LLT #1

Second Language Learning Theories

Class Requirements:
10%: Active Participation
40%: Midterm – Reflective Journal (Chapter Review) (Deadline: end-of-course)
Every week, students need to read one chapter and write a critical summary of the
chapter (most interesting; most skeptical & what can be applied into practice):

50%: End-of-term (1500-2000 words)

- Present your view on what you see as the three most important for major variables
for successful second language learning in formal (instructed) contexts: defend /
support your view on the importance of these three variables with readings,
discussions, literature, etc then describe what your class might look like in terms of
task, classwork & teacher behavior.
Purpose: Look at how insights from psychology, theoretical linguistics, & first
language acquisition could inform our understanding.

=> Understand how languages are learned.

=> Develop critical thinking skills in evaluating Western-based theories of second

language learning

=> Help you how to apply theoretical knowledge about second language learning to
inform your classtoom teaching + to develop your situated methodology.

ELT as an interdisciplinary field:

- Linguistics
- Education
- Psychology
=> Second Language Education

Teachers are human beings.

Reason to take this course:

- Without theory, there is no way to establish effective teaching procedures from ritual,
no way to determine which methods are helpful or not helpful (Krashen 1983, p261)
- Knowledge of Second Language Learning.
=> Theories help to shape the teachers about what they can achieve in the classroom.
However, it is only when they have tried out some of the pedagogical applications
suggested by SLA (second language acquisition) research that they will understand
what it really means for their own teaching context.
L1: First language (mother tongue; native language)
L2: Second language
FL: Foreign Language (i.e. English is a foreign language because it is not used outside
of the classroom)
AL: Additional Language (everybody’s language; lingua franca; global language)

=> Language Acquisition is the type of language is learned subconsciously.

=> Language Learning is the type of language that is actively learnt.

- Theory; Hypothesis; Model:

Theoretical Knowledge is an iceberg, building up to the deeper [Teacher’s Expertise]

- Contexts:
+> Naturalistic
+> Bilingual
+> Instructed
+> Immersion

Theories:
We research how languages ARE LEARNED
=> how students subconsciously picks up a language
Unfortunately, there are more questions than answers.

- Different views of language learning, which will be discussed throughout the entire
course: (*there is no single best way of learning)

Cognitive: focuses on strategy

Physical: focuses on experience and practice
Emotional: focuses on stories, symbols, images
Spiritual: connected by community involvement
3 MAJOR Approaches to teaching:
- Transmission: teaching of forms & structures
- Constructivism: construct their own knowledge via social interaction (social
constructivism)
- Sociocognitivism: learning through active use of the language and/or via interactions
in the surrounding environment

LLT #2
Language Acquisition in early childhood

- Learning through lexical chunks

e.g. I like “x” (I like chicken; I like food; I like coffee; etc)

- Learning through word family

e.g. I am a responsible person = I take responsibility for myself = I claim responsibility

for my life = I am responsible for my personal decisions (Paraphrasing)

=> What is the goal of teaching English?

- It’s not about teaching them to speak on a near-“native” level or teaching them to
have a near perfect command of the English language
- It’s about how to handle digital literacies (abilities to read & write)
+> How to access information (the current gen are digital natives)
+> How to filter information
+> How to remix the information into your own personal work

How does one (even an infant) learn a language:

- Through signs / signals
- Through influence
*However, it remains a mystery because of a lack of evidence

*The Western society embraces individualism

*The Eastern society embraces harmony (collectivism)
*The society is going towards post-humanism

How a message is sent depends largely on the receiver (how they receive a message;
how they interpret the tone; base knowledge; etc)
Full communication (verbal or non-verbal) is a compromise, a negotiation of meaning
between both sides
Learning is not a memorization of facts because facts are changing. It’s about how to
ask the good questions.

I. Language acquisition:
- Is an inter-disciplinary field that seeks to understand how humans acquire and
process language.
- It draws insights from various fields such as linguistics; psychology; neuroscience;
computer science and education
- The main objective: identify the cognitive and linguistic processes involved in
learning and using language, including how children acquire their first language; how
adults adopt a second language; how the brain processes and represents the language.

- Language acquisition researchers use various methods to study language (observing

language use in natural / controlled habitats; analyzing info via AI & NLP (natural
language process))

=> The lesson focuses on:

- An overview of theories of FLA (first language acquisition)
- Key issues in FLA that are relevant to the inquiry into SLA (second language
acquisition)

II. First language: is a vital resource for second language acquisition

+> First language = native language; primary language and / or mother tongue

- Children, no matter which language, learn language in the same way. Not only is the
rate the rate and extent of young children’s words faster, they pick up the language
naturally.

