Unit 4

Determinants
Learning Objectives ∆= 𝑎1 (𝑏2 𝑐3 − 𝑏3 𝑐2 ) − 𝑏1 (𝑎2 𝑐3 − 𝑎3 𝑐2 ) + 𝑐1 (𝑎2 𝑐3 −
𝑎3 𝑏2 )
At the end of this unit, you will be able to: 𝑎 𝑏
∆=| 1 1|
𝑎2 𝑏2
• Explain determinant =𝑎1 𝑏2 – 𝑎2 𝑏1 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎 2𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡.
• Discuss minor and cofactor of an element of a
square matrix 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
• Describe adjoint and inverse of a square matrix ∆= |𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 | = 𝑎1 (𝑏2 𝑐3 − 𝑏3 𝑐2 ) − 𝑏1 (𝑎2 𝑐3 − 𝑎3 𝑐2 )
• Infer solution of a system of linear simultaneous 𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3
equations: (Cramer’s rule) + 𝑐1 (𝑎2 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 𝑏2 )
• Recognize Cramer’s rule
𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎 3𝑟𝑑 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡

Introduction The rows are represented by 𝑅1 , 𝑅2, the coulmns are

represented by 𝐶1 , 𝐶2, 𝐶3,

Matrices and Determinants were first introduced to solve

systems of linear equations. In 1750, G. Cramer gave a Minor and Cofactor of an Element of a
rule called Cramer’s rule to solve the simultaneous Square Matrix
equations. Sir Arthur Cayley introduced the theory of
matrices.
The minor of an element of a square matrix A is
If all the equations of a system or model are linear, then defined to be the determinant obtained by deleting
matrix algebra provides an efficient method of their the row and column in which theelement is present.
solution than the traditional method of elimination of
variables. 𝑎1 𝑏1
E.g.: 𝐴 = [ ] 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑎2 𝑏2

Determinant Minor of a1 = b2

To every square matrix A, a real number is associated. Minor of b1 = a2

This real number is called its determinant and is denoted
by ∆(𝐴) Minor of a2 = b1

−1 2
𝐸. 𝑔. 𝐼𝑓 𝐴 = [ ] Minor of b2 = a1
3 4
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
𝐼𝑓 𝐴 = [𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 ]
−1 2 𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3
𝑏𝑦 ∆(𝐴) = | |
3 4
𝑏2 𝑐2
Minor of 𝑎1 | |= 𝑏2 𝑐3 − 𝑏3 𝑐2
𝑏3 𝑐3
The value of this determinant id determined as ∆(𝐴) =
𝑎2 𝑐2
(−1)4 − (3 × 2) = −4 − 6 = −10 Minor of 𝑏1 |𝑎 𝑐 |= 𝑎2 𝑐3 − 𝑎3 𝑐2
3 3
𝑎1 𝑏1
In general if ∆= | | then its value 𝑎 𝑏
𝑎2 𝑏2 Minor of 𝑐1 | 2 2 |=𝑎2 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 𝑏2
𝑎3 𝑏3
is ∆= 𝑎1 𝑏1 − 𝑎2 𝑏2
𝑏 𝑐
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 Minor of 𝑎2 | 1 1 |= 𝑏1 𝑐3 − 𝑏3 𝑐1
𝑏3 𝑐3
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 ∆= |𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 | 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑠
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑎1 𝑐1
Minor of 𝑏2 |𝑎 𝑐 |= 𝑎1 𝑐3 − 𝑎3 𝑐1
𝑏 𝑐 𝑎2 𝑐2 𝑎 𝑏 3 3
∆= 𝑎1 | 2 2 | − 𝑏1 |𝑎 𝑐 | + 𝑐1 | 2 2 |
𝑏3 𝑐3 3 3 𝑎3 𝑏3

