framing close to the waterline. Also, the transition
between the truss and “hard tank” of a truss spar is a critical area for fatigue.
This is identical to the connection of the superstructure to the hull structure in many respects.
3. Hull Structure Design
General
There are two very important distinctions for “hull structures” which distinguish them from the typical space
frame structure familiar to civil engineers and designers of fixed platforms.
One is the formation into box forms with considerable strength as girders. The second is cross-stiffened
plate panels.
These structures are primarily composed of panels of cross-stiffened plate as illustrated in fig. 89.
The plate provides watertightness and resists hydrostatic loading. Assembled into a box form, as shown in
fig. 90, the assemblage forms a box girder of considerable global strength in bending, shear and torsional
strength.
3. Hull Structure Design
General

Figure 89. Typical cross-stiffened plated panel

3. Hull Structure Design
General

Figure 90. Hull type box girder and loading

3. Hull Structure Design
Cross-Stiffened Plate Systems
As shown in fig. 89, the cross-stiffened plate panel consists of the plate field, the stiffeners in one direction,
and the flames supporting these in the other.
Where necessary, frames are supported by girders, if not by bulkheads. The stiffeners are either angles,
tees, or specially rolled “bulb flats,” integrally welded to the plate.
Panels are not necessarily flat. The shell plating on columns of semi-submersibles and spars are formed of
curved panels.
If cross-stiffened, lateral load is resisted by stiffener flexure and are not true “shells”, which fail by buckling,
especially ring stiffened.
Figure 91 shows such a structural form as built for a spar. In both the flat and the cylindrical cases, the
stiffeners run through the cutouts in the frames.
3. Hull Structure Design
Cross-Stiffened Plate Systems

Figure 91. Forming the outer shell of spar platform, plating, stiffeners and bulkhead shown
3. Hull Structure Design
Hull Girders
In the box section hull element shown previously in fig. 90, a number of flat plate panels are assembled
into a prototypical “hull girder.”
The box girder form is relatively straightforward and is common for pontoons and effectively equivalent for
columns.
The pontoons and the columns locally perform the same primary strength function as a ship hull in this
respect.
The column-to-pontoon connection is equivalent to a concentrated load and not unlike a derrick on a crane
ship.
4. Local Strength Design
Local strength design addresses primarily plate thickness and the spacing, span and cross-sectional
design of framing systems, all to resist lateral distributed load.
This part of the local strength design is usually based upon the gravity/buoyancy loading and uses
empirical, classification society, rule-based, minimum scantlings.
The girders supporting frames, and sometimes also the frames, are designed with rational, allowable
stress analysis. Highly repetitive frames are often optimised with rational allowable stress analysis.
The plate is integrally welded to, and considered to be part of the flexural section of the stiffeners, frames
and girders.
Other local loads are from functional components (typically foundations) such as derrick, substructure
foundations, riser supports, and foundations for mooring equipment and tendon connectors.
5. Hydrostatic Loading
General
The predominant form of local loading is hydrostatic pressure, both static and hydrodynamic.
This can be the static external pressure of the sea as well as the dynamic augment of waves.
In addition, the pressures on internal surfaces from internal liquids are to be considered both from service
as tankage and from internal flooding.
Internal flooding can result from a breech in the shell plating or from internal piping system failure.
All plating surfaces of the watertight envelope and internal watertight subdivision should be considered to
be subject to hydrostatic loading.
Local loading can be “static,” referring to the Gravity Load condition, and “dynamic,” referring to
environmental loading, as a component of Combined Loading.
It should be emphasised that the design hydrostatic pressures determine most of the hull steel (> 80%)
and have far more impact on the steel required than global strength (5-15%).
5. Hydrostatic Loading
Design Heads
There are given in four service categories:
▪ Tank Space
▪ Void Compartment Space
▪ Areas Subject to Wave Immersion
▪ Minimum Scantlings
Figure 92 graphically summarises these requirements.
In addressing loading from wave dynamics, particularly in
conjunction with platform motions, it is important to
consider also the phase relationships of different
components of load.