- Children’s learning process can be both imitative and creative

=> You need to provide a lot of opportunities to immerse the learners with English.

- Many have different theories on how children pick up the language, but none
provides all the answers.

- It might be the interaction between languages, culture and cognition.

- The debate: Nature vs Nurture

+> Some believe that our genetics determine our behavior
+> Others believe that our environment, upbringing, and life experiences determine
our behavior.
=> This explains why some learners acquire / study the language faster

Research challenges:
- The end result of “language acquisitions” is considered to be a grammar – mental
system that allows people to speak and understand a language
- Methodological validity: The collection and analysis of reliable and valid first
language rate

Research designs:
- Naturalistic: Longitudinal; examining language development over an extended period
of time
- Experimental: Cross-sectional (researched AT THE TIME, not in the long run);
making use of specialty designed tasks to elicit linguistic activity relevant to the
phenomenon under investigation; investigating and comparing the linguistic
knowledge of different children at a particular point in development.

Quality of Data:
- Data may be longitudinal (lâu dài); cross-sectional or both; & maybe collected across
a range of genre; interactional contexts & tasks

- To be valid, data should be collected at regular and frequent intervals, in particular in

longitudinal studies, but also in cross-sectional studies where there is follow-up.

III. Behaviorism: A “blank slate” theory

- “We begin our lives with a slate that is virtually blank.” – John Locke (British
Philosopher)

- Aspects that influence [Stimulus => Response]

+> Reinforcement: Learning is a process of habitual information (Repetition +
Encouragement) – Skinner’s theory
+> Operant conditioning: when a child utters a word that produces the desired effect,
the child is more likely to reproduce that word
e.g. conditioning: crying; operant: have mother’s attention
=> The child may not repeat what is taught and may rely own self-established rules /
systems. Error correction does not always work.

+> Nativism - Chomsky’s theory:

Language Acquisition Device (unconscious process inside child’s mind, used only for
learning language): A [Grammar Template] wired into the child’s brain (now called
[Universal Grammar])
=> Info from environment => Brain (Universal Grammar) => Language Acquisition
Language Learning is something that is biologically reprogrammed (Innatism).
=> Language Learning is based on key [PATTERNS] to develop new words /
sentences
- Shared developmental pattern:
Learning sounds => Learning words => Learning sentences

- What are the limitations of Chomsky’s theory of Universal Grammar?

+> The narrow thinking of “Language is modular” (different languages in different
parts of the brain) => It was proven to be otherwise, in a specific part of the brain
+> Solely focuses on SYNTAX, not MORPHOLOGY (it doesn’t care about meaning)
+> It focuses on the innate capacity (innatism). False belief that language learning is
IMPOSSIBLE without a built-in grammar template. => False belief that there’s an
optimal age for language acquisition among children. (the younger / the better)

Critical hypothesis: A “critical period” or a time when it is optimal to learn a language,

exists in children. Part of this hypothesis is that if a child is not exposed to a language
in the early years of life, they will never have full intuitive command of a first
language.

Opinion: Behaviourism vs. Innatism

1. Empirical or Behavioral Perspective
2. Rationalist or Innatist Perspective

*should compare perspectives in a similar context.

- Interactionist perspectives:
1. Piaget’s
+> Children’s cognitive development occurs through their play and interaction with
objects and people
+> Children’s cognitive development leads to their language development
2. Vygotsky’s
+> Language develops primarily from social interaction
+> Cognitive development is resulted from language development

OVERALL:
- Skinner emphasizes imitation
- Chomsky emphasizes innate language facuity
- Piaget emphasizes the child’s mental structures within the mind for language
development
- Vygotsky emphasizes the role of social interaction
=> Learning language is improved when people have more time to interact.
=> Impersonal sources of language such as television or radio alone is not sufficient.
One-to-one interaction gives the child access to language that is adjusted to the
children’s level of comprehension.

- A new challenge: AI Language Models

=> Linguistic experience – not grammar – is key to becoming a competent language

user.

LLT #3
The Learner Language

Pre lesson:

3 processes of learning a language: Conscious => Subconscious => Unconscious

+> Most English learners learn English consciously (working memory)
=> Tendency to forget things after study

Key issues: learner language; interlanguage; how does L1 influence additional

language learning

IELTS is NOT a fair method to assess people’s language proficiency

=> I will quit IELTS

There is no general proficiency, there is ONLY domain-specific language proficiency

There is no such thing as “a native speaker’s English”

=> there is no correct accent; or a particular standard structure

Learner language consists of: Competence + Development

- Observation: as you grow older, you become more reticent in answering questions
due to past errors or being influenced by a perfectionist culture
- In the process of learning additional languages, students will unavoidably make
errors. Using your experience and knowledge, explain the possible causes of learners’
errors.