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 𝑎 𝑏 + − +
Minor of 𝑐2 | 1 1 |=𝑎1 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 𝑐1 The signs of the Cofactors are[− + −]
𝑎3 𝑏3
+ − +
𝑏 𝑐
Minor of 𝑎3 | 2 2 |= 𝑏2 𝑐3 − 𝑏3 𝑐2 The cofactors of 𝑎1 , 𝑏1 , 𝑐1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑏2 , 𝑐2 , 𝑎3 , 𝑏3 , 𝑐3
𝑏3 𝑐3
are denoted capitals A1, B1, C1, A2, B2 , C2 , A3,
𝑎1 𝑐1 B3 , C3 respectively.
Minor of 𝑏3 |𝑎 𝑐 |= 𝑎1 𝑐2 − 𝑎2 𝑐1
2 2

𝑎 𝑏
Minor of 𝑐3 | 1 1 |=𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 Adjoint and Inverse of a Square Matrix
𝑎2 𝑏2
The cofactor of an element of a square matrix is
The adjoint of a square matrix A is the transpose of the
i+j
defined to be (-1) x (minor of the element) where i matrix of the cofactors of the elements of A and is
and j are the number of row and column in which denoted by Adj. A.
the element is present.
𝑎1 𝑏1
𝐼𝑓 𝐴 = [ ] then
i+j 𝑎2 𝑏2
Here (-1) will be equal to 1 if i+j is even and will be
equal to -1 if i+j is odd. Cofactor of 𝑎1 = (−1)1+1 (𝑏2 ) = +𝑏2
𝑎1 𝑏1 Cofactor of 𝑏1 = (−1)1+2 (𝑎2 ) = −𝑎2
𝐼𝑓 𝐴 = [ ]
𝑎2 𝑏2
Cofactor of 𝑎2 = (−1)2+1 (𝑏1 ) = −𝑏1
Cofactor of 𝑎1 = (−1)1+1 (𝑏2 ) = +𝑏2
Cofactor of 𝑏2 = (−1)2+2 (𝑎1 ) = −𝑎1
Cofactor of 𝑏1 = (−1)1+2 (𝑎2 ) = −𝑎2 𝑏2 −𝑏1
∴ 𝐴𝑑𝑗. 𝐴 = [ ]
−𝑎2 𝑎1
Cofactor of 𝑎2 = (−1)2+1 (𝑏1 ) = −𝑏1
Note: To find the adjoint of a 2nd order square matrix,
(−1)2+2 (𝑎1 ) interchange the elements of the principal diagonal and
Cofactor of 𝑏2 = = −𝑎1
change the signs of the elements of the other diagonal.
+ − 2 3 7 −3
The signs of the Cofactors are[ ] E.g. : 𝐼𝑓 𝐴 = [ ] , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴𝑑𝑗. 𝐴 [ ] . (1)
− + −1 7 1 2
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 This can be calculated and verified
𝐼𝑓 𝐴 = [𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 ]
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 Cofactor of 2 = +(7) = 7
Cofactor of 3 = -(-1) = 1
𝑏 𝑐
Cofactor of 𝑎1 = (−1)1+1 | 2 2 |=+(𝑏2 𝑐3 − 𝑏3 𝑐2 ) Cofactor of -1 = -(3) = -3
𝑏3 𝑐3