Figure 92. Summary - ABS design head requirements

6. Plate Thickness
General
Plating under a lateral load does not behave according to simple
rules of stress suitable for use in stress-based design.
At best, this would require large deflection plate theory and
specific knowledge of edge boundary conditions, not to mention
an assumption of the out-of-plane deformation.
Scantling rules for plating are generally based upon a uniform
pressure loaded plate in a continuous field bounded by stiffening
on the long edges (a) and frames supporting the stiffeners on the
short edges (b)
The upper part of fig. 93 illustrates the context and notation for
an individual plate panel.

Figure 93. Plate bending geometry, notations, and conventions

6. Plate Thickness
General
Plating under a lateral load does not behave according to simple
rules of stress suitable for use in stress-based design.
At best, this would require large deflection plate theory and
specific knowledge of edge boundary conditions, not to mention
an assumption of the out-of-plane deformation.
Scantling rules for plating are generally based upon a uniform
pressure loaded plate in a continuous field bounded by stiffening
on the long edges (a) and frames supporting the stiffeners on the
short edges (b)
The upper part of fig. 93 illustrates the context and notation for
an individual plate panel.
Plate bending is further illustrated in fig. 94 showing the typical
continuity between the adjacent panels, particularly noting the
edge boundary condition of end fixity.
6. Plate Thickness
ABS Criteria
For the most general case (Tanks), scantlings for plating thickness is

(57)

For the special cases, governed by watertight integrity, Watertight Bulkheads and Watertight Flats,
scantlings for plating is

(58)

where t = thickness: mm or in., s = stiffener spacing: mm or in., h = specified design head to lower edge of
plate: m or ft; q is a factor reflecting the ratio of the yield strength of the plate to the nominal yield of mild
steel; metric: 235/Fy [MN/mm2] = 24/Fy [kgf/mm2]; English: q =34/Fy [ksi]. k however is a special factor
considering additional strength of plates with short aspect ratios.
6. Plate Thickness
ABS Criteria
k = 1 for , but for , the following is used:

(59)

It should be noted that is more typical and setting k = 1 will suffice in most cases. is the ratio of
beam length to width.
6. Plate Thickness
DnV Criteria
The rule for plating thickness is:

(60)

While seemingly more complex than the ABS rule, this expression is in fact in the same form.
We will examine it term by term and address the metric units for a comparison. Looking first at the
denominator, is the nominal, yield-based allowable stress (ABS: fa = Fy/FS). kp represents the long side
(stiffener) boundary condition (kp= 1.0 for clamped and kp = 0.5 for simply supported edges). In as much as
virtually all plates in a watertight panel are continuous, kp = 1.0 can be assumed.
In the numerator, ka is an aspect ratio factor similar to the k in the ABS formulation. In this case, ka = (1.1 -
0.25 s/l)2 ≤ 1.0. For a square plate, ka = 0.72. In the ABS formulation, k = 0.78. However; for l/s > 2, which
is nearly always the case, k = 1 in both cases.
Also in the numerator, kr is a curvature factor. This is not used by ABS. Considering curvature of radius, r
(m), perpendicular to stiffeners (only), kr =(1 - 0.5 s/r). For flat plate, kr = 1.
7. Stiffener Sizing
General
Stiffeners are employed to resist lateral loading of the plate and
are usually made from the rolled shapes integrally welded to the
plate.
Such stiffeners are distinct from the other stiffeners used to prevent
plate buckling.
Typically, stiffeners run continuously through the supporting
frames. Otherwise they are referred to as “intercostal” and require
special connections at each end at each frame.
A summary of stiffener bending is given in fig. 95, the upper part
showing context in the stiffened panel, between frames and
uniform loading.