=> There are 2 approaches to learners’ errors (learner language studies)

1. Contrastive Analysis: Compare L1 & L2 to pinpoint errors
- Founded by Robert Lado
- Rules / Optimal Conditions:
+> Sufficiently rich opportunities for exposure and practice
+> Positive attitudes towards the target language & society
+> The aid of (high-quality) instruction
=> Focuses on the contrasts (differences); not the similarities
Problems:
- Utilized to predict errors. This assumes that error and difficulty can be equated
- Contrastive analysis assumed that error derrives exclusively from frist language
interference
- Contrastive analysis model primarily works best in predicting phonological error.
However, error of morphology, syntax, lexis and discourse are imperfectly predicted
by contrastive analysis

2. Error Analysis:
- Founded by Stephen Pit Corder
- Focus and analyze the actual error patterns, then figure out why these errors happen.
- Procedures:
+> Collection of learner language
+> Identification of errors
+> Description of errors
+> Explanation of errors
+> Evaluation of errors
=> Help evaluating proficiency, because errors are a window to the learning process
=> This is the OPTIMAL way to analyze your students
- Summary:
+> Error of competence (patterned errors) & errors of performance (one-time
mistakes)
+> Errors are not only an available but also, very importantly, a necessary feature of
learner language, without which improvement cannot occur
+> Certain errors occur among language learners of various L1 backgrounds and seem
to be more related to the intrinsic difficulty of the subsystems involved than cross-
lingual influence. These errors, which learners tend to make regardless of their first
language background, are termed “developmental errors”
- Problems: Lack of distinction between errors of competence or performance
3. Larry Selinker’s concept of INTERLANGUAGE:
- The general idea that the language of additional language learners is an autonomous
linguistic system, distinct from both L1 and L2
- Learner Language as an approximative system
- “Interlanguage” (Selinker, 1972) was invented as a response to Lado’s contrastive
analysis

3.1. INTER-LANGUAGE refers to:

- language system that each learner constructs at any given point in development
independent of L1 & L2
- the type of language which can be produced FL/L2 learners who are in the process of
acquiring or learning a new language
- the linguistic system of learner language produced by adults when they attempt
meaningful communication using a language they are in the process of learning
=> It OVERLAPS & COMBINES the rules of “home language” & “target language”

=> Language is a never-ending process => There is no actual target

3.2. Key features:

+> Systematic at every level: phonology; morphology; syntax; semantics; and
pragmatics
+> Autonomous
+> Patterned
What if: the language produced by second language learners is systematic?

Fossilization: an error being “fossilized” means it cannot be fixed. The error has been
naturalized.
E.g. ““h” là âm câm” ; “an” trước “uể oải”

- Selinker (1972) claims that interlanguage is a system in its own right.

=> How does this contradict Chomsky’s innatism?

=> Very few adult L2 learners acquire a second language perfectly.

=> Lack of access to UG (Universal Grammar)

=> Inter-language can be a “separate linguistic system based on the observable input
which results from a learner’s attempted production of a TL (target language) norm”
(Selinker (1974; 35))

*Problematizing IL hypothesis: “learning language is linear (tuyến tính)”

=> The trajectory of learning is non-linear (phi tuyến tính); it is dynamic
Mitchell & Muyles, 1998; Larsen-Freeman, 2003
1. SLA is a process of increasing conformity to a uniform”
2. L2 learning is a gradual development from mother tongue towards the target
language
3. A system of certain rules which is neither the system of native language or mother
tongue can developed by the learner at every stage of the learning process. This system
is a separate linguistic one
4. L2 learners’ mistakes are natural
5. The language learning process includes hypothesis-testing or rule formation
6. Many language learners do not achieve the target language competence

Different views:
1. Based on Chomsky’s generative linguistics, which is aimed to explain how it is
possible for child first language acquisition to achieve the native speaker’s tacit
language competence
2. Overemphasizing grammatical knowledge at the expense of meaning
3. Downplaying the role of first language and the context of “use”
4. Based on the myth that the learning path is gradual and similar to all learners
5. Language learning has no endpoint

OVERALL: There are 2 schools of thought:

Errors are bad habits VS. Errors are stepping stones
=> Neither school of thought are sufficient due to lack of research

Implications: What does this mean to the classroom teacher?

1. Should errors be corrected?
2. When should learners’ errors be corrected?
3. Which errors should be corrected?
4. How should errors be corrected?
5. Who should do the correcting?

LLT #4

How a person learns a language is influenced by many factors: social contexts; culture;
age; gender; learners’ styles / strategies & affective factors (motivation, self-efficacy,
anxiey and tolerance of ambiguity)
A person’s success of language learning does not stem from their language learning
aptitude.