𝑎2 𝑐2 Cofactor of 7 = +(2) = 2
Cofactor of 𝑏1 = (−1)1+2 |𝑎 𝑐 |= −(𝑎2 𝑐3 − 𝑎3 𝑐2 )
3 3 7 −3
Adj. A = [ ] 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑠 (1)
1 2
𝑎 𝑏
Cofactor of 𝑐1 = (−1)1+3 | 2 2 |=+(𝑎2 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 𝑏2 ) 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
𝑎3 𝑏3
𝐼𝑓 𝐴 = [𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 ] then
𝑏 𝑐 𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3
Cofactor of 𝑎2 = (−1)2+1 | 1 1 |= −(𝑏1 𝑐3 − 𝑏3 𝑐1 )
𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑏 𝑐
Cofactor of 𝑎1 = (−1)1+1 | 2 2 |=+(𝑏2 𝑐3 − 𝑏3 𝑐2 ) = 𝐴1
𝑎1 𝑐1 𝑏3 𝑐3
Cofactor of 𝑏2 = (−1)2+2 |𝑎 𝑐 |= +(𝑎1 𝑐3 − 𝑎3 𝑐1 ) 𝑎2 𝑐2
3 3
Cofactor of 𝑏1 = (−1)1+2 |𝑎 𝑐 |= −(𝑎2 𝑐3 − 𝑎3 𝑐2 ) = 𝐵1
3 3
𝑎 𝑏
Cofactor of 𝑐2 = (−1)2+3 | 1 1 |=−(𝑎1 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 𝑐1 ) 𝑎 𝑏
𝑎3 𝑏3 Cofactor of 𝑐1 = (−1)1+3 | 2 2 |=+(𝑎2 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 𝑏2 ) = 𝑐1
𝑎3 𝑏3
𝑏 𝑐
Cofactor of 𝑎3 = (−1)3+1 | 2 2 |= +(𝑏2 𝑐3 − 𝑏3 𝑐2 ) 𝑏 𝑐
𝑏3 𝑐3 Cofactor of 𝑎2 = (−1)2+1 | 1 1 |= −(𝑏1 𝑐3 − 𝑏3 𝑐1 ) = 𝐴2
𝑏3 𝑐3
𝑎1 𝑐1 𝑎1 𝑐1
Cofactor of 𝑏3 = (−1)3+2 |𝑎 𝑐 |= −(𝑎1 𝑐2 − 𝑎2 𝑐1 ) Cofactor of 𝑏2 = (−1)2+2 |𝑎 𝑐 |= +(𝑎1 𝑐3 − 𝑎3 𝑐1 ) = 𝐵2
2 2 3 3

𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑎 𝑏
Cofactor of 𝑐3 = (−1)3+3 | |=+(𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 ) Cofactor of 𝑐2 = (−1)2+3 | 1 1 |=−(𝑎1 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 𝑐1 ) = 𝐶2
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑎3 𝑏3

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 𝑏 𝑐 ∆1 ∆2
Cofactor of 𝑎3 = (−1)3+1 | 2 2 |= +(𝑏2 𝑐3 − 𝑏3 𝑐2 ) = 𝐴3 𝑥= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 =
𝑏3 𝑐3 ∆ ∆
𝑎1 𝑐1 b). To solve the simultaneous equations in three
Cofactor of 𝑏3 = (−1)3+2 |𝑎 𝑐 |= −(𝑎1 𝑐2 − 𝑎2 𝑐1 ) = 𝐵3
2 2 variables
𝑎 𝑏
Cofactor of 𝑐3 = (−1)3+3 | 1 1 |=+(𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 ) = 𝐶3 a1x + b1 y + c1z = d1
𝑎2 𝑏2
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3 a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d2
∴ 𝐴𝑑𝑗. 𝐴 = [ 𝐵1 𝐵2 𝑐3 ]
𝐶1 𝑐2 𝑐3 a3 x + b3 y + c 3 z = d3

Note: A( Adj. A) = ( Adj A) A = |A|I where I is the identity 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1

matrix of the same order as that of A. Find ∆= |𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 | ≠ 0.
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3
Singular and Non-singular Matrices
𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎1 , 𝑎2, 𝑎3 𝑏𝑦 𝑑1 , 𝑑2, 𝑑3
A square matrix A is said to be singular if |A|= 0
and is said to be non-singular if |A|  0 𝑑1 𝑏1 𝑐1
∴ ∆1 = |𝑑2 𝑏2 𝑐2 |
−2 − 1 𝑑3 𝑏3 𝑐3
E.g.: ∆= | | = (−2)7 − (14)(−1) = −14 +
14 7
14 = 0 𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑏1 , 𝑏2, 𝑏3 𝑏𝑦 𝑑1 , 𝑑2, 𝑑3

  is singular. 𝑎1 𝑑1 𝑐1
∴ ∆2 = |𝑎2 𝑑2 𝑐2 |
14 𝑎3 𝑑3 𝑐3
∆= | | = 7 − (12) = −5 ≠ 0
37
𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑐1 , 𝑐2, 𝑐3 𝑏𝑦 𝑑1 , 𝑑2, 𝑑3
  is non-singular.
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑑1
Inverse of a Square Matrix
∴ ∆3 = |𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑑2 |
Inverse of a square matrix is defined if and only if 𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑑3
it is non-singular. The inverse of a non-singular Then by Cramer’s rule
-1
square matrix A is denoted by A . ∆1 ∆2 ∆3
𝑥= ,𝑦 = , 𝑧 =
∆ ∆ ∆
-1
A is determined by using the formula
𝐴𝑑𝑗. 𝐴 Worked Examples
𝐴−1 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 |𝐴| ≠ 0.
|𝐴|