Figure 95. Summary of stiffener bending

7. Stiffener Sizing
General
Figure 96 shows some of the typical stiffeners sections used.

Figure 96. Alternative stiffener sections

7. Stiffener Sizing
General
Figure 97 illustrates the notational conventions for the US unequal angle.

Figure 97. Notation for stiffener properties

7. Stiffener Sizing
General
Figure 98 illustrates bending stress distribution in the plate, a schematic of an equivalent uniformly
stressed plate (effective breadth, 2be), and provides notational reference.

Figure 98. Effective breadth of plating with stiffeners

7. Stiffener Sizing
General
Figure 99 is a plot of the effectiveness of the plate as a function of the ratio of the effective span
to the breadth of the panel .

Figure 99. Effectiveness ratio, , of attached plating for stiffeners

7. Stiffener Sizing
General
The upper part of fig. 100 shows the neutral axis as a function of effective breadth for a typical case. The
lower plot shows the resulting section modulus.

Figure 100. Stiffener neural axes and section modulus variation

with effective breath of plate
7. Stiffener Sizing
ABS Criteria
The required, minimum section modulus is given as follows (metric, US units):
(63)
where [metric (US)] f =7.8 (0.0041), s = stiffener spacing (m, ft), l = effective stiffener span (m, ft), h = the
specified design head taken at stiffener mid span (m, ft). The factor Q is material constant adapted from
the Ship Rules and is not given in the MODU Rules.
The factor c represents stiffener end fixity and the stress pattern of the specific application. Although the
Ship Rules have a number of specific cases represented, the MODU Rules give primarily two sets of
factors:
7. Stiffener Sizing
ABS Criteria
The Ship Rules employ a multiplier "Q" to reflect the benefits of high tensile steels.
This can be used for offshore structures as well but has not been widely incorporated in to the MODU
Rules.
Taken as unity for mild steel, various values are specified for high tensile steels. Taking HT36 grade steels
(Fy = 51 ksi), for example, Q = 0.72. High tensile steels are prevalently used for the more highly loaded
portions of the hull.
7. Stiffener Sizing
DnV Criteria
In the DnV notation, the following section modulus rule is given:

(64)

Like the plate thickness rule given previously, the DnV stiffener rule is essentially the same form as that
given by ABS. again with some differences.
Simplifying, as was done with plating, the following can be written for the stiffener ends:

(65)
7. Stiffener Sizing
DnV Criteria
What is more notably different in the DnV Rules is the use of allowable stresses in the formulation. For
stiffeners, these are as follows (N/mm2):

The definition of these deductions is as follows:

7. Stiffener Sizing
DnV Criteria
There is given a curvature reduction factor as follows (DnV notation, consistent units):

(67)

where r = Radius of shell mid surface, I = Inertia of the stiffener and plate combination, L = Distance
between frames (same as I) , t = Shell thickness (same as tp), and s = Stiffener Spacing. The quantity c is a
factor reflecting the boundary conditions of the stiffener as a beam.
7. Stiffener Sizing
Shear Strength
While the shear strength of rolled shape stiffeners are rarely a problem, and are not explicitly addressed in
the rules, there can be difficulty at their connections, particularly to frames.
This is particularly the case where the stiffener are highly loaded and high strength steels are used for
plating and stiffeners and the frames are of mild steel.
Normally there is a double-fillet weld connection between the stiffener and the frame web.
This may at first seem to be a welding problem, but is actually a problem in the frame web size in that the
depth of the stiffener times the thickness of the frame web cannot provide the shear strength required.
This is a stiffener problem in that it may be the basis choosing deeper or ever over size stiffeners.
Thicker frame webs are not always an attractive solution and over size stiffeners can benefit global
strength. Also, there are standard details to address this problem (clips and collars), but these are costly.
8. Framing
General
Typically, a frame is a system of connected beams that support stiffeners. Usually a frame is an interacting,
closed unit.
The upper left of fig. 101 shows three-dimensionally, in-context, a frame and its various components.
The individual elements of a frame are usually associated with adjoining panels.
The flange is often referred to as a face plate. The single-celled, closed web frame shown at the upper
right is typical of columns and pontoon section of semi-submersibles and TLPs.
They could be circular, partly curved, or rectangular as shown in fig. 101.
8. Framing
General

Figure 101. Typical frame configurations

8. Framing
General
Figure 102 shows some of the load patterns typical for a pontoon.
In addition to the high external head for a deeply submerged, empty tank, there can alternatively be
significant internal heads in a tank when not submerged.
Even more complex is with one tank filled and the other empty.