Teaching methodologies are fashion. They do not last forever.

Which methodology chosen should be decided on social contexts.

Do not adhere to your lesson plan 100%. You should improvise when the need arises.

Knowing your students’ differences depends on how well you know yourself (self-
knowledge)

The success of the classroom is determined by how well the teachers can understand
their students in a controlled setting.
=> You need to know your students
Teaching and learning are cooperative processes performed by both the teachers and
the students
=> You need to know your students and your students should know about you

Success depends less on linguistic analyses, materials and methods and more on what
goes on inside and between people in a language classroom (Stevick, 1980L 4)
=> Classroom life is a succession of interrelations, interactions and recursive motives
behind the teachers’ and their students’ behavior

- What are the essential personal characteristics that are critical to L2 learning success?

- If they are combined, how much do they contribute to L2 learning or to an L2 task?

The vast majority innovations in education have not necessarily achieved their goal
to actually “enhance” learning and the quality of the learning process, viewed from the
perspective of the learner.

Challenge: There is a gap between [what is taught], and [what is learnt]

Perhaps the biggest challenge facing teachers is how to accommodate individual

differences in their students

What makes learners different from each other? Endless (personality; culture; identity;
etc)

The problem with individual differences research:

- Perhaps the most serious error in interpreting correlations is the conclusion that one
of the variables causes the other. The fact that two things tend to occur together or
increase & decrease in a similar pattern does not mean that one causes the other. While
it may be that one variable influences by something else entirely (Lightbrown & Spada
2013: 78)

Reference book:
“Perezhivanie, Emotions and Subjectivity – Advancing Vygotsky’s Legacy”
- “Emotional experience”; “lived experience”
- An individual learner and their environment are two crucial considerations
- Individual learners with different previous learning histories, backgrounds, and
genetic makeup perceive and place value on the environment differently
- “Perezhivanie”: interrelations between: emotions – cognition – activity (Vygotsky)

Ecological perspectives:

The learner from sociocognitive perspectives:

- Embodied mind => Mind – Body – Object (triangle) => World

Complexity Theory and the Language Learner:

Adaptation and development are not based on pre-existing or hard-wired psychological

mechanisms separate from the immediate context of which a system is part (Larsen-
Freeman 2017)

LLT #5

Meaning Potential
- Denotational (Literal) Meaning: Nghĩa đen
- Connotational (Pragmatic / Contextualized) Meaning: Nghĩa bóng

=> When producing a language, people should use correct registers for appropriate
contexts.

Pronunciation (Phonetics)
- Segmental
- Suprasegmental

Knowledge:
- Propositional knowledge: kiến thức sách vở
- Experiential knowledge: kiến thức kinh nghiệm
- Perceived knowledge: kiến thức nhận thức
- Conceptual knowledge: kiến thức khái niệm
=> Words have no absolute definition or synonyms

Pragmatic: social grammar

Education is Social Sciences & Humanities

Quantum: lượng tử

Discourse (diễn ngôn) is ideological

AGE IN SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING

Review:

- Learners are all different

- Different learners learn the language differently

- All learners can learn a second language but with different trajectories and rates

- Relationships between individual characteristics and learning environments are

complex, and different learners react differently to the same learning conditions

=> Many elements (inner/outer) play a factor in how well / fast they take in ESL / EFL

- Reflection (Homework / Journal Task):

How old were you when you first started to learn English? From your personal
experience, what are the advantages and disadvantages of starting to learn English at
that age?

- “The younger the better” notion is WRONG. There are too many factors outside of
being “young” that affects SLA & Second Language Learning

Key issues:
- Early start: The natural conditions (immersion conditions) vs instructed conditions
(non-immersion conditions)
- Time allocation: Sufficient or insufficient?
- Linguistic Benefits: Teaching English to young Learners & other languages
=> There is no optimal age for learning. You can learn at any age. But age affects the
way you learn.
=> Young learners learn things unconcsciously/implicitly, whereas adult learners learn
consciously/explicitly
=> Young learners learn Listening & Speaking better. Older learners learn Reading &
Writing better.

Critical Period:
- Refers to a phase in the development of an organism during which a paricular
capacity or behavior must be acquired if it is to be acquired at all
- A critical period is a “bounded maturational span during which experimental factors
interact with biological mechanisms to determine neurocognitive and behavioral
outcomes”

=> What can’t be concluded from the studies of the Critical Period Hypothesis?
- Anything about the Rate of Learning: CPH research is about ultimate attainment after
many years of language learning, not about the speed with which progress is made
- Anything about the relationship between age & L2 learning at school: CPH examines
people with many years of exposure in a variety of contexts that may include but are
not limited to instruction
- Anything about the role or status of L1: CPH research does not examine the
maintenance or development of a learner’s first language. The research focuses on the
individual’s ability to use the L2 & rarely assesses any changes in L1 or loss of L1.