1. Evaluate the following determinants

Solution of a System of Linear
Simultaneous Equations: (Cramer’s Rule)
(𝒂) |𝟏 𝟐| (𝒃) |−𝟏 𝟒 |
𝟑 𝟔 −𝟕 𝟖
𝟏 𝟑 −𝟏
(a) To solve the simultaneous equations in two (𝒄) |𝟐 𝟖| (𝒅) | −𝟓 𝟑 | (𝒆) | 𝟐 𝟎 𝟏 |
variables: 𝟏 𝟒 𝟐 −𝟏
𝟒 𝟓 −𝟏
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟎 −𝟐 𝟒 𝟏 𝟎 𝟑
a1x + b1 y = c1 a2 x + b2 y =c2 (𝒇) | 𝟒 𝟓 𝟔 | (𝒈) | 𝟏 𝟕 𝟑 | (𝒉) |𝟒 𝟔 − 𝟓|
𝟕 𝟖 𝟗 𝟐 𝟓 −𝟒 𝟎 𝟕 −𝟐
...(1) 𝒂 𝒉 𝒈 𝟕 𝟎 𝟎
(𝒊) | 𝒉 𝒃 𝒇 | (𝒋) |𝟎 𝟓 𝟎|
...(2) 𝒈 𝒇 𝒄 𝟎 𝟎𝟏
𝑎 𝑏
Find ∆= | 1 1 | = 𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 ≠ 0. Solution:
𝑎2 𝑏2

Replace 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 𝑏𝑦 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑒𝑡 (a) |1 2| = 1(6) − 3(2) = 6 − 6 = 0

3 6
𝑐 𝑏
∆1 = | 1 1 | = 𝑐1 𝑏2 − 𝑐2 𝑏1
𝑐2 𝑏2 (b) |−1 4 | = (−1)8 − (−7)4 = −8 + 28 = 20
−7 8
Replace 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 𝑏𝑦 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑒𝑡
𝑎1 𝑐1 (c) |2 8| = 2(4) − 1(8) = 8 −8=0
∆2 = |𝑎 𝑐 | = 𝑎1 𝑐2 − 𝑎2 𝑐1 1 4
2 2

Then by Cramer’s rule

23
(d) | −5 3 | = −5(−1) − 2(3) = 5 − 6 = −1  7𝑥 = −14
2 −1  𝑥 = −2
1 3 −1 𝟐 −𝟏 𝒙
(e) | 2 0 1 | = 1(0 − 5) − 3(−2 − 4) + 1(10 − 0) = (c) Find the value of 𝒙 𝒊𝒇 | 𝟎 𝟏 𝟓 | 𝒊𝒔 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓.
4 5 −1 𝟏 𝟑 −𝟏
−5 + 18 + 10 = 23
Solution:
1 2 3 2 −1 𝑥 2 −1 𝑥
(f) | 4 5 6 | = 1(45 − 48) − 2(36 − 42) + 3(32 − 35) = | 0 1 5 | 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 ≫ | 0 1 5 | = 0
7 8 9 1 3 −1 1 3 −1
−3 + 14 − 9 = −12 + 12 = 0

0 −2 4  2(−1 − 15) + 1(0 − 5) + 𝑥(0 − 1) = 0

(g) | 1 7 3 | = 0(−28 − 15) + 2(−4 − 6) + 4(5 −
2 5 −4  −32 − 5 − 𝑥 = 0
14) = −43 − 20 − 36 = −99  𝑥 = −37