Figure 102. Common frame loading patterns in offshore hull structures

8. Framing
The Design Process
8. Framing
The Design Process
8. Framing
The Design Process
9. Global Strength
Structural Configurations
The approach to considering global strength depends greatly on its structural configuration.
Fundamentally there are two, that of a long, slender beam and that of a space frame.
Typical of the former is the SPAR paltform and various ship-type hulls, e.g. the FPSO, the drillships, and
certain forms of heavy lift vessels.
The latter case includes the semi-submersibles and the TLPs.
The structural configuration of each particular type has been discussed to some extent in the sections that
address the various platform types.
9. Global Strength
Global Load Systems
Global strength relates primarily to two types of loading systems: the gravity/buoyancy load and the
environmental loading. Wave load inertial loading is the principal environmental load.
The 8-column semi typically has large columns at the ends and smaller diameter interior columns. The
interior columns are as much structural members as anything else and can have somewhat higher stress
levels because they are sized for loading and not their waterplane contribution.
The 6-column semis generally have six columns of equal diameter and, despite the longer spans, less
severe longitudinal stresses.
9. Global Strength
Envivonmental Loading
From an environmental load perspective, there are two systems of wave load of importance.
One is the “squeeze/pry” load. Squeeze/pry is a lateral loading effect.
The vertical loading is not of serious consequence except for oblique seas, particularly with the widely
spread, twin pontoon configuration. This results in the second important wave load system: “racking” load.

Spar Hull Structural Configuration

Spar hulls and other single column hulls are similar to semisubmersible columns.
A typical spar construction is shown in fig. 65. The outer shell, inner shell (centrewell), decks and
bulkheads are all plate and frame structures designed to local scantling rules as discussed above.
Notice the radial columns between the frames of the centrewell and the outer shell. These have the same
function as the strut in fig. 101 (lower right).
9. Global Strength
Distribution of Wave Bending Moment
Figure 108 shows the distribution factor for the bending moment computed above along the length of the
vessel.

Figure 108. Distribution of ship bending moment

9. Global Strength
Wave Shear Force
Maximum shearing forces are given as:
(79)

(80)

where k = 30. F1 and F2 are distributed as shown in figs. 109 and 110, respectively.
9. Global Strength
Wave Shear Force

Figure 109. Distribution factor F1

9. Global Strength
Wave Shear Force

Figure 110. Distribution factor F2

9. Global Strength
Structural analysis and design can be divided into five phases:
9. Global Strength
Structural analysis and design can be divided into five phases:
10. Buckling
Buckling strength is functionally related to a property of the structure generally known as structural
slenderness, represented by the general reduced slenderness:

(88)

where = material yield stress, and = elastic buckling stress.

Column Buckling

(89)

(90)
10. Buckling

Figure 111. Typical non-dimensional buckling curve

10. Buckling

Figure 112. Recommended effective length factor

10. Buckling
Most floating structures are constructed from stiffened plates which may experience one of the following
buckling modes:
11. Fatigue
The S-N curves developed by the UK Department of Energy are commonly used for fatigue analysis of
floating platforms. The curves are represented in the form

N is the cycles to failure, S is the stress range (either hot-spot or nominal stress range depending on the
application), A and m are constants, however there is an inflection point where these constants change for
high cycle fatigue.
The design curves represent a 2-sigma upper bound to the experimental data. A1 , m1 and A2, m2 are
values of A and m in the equation above for low cycle and high cycle fatigue, respectively.
11. Fatigue
Table 18. Parameters for S-N Curves
11. Fatigue
Table 18. Parameters for S-N Curves
11. Fatigue

Figure 124. S-N Curves