=> Summary:
1. Adults are faster in syntactic and morphological development than children
2. Older children are faster in syntactic and morphological development than younger
children
3. Older learners have a superior learning rate (Krashen et al, 1979)
4. An early start does not always guarantee native-like achievement (Harley & Wang,
1997)

Age or Opportunity?
- There are other variables that have nothing to do with biological maturation, but are
confoundable with age: psychological, social, educational, socioeconomic, the amount
& quality of input experienced.

In a foreign language contexts:

- Canada (Swain, 1984): early immersion students obtain better results, but the amount
of exposure is also higher
- No linear relationship has been found between time & proficiency
- Age differences favor older learners in the short term.
- Older learners may be quicker in acquiring language aspects that are explicit

Conclusion:
=> Children can learn multiple languages
=> Children who study a foreign language for only a year or two show no long-term
effects. Several years of learning is required
=> Learning in controlled settings is vastly different and has more limited time
=> A very early start has little to no relevance in foreign language contexts where
scant exposure has to be compensated for by conscious study in which older learners
are likely to excel and individual characteristics such as aptitude or motivation may
come to the fore, especially after the critical period closes (Cohen & Dornyei, 2002;
Ioup, 2005; Munoz & Singleton, 2011)
=> Age does influence, but in conjunction with other social & psychological factors
that affect systematic learning & fluency => Multicausality
=> “Chronological age” is not as important as “Social / Contextual Age” = the
interpreted knowledge & experience that molds a person
=> The decision to when to start depends on the realistic goals and realistic estimates
of how long it takes to achieve them. (Lightbrown & Spada, 2014, 98)

Context-embedded / Cognitively Undemanding Tasks

- Examples: developing survival vocabulary; demonstrated directions; playing simple
games; engaging in a face-to-face interactions; art / music / physical activities

=> Early SLA & adult learning are initially different

=> Teaching language via a ‘natural’ way cannot be done at primary school level
=> How and how long individuals are exposed to the additional language are more
important than how old they are
=> Language classes in monolingual schools do not offer best conditions for efficient
early SLA
LLT #6

What it means by knowing the second language

Our theory should be formed from research(es), not based on research

Is the second language acquired / learned / both learned & acquired?

=> Both learning and acquisition important to SLA. Both are complementary,
depending on the age & experience of the learners.

Explicit / Implicit Knowledge (Learning) in Second Language Learning

Pragmatics: social context; contextual understanding; social norms; social cues

Meaningful practice: tasks that have a productive goal

=> Teachers need to provide as much opportunities for practice, but the reality is that
time in the classroom is limited.

Positivism (n): absolute; one correct way, true to one => true to others
Examples:

Behaviorism is the most influential positivist theory. It posits that all behaviors are
influenced by outside stimuli.
Behaviorism is beneficial to introducing systems in the language (e.g. pronunciation,
S+V+O). It emphasizes mechanical learning.
When creative / productive practice is applied (e.g. write sentences, write an essay,
answer), behaviorism might not be beneficial.

- Influences from behaviorism:

=> Utilize & Emphasize the use of both systems. System 1 for fluency practice &
System 2 for Idea development

LLT #7

Cognitive theories
- Involves encouraging learners to use mental learning strategies to analyze,
hypothesize and deduce information so their minds are actively engaged in the
learning process
- A learning will use such strategies and formulate own patterns and rules.
- Making mistakes is seen as an important part of this process, as learners are able to
notice the discrepancies between their own output and that of others => develop by
experienting with language.
=> Making mistakes is welcome and embraced in developing cognitive theories in
learning the language
=> Teachers should introduce diverse ways to speak & write, using diverse grammar
& vocabulary

Chomsky’s Innatism:
- Humans are endowed with language. Everyone possesses innate knowledge of
universal language and principles that regulate the acquisition of languages
- Language was a rule-governed activity, not a set of habits => Should not be trated as
a process of mechaninal habit formation.

Actual verbal behavior:

- Linguistic Performance (Ngữ hành): performative
- Linguistic Competence (Ngữ năng): knowledge
=> By looking at the produced language, the teachers deduce the competence of using
the language

+> Argument: syntactical knowledge & meaning

+> Hierarchical elements of English language: Phonemes (âm vị) => Morphemes
(hình vị) => Words => Phrases => Sentences => Discourse (Text)

Universal grammar: The structure dependency principle

- Language organization depends on the structural relationships between elements in a
sentence
- Language select and assemble these features into lexical items (LI). A lexical item is
nothing but a bundle of features, including phonological, grammatical & semantic
features.
e.g. LI: how are you?; what’s your name?
=> Universal grammar leads to Grammatical Competence.
Therefore, the order of macro-skills are: Listening – Speaking – Reading – Writing

Is Universal Grammar available / applicable to L2 Learning?