1 0 3
(h) |4 6 − 5| = 1(−12 + 35) − 0(−8 − 0) + 3(28 − 0) = 𝒙 𝟐 𝟐
0 7 −2 (d) Find x if | 𝟐 𝒙 𝟐 | = 𝟎
23 + 8 + 84 = 115 𝟐𝟐𝒙
Solution:
𝑎 ℎ 𝑔
(i) | ℎ 𝑏 𝑓 | = 𝑎(𝑏𝑐 − 𝑓 2 ) − ℎ(𝑐ℎ − 𝑓𝑔) + 𝑔(ℎ𝑓 − 𝑏𝑔) =
𝑔 𝑓 𝑐 𝑥 2 2
|2𝑥2|= 0
𝑎𝑏𝑐 − 𝑎𝑓 2 − 𝑐ℎ2 + 𝑓𝑔ℎ + 𝑓𝑔ℎ − 𝑏𝑔2 22𝑥

= 𝑎𝑏𝑐 + 2𝑓𝑔ℎ − 𝑎𝑓 2 − 𝑏𝑔2 − 𝑐ℎ2  𝑥(0 − 4) − 2(2𝑥 − 4) + 2(4 − 0) = 0

 −4𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 8 + 8 = 0
7 0 0
 −8𝑥 + 16 = 0
(j) |0 5 0| = 7(5 − 0) − 0(0 − 0) + 0(0 − 0) = 35
0 01 𝑥=2

𝒙 𝟐 𝒙+𝟐
𝟑 𝟒 𝒙 (𝒆) 𝑰𝒇 [ 𝟑 𝟓 𝟖 ] 𝒊𝒔 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 ,
2. (a) 𝑰𝒇 | 𝟐 𝟏 𝟑 | = −𝟒𝟎, 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒙 𝒙+𝟏 𝟕−𝒙 𝟏𝟐
−𝟓 − 𝟏 𝟐
𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒙.
Solution:
Solution:
3 4 𝑥
| 2 1 3 | = −40 The given matrix is singular  its determinant = 0
−5 − 1 2
 3(2 + 3) − 4(4 + 15) + 𝑥(−2 + 5) = −40 𝒙 𝟐 𝒙+𝟐
i.e., [ 𝟑 𝟓 𝟖 ]=𝟎
 15 − 76 + 3𝑥 = −40 𝒙+𝟏 𝟕−𝒙 𝟏𝟐

 3𝑥 = −40 + 76 − 15  𝑥(60 − 56 + 8𝑥) − 2(36 − 8𝑥 − 8) + (𝑥 + 2)(21 −

 3𝑥 = 21 3𝑥 − 5𝑥 − 5) = 0
 4𝑥 + 8𝑥 2 − 56 + 16x + 16x + 32 − 8𝑥 2 − 16𝑥 = 0
𝑥=7  20𝑥 − 24 = 0
24 6
𝟏 𝟒 𝟓 𝑥= =
20 5
(𝒃) 𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒙: |𝟐 𝒙 𝟎| = 𝟎
𝟑 𝟓 𝟖
3. Evaluate the following determinants
Solution:
1 4 5 𝟒𝟎 𝟒𝟏 𝟒𝟐 𝟕𝟕 𝟕𝟖 𝟕𝟗
|2 𝑥 0| = 0 (𝒂) |𝟐𝟎 𝟐𝟏| (𝒃) | 𝟒𝟏 𝟒𝟐 𝟒𝟑 | (𝒄) |𝟕𝟓 𝟕𝟒 𝟕𝟑|
3 5 8 𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟑
𝟒𝟐 𝟒𝟑 𝟒𝟒 𝟕𝟔 𝟕𝟓 𝟕𝟒
 1(8𝑥 − 0) − 4(16 − 0) + 5(10 − 3𝑥) = 0 𝟏𝟐 𝟎 𝟎
𝟒𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟒𝟐𝟎𝟏
 8𝑥 − 64 + 50 − 15𝑥 = 0 (𝒅) |
𝟒𝟐𝟎𝟐 𝟒𝟐𝟎𝟑
| (𝒆) | 𝟒 𝟑 𝟎 |
 −7𝑥 − 14 = 0 𝟐 𝟐 −𝟑

24
Solution: 12 0 0
(d) 𝐿𝑒𝑡 ∆= | 4 3 0 |
(a) Let ∆= |20 21| 2 2 −3
22 23

𝑅1 − 𝑅2 Expand = 12(−9 − 0) − 0(−12 − 0) + 0(8 − 6) =

−108 − 0 + 0 = −108
−2 − 2
=| |
22 23
𝑐1 − 𝑐2 4. Find the adjoint of the following matrices