- L2 learners are cognitively mature
- L2 learners already know at least one other language
- L2 learners have different learning motivations (language learning does not take
place in order to answer the basic human need to communicate)

Research evidence shows:

The vast majority of L2 learners do not become native-like, even when the context is
optimal. Learners sometimes applying a rule of L1 grammar, other times not.

Summary:
1. UG is a well-established theory which aims to describe & explain all human
language. In evaluating the relevance of UG to L2 learning, however, we must
remember that it is a linguistic theory, and not a learning or transition theory.
2. The UG Approach has been concerned with documenting & explaining the nature of
the L2 linguistic system. Social & Psychological variables which affect the learning
process are beyong itts merit & therefore ignored.
3. The UG approach is only interested in the learner as the possessor of a mind which
contains language(s); the assumption is that all human beings are endowed with such a
mind, and variations between individuals are of little concern to UG theorists

Krashen’s MONITOR MODEL hypotheses

1. Acquisition vs. Learning

2. Role of Monitor

3. Natural Order

4. Comprehensible Input

5. Affective Filter

=> Krashen’s Monitor Model: downplays the role of teaching. According to Krashen,
learning & Acquisition are 2 separate processes. This is false as they can be integrated.

=> Krashen’s ideals are the legacy of Chomsky’s innatism. It hypothesizes the
assumed existence of a Language Acquisition Device which would analyze L2 input
and ensure inter-language development, without conscious awareness on the part of
the learners.

Krashen’s Natural Approach to Language Teaching

(Dulay, Burt, & Krashen 1982, pp. 263-269)
- Maximize Exposure to natural communication
- Incorporate a silent phase in your program
- Use concrete references to make input comprehensible
- Devise techniques to relax students and protect their egos
- Include time for formal grammar for adults
- Learn motivations of your students and incorporate this into the lesson
- Create an atmosphere in which students are not embarrassed by their errors
- Use socially useful phrases in dialogues
- Certain structures should be learnt first (e.g. plural should be taught before the
possessive in English)
- Do not refer to L1 when teaching L2

Discussion: Krashen’s acquisition theory advocates the principle “first listening & then
speaking”, assuming that adults will copy the success that kids have demonstrated in
the acquisition of the native language
To what extent do you agree or disagree with Krashen’s view?

=> Krashen’s view fits the mindset of a native speaker. Most teachers do not often
teach Grammar.
=> Exposure to comprehensible input, while necessary, but not sufficient. Students
should be allowed experimentation of the language.

Conclusion:
=> In the absence of rules, low-level associate learning that draws on information
driven processes supported by memory is possible but does not lead to knowledge of a
systematic rule.

Mid-term:
Write a 500-word essay in which you discuss critically the cognitive & social
perspectives on foreign language learning with a focus on the question of whether
foreign is cognitive or social. Use your experience and some literature to support your
view.

LLT #8

Interactionism (Interaction Hypothesis)

Michael Long: Input => Interaction => Ouput

Interaction is done by modifying input & providing feedback related to the linking of
form & meaning

According to M.Long:
- Modified Interaction
- Conversational Adjustment
- Comprehension Input
- Language Acquisition

Negotiation of Meaning: self repetition, clarification & comprehension checks

- Modifying speech
- Providing linguistic & non-linguistic context speech
- Modifying the interactionist structure of the conversation
- Orienting the communication to the ‘here & now’

Noticing hypothesis (Schmidt, 1990): Input (Notice) => Intake => Output
PPP Teaching: Present – Practice – Production

Theory is only applicable to learning situations in which the following 4 criteria are
met.
- Adult learners are of high aptitude
- Structures are simple for learning
- Learners are at fairly early stages of learning
- The context is instructional

Connectionism: new form of behaviorism

- Connectionist system
- Consists of a set of connecting nodes
- Each connection has a certain strength & polarity
=> Connectionist assumes no innate endowment or mechanism specifically pre-
programmed for language teaching

Cognitivism:
- Exposure & Repetition of meaningful utterance within a meaning context is more
useful in learning an L2 than making learners aware of the rules of the language
- It should focus on multiple exposure to conventional units
- L2 teaching approach involve a great deal of exposure & use of target language, as
well as as much repetition as possible.
Social cultural theory (Vygotsky)
- Human learning is a social process, where the social world that the individual
inhabits has an important impact on the development of that individual. In turn, the
individual, through participation, is constantly influencing the social context.