0 −2 𝟐−𝟏𝟓
=|
−1 23
| (𝒂) [𝟐 − 𝟏] (𝒃) [−𝟏 𝟓] (𝒄) [𝟑 𝟎] (𝒅) [ 𝟒 𝟎 𝟏 ]
𝟒 𝟕 𝟐 𝟖 𝟓 𝟗
𝟗 −𝟑 𝟔
𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 0(23) − (−1)(−2) = −2
𝟏 −𝟓 𝟔 𝟗 −𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟕 −𝟑
40 41 42 (𝒆) [ 𝟎 𝟕 𝟏𝟏 ] (𝒇) [ 𝟎 𝟖 𝟏 ] (𝒈) [ 𝟒 𝟏𝟎 𝟏 ]
𝐿𝑒𝑡 ∆= | 41 42 43 | 𝟓 −𝟐 𝟒 −𝟓 𝟏 𝟕 −𝟑 𝟓 𝟖
42 43 44
Solution:
𝑅1 − 𝑅2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅2 − 𝑅3
(a) 𝐴 = [2 − 1]
−1 − 1 − 1 4 7
= |−1 − 1 − 1|
42 43 44 Cofactor of 2 = + (7) = 7
𝑅1 − 𝑅2 Cofactor of –1 = – (4) = – 4
0 0 0
= |−1 − 1 − 1| Cofactor of 4 = – (– 1) = 1
42 43 44 Cofactor of 7 = + (2) = 2
Expand 0(−44 + 43) − (−44 + 42) + 0(−43 + 42) = 0 −
0+0=0 7 1
∴ 𝐴𝑑𝑗. 𝐴 = [ ]
−4 2

77 78 79
(b) 𝐿𝑒𝑡 ∆= |75 74 73| (b) 𝐴 = [−1 5]
2 8
76 75 74
Cofactor of –1 = + (8) = 8
𝑅1 − 𝑅2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅2 − 𝑅3
Cofactor of 5 = – (2) = – 2
2 4 6
= |−1 − 1 − 1| Cofactor of 2 = – (5) = – 5
76 75 74
Cofactor of 8 = + (– 1) = – 1
𝑐1 − 𝑐2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐2 − 𝑐3
8 −5
∴ 𝐴𝑑𝑗. 𝐴 = [ ]
−2 – 2 6 −2 − 1
= |0 0 − 1 |
1 1 74
Expand (−2)(0 + 1) + 2(0 + 1) + 6(0 − 0)
(c) 𝐴 = [3 0]
5 9
= −2 + 2 + 0 = 0 Cofactor of 3 = + (9) = 9

(c) 𝐿𝑒𝑡 ∆= | 4200 4201 | (d)

4202 4203
Cofactor of 0 = – (5) = – 5
𝑅1 − 𝑅2
Cofactor of 5 = – (0) = 0
−2 −2
=| |
4202 4203 Cofactor of 9 = + (3) = 3
𝑐1 − 𝑐2 9 0
∴ 𝐴𝑑𝑗. 𝐴 = [ ]
0 −2 −5 3
=| |
−1 4203
Expand = 0(4203) − (−1)(−2) = −2 𝟐−𝟏𝟓
5. 𝑨=[𝟒 𝟎 𝟏]
𝟗 −𝟑 𝟔

25
Solution: 55 9 − 17
∴ 𝐴𝑑𝑗. 𝐴 = [−5 53 − 9]
Cofactor of 2 = + (0 + 3) = 3 40 − 4 72
Cofactor of – 1 = – (24 – 9) = – 15 I column