LLT #8

Bi/Multilingualism & Second Language Learning

There is no monolingual country anymore.

English is an additional language

Macaro (2014): whether L1 should be used in oral interaction or the written materials
of L2 classrooms is the most fundamental question

Linguistic imperialism: the spread of L2 language that can kill L1

e.g. English may kill Vietnamese

Is info involving 2 or more languages process in separate systems or in a shared

system?
Do bilinguals / multilinguals have a cognitive advantage over monolinguals?
Are the processes in L1 & L2 language general or language specific?
How do L1 & L2 acquisition interact with other?
How do humans learn new languages?
How do multiple languages interact in the mind of the user?
How do they intersect with cognitive & perceptual processes?
What governs their use in social life?

- Languages have been perceived as discrete systems, inpedendent of one another and
of the people who use them

- The goal for language learners is to attain the proficiency of an English native
speaker

Language compartmentalization
- English should be learnt as a separate system, away from L1. This idea is contested
- Ortega (2009): L2 acquisition = efforts by monolingual adults to possess
monolingual command
English-only pedagogy:
- Competence in the foreign language is best realized by creating a rich target language
environment that uses the target language not only for instruction, but also for
classroom discipline & management.

MacWhinney’s (2005, 2008) unified model:

- L2 acquisition processes are not very different from L1 acquisition, except that L2
acquisition starts with more information (from the L1); L2 learners acquire new
mappings of sound to meaning based on the existing L1 system. As learners’ L2
proficiency increates, the dependence on L1 decreases.

- A person can rarely achieve equal levels of proficiency in languages. Usually, one
supercedes the other.

Multilingualism:
- Multilingualism referers to the coexitence, contact and teraction of different
languages at the societ or individual level (Wei, 2013, p.26)
- A multilinguist is someone who can fuction in two or more languages in
conversational interaction (Wei, 2013, p.33)

Research evidence indicates that students with stronger L1 skills have stronger L2
aptitudes, thus leading to high L2 proficiency & achievement, demonstrating the cross-
linguistic transfer of L1-L2 skills (e.g. Koda 2005)

=> You cannot think in L2 (English) unless you have achieved C1-level proficiency.
Therefore, L1 still plays a role for learners who start learning L2.

=> Word-for-word translation may be one of the most effective ways of encouraging
learners to notice differences between English & Vietnamese

Still, the aim is to focus on L2 proficiency. Translanguaging can assist while

maintaining L1. Translanguaging is using L1 & L2 resources to make sense & interact
with L2 activities / tasks.

Closeness between language & identity affects people’s thoughts on identity. Loss of
identity leads to social disruption. The connection between generations can be
affected.

LLT #8

Bi/Multilingualism & Second Language Learning

There is no monolingual country anymore.

English is an additional language

Macaro (2014): whether L1 should be used in oral interaction or the written materials
of L2 classrooms is the most fundamental question

Linguistic imperialism: the spread of L2 language that can kill L1

e.g. English may kill Vietnamese

Is info involving 2 or more languages process in separate systems or in a shared

system?
Do bilinguals / multilinguals have a cognitive advantage over monolinguals?
Are the processes in L1 & L2 language general or language specific?
How do L1 & L2 acquisition interact with other?
How do humans learn new languages?
How do multiple languages interact in the mind of the user?
How do they intersect with cognitive & perceptual processes?
What governs their use in social life?

- Languages have been perceived as discrete systems, inpedendent of one another and
of the people who use them

- The goal for language learners is to attain the proficiency of an English native
speaker

Language compartmentalization
- English should be learnt as a separate system, away from L1. This idea is contested
- Ortega (2009): L2 acquisition = efforts by monolingual adults to possess
monolingual command

English-only pedagogy:
- Competence in the foreign language is best realized by creating a rich target language
environment that uses the target language not only for instruction, but also for
classroom discipline & management.

MacWhinney’s (2005, 2008) unified model:

- L2 acquisition processes are not very different from L1 acquisition, except that L2
acquisition starts with more information (from the L1); L2 learners acquire new
mappings of sound to meaning based on the existing L1 system. As learners’ L2
proficiency increates, the dependence on L1 decreases.
- A person can rarely achieve equal levels of proficiency in languages. Usually, one
supercedes the other.

Multilingualism:
- Multilingualism referers to the coexitence, contact and teraction of different
languages at the societ or individual level (Wei, 2013, p.26)
- A multilinguist is someone who can fuction in two or more languages in
conversational interaction (Wei, 2013, p.33)

Research evidence indicates that students with stronger L1 skills have stronger L2
aptitudes, thus leading to high L2 proficiency & achievement, demonstrating the cross-
linguistic transfer of L1-L2 skills (e.g. Koda 2005)

=> You cannot think in L2 (English) unless you have achieved C1-level proficiency.
Therefore, L1 still plays a role for learners who start learning L2.

=> Word-for-word translation may be one of the most effective ways of encouraging
learners to notice differences between English & Vietnamese

Still, the aim is to focus on L2 proficiency. Translanguaging can assist while

maintaining L1. Translanguaging is using L1 & L2 resources to make sense & interact
with L2 activities / tasks.

Closeness between language & identity affects people’s thoughts on identity. Loss of
identity leads to social disruption. The connection between generations can be
affected.

LLT #10

Instructed Second Language Acquisition (ISLA)

Foreign language learning and teaching have undergone a significant paradign shift as
a result of the research & experiences that have expanded the scientific that have
expanded the scientific and theoretical knowledge based on how students learn &
acquire a foreign language

E.g. change from a focus on achieving native level to a focus on fluent use of English
in specific contexts
Theory – Practice Gap
Knowledge of Second Language Theories helps to shape their (teachers’) expectations
about what they can achieve in the classroom.

ISLA:
- A subdiscipline of second language acquisition in which a wider a of issues related to
L2 learning is investigated (Lowen, 2015)
- The overarching research agenda of instructed SLA is to understand L2 learning &
teaching issues in instructional settings & examine pedagogical interventions that help
learners develop L2 skills more efficiently & effectively
- ISLA may well be the predominant mode of SLA, more so than naturalistic L2
acquisition
- Insights from ISLA research can reveal the complexity of language learning &
teaching & contribute to improvements in instructional practice

Teaching / Learning Contexts:

- The sociolinguistic status of the target language & educational norms of the context
may be part of teaching / learning contexts
- There may not be much that teachers can do with their own teaching contexts
- Be aware of your own teaching / learning contexts & choose appropriate pedagogical
materials & methods

=> The greatest source of variance in Learning: What they bring into the learning
process

Learning & using the language are simultaneous processes

Updated terms: grammar => construction

e.g. a beautiful flower (determiners / adj / N-phrase)

All learning is first social, then individual (Lightbown & Spada, 2006, p.204)

Sociocultural theory & classroom practice

- Highlights the importance of people, activities & tools in supporting learning &
development
- Class activities and practices need to be designed to enable learners to work within
their ZPD (Zone of Proximal Development)

The interrelatedness of cognition & emotion: Cognition – Emotion – Behavior

Ideal teachers should consider the 3 dynamics when teaching

Ecological & Complexity perspectives:
- Learning is influenced by the physical environment & opportunities available to
students in their environment
- Everything interacts with each other.
- In an L2 classroom: explicit instruction – opportunities for personalized language use
– corrective feedback are internconnected.
- 3 determining factors for a successful classroom: Engagement – Memorization –
Communication-oriented

Pedagogical learner knowledge:

Teaching is not just an activity or a matter of doing; it is about what informs, what is
done & how it is done. Viewed this way, what to teach & how to teach it must be
informed by the teachers’ knowledge of learners including their characteristics,
learning needs, motivational fluctuations, social environments, learning culture, and
identities, or teaching will only serve the technical needs of the discourse rather than
real students’ needs (Canh Le, 2020, p.73)

End-of-course (part I): Reflection (750 words)

Reflective narrative on your journey of learning English in light of what you have
learnt in the course (i.e. how your learning exp is connected to theories of second
language learning)
or
How old were you when you first started to learn English? From your personal
experience, what are the advantages and disadvantages of starting to learn English at
that age?

End-of-course (part II): (1500-2000 words)

Summarizing the research on SLA processes, Ortega (2011: 98) concludes:
‘Instruction cannout affect the route of L2 development in any fundamental way’
In similar vein, Ellis & Shintani (2014: 80-81) write: ‘Grammatical syllabuses cannot
easily accommodate the essential nature of L2 acquisition…’
Use the knowledge you have gained from this course as well as your exp in learning &
teaching English, write a critical essay in which you express your view on the above
quotations
Template:
1. Introduction
2. Literature review
3. Conclusion
Submit in WORD

Deadline: September 10th 2024

Submit 3 WORD files (Mid-term; Reflection; Final Thesis)

https://mohammedaljohani.files.wordpress.com/2014/10/understanding-second-
language-acquisition.pdf (Ortega, 2011)

Ortega, Lourdes. (2009). Sequences and processes in language learning. In M. Long

and C. Doughty (Eds.). The handbook of language teaching (pp. 81–105). Oxford:
Wiley–Blackwell.

Ellis, R., & Shintani, N. (2014). Exploring Language Pedagogy through Second
Language Acquisition Research. London: Routledge.