Cofactor of 5 = + (– 12 – 0) = – 12 𝟐 𝟕 −𝟑
8. 𝑨 = [ 𝟒 𝟏𝟎 𝟏 ]
Cofactor of 4 = – (– 6 + 15) = – 9 −𝟑 𝟓 𝟖
Cofactor of 0 = + (12 – 45) = – 33 II column Solution:
Cofactor of 1 = – (– 6 + 9) = – 3 Cofactor of 2 = + (80 – 5) = 75
Cofactor of 9 = + (– 1 – 0) = – 1 Cofactor of 7 = – (32 + 3) = – 35 I column
Cofactor of – 3 = – (2 – 20) = 18 III column Cofactor of – 3 = + (20 + 30) = 50
Cofactor of 6 = + (0 + 4) = 4 Cofactor of 4 = – (56 + 15) = – 71
3 −9 −1 Cofactor of 10 = + (16 – 9) = 7 II column
∴ 𝐴𝑑𝑗. 𝐴 = [−15 − 33 18]
−12 −3 4 Cofactor of 1 = – (10 + 21) = – 31
Cofactor of – 3 = + (7 + 30) = 37
𝟏 −𝟓 𝟔
6. 𝑨 = [ 𝟎 𝟕 𝟏𝟏 ] Cofactor of 5 = – (2 + 12) = – 14 III column
𝟓 −𝟐 𝟒 Cofactor of 8 = + (20 – 28) = – 8
75 − 71 37
Solution: ∴ 𝐴𝑑𝑗. 𝐴 = [−35 7 − 14]
50 − 31 − 8
Cofactor of 1 = + (28 + 22) = 50

Cofactor of – 5 = – (0 – 55) = 55 I column

9. Find the inverses of the following matrices
Cofactor of 6 = + (0 – 35) = – 35 provided they exist:

Cofactor of 0 = – (– 20 + 12) = 8 (𝒂) [𝟏 − 𝟏] (𝒃) [−𝟐 𝟎] (𝒄) [𝟏 − 𝟏]

𝟐 𝟎 𝟒 𝟏 𝟑 𝟒
Cofactor of 7 = + (4 – 30) = – 26 II column 𝟏 𝟐 −𝟏 −𝟏 − 𝟐 𝟎
Cofactor of 11 = – (– 2 + 25) = – 23 (𝒅) [𝟓 − 𝟐] (𝒆) [−𝟏 𝟐 𝟏] (𝒇) [ 𝟑 𝟏 𝟓]
𝟑 𝟕
𝟏 𝟏 −𝟏 𝟒 𝟕 −𝟏
Cofactor of 5 = + (– 55 – 42) = – 97 𝟎 −𝟐 𝟒 𝟐 −𝟏 𝟏
(𝒈) [ 𝟏 𝟕 𝟑 ] (𝒉) [ 𝟏 𝟐 𝟎 ]
Cofactor of –2=–(11–0) = –11 III column
𝟐 𝟓 −𝟒 𝟑 𝟒 −𝟓
Cofactor of 4 = + (7 – 0) = 7
Solution:
50 8 − 97
∴ 𝐴𝑑𝑗. 𝐴 = [ 55 − 26 − 11 ] (a) 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐴 = [1 − 1]
−35 − 23 7 2 0

𝟗 −𝟏 𝟐 |𝐴| = [1 − 1] = 0 + 2 = 2 ≠ 0
2 0
7. 𝑨=[ 𝟎 𝟖 𝟏 ]
−𝟓 𝟏 𝟕 Cofactor of 1 = + (0) = 0
Cofactor of – 1 = – (2) = – 2 I column
Solution:
Cofactor of 2 = – (– 1) = 1
Cofactor of 9 = + (56 – 1) = 55
Cofactor of 0 = + (1) = 1 II column
Cofactor of – 1 = – (0 + 5) = – 5 I column
Cofactor of 2 = + (0 + 40) = 40 0 1
∴ 𝐴𝑑𝑗. 𝐴 = [ ]
Cofactor of 0 = – (– 7 – 2) = 9 −2 1
Cofactor of 8 = + (63 – 10) = 53 II column
1
Cofactor of 1 = – (9 – 5) = – 4 𝐴𝑑𝑗.𝐴 [0 1] 0
−2 1 2
Cofactor of – 5 = + (– 1 – 16) = – 17 𝐴−1 = |𝐴|
= =[ 1 ]
2
−1
Cofactor of 1 = – (9 – 0) = – 9 III column 2

Cofactor of 7 = + (72 – 0) = 72

26
 −2 0 1 2 −1
(b) 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐴 = [ ]
4 1 |𝐴| = [−1 2 1]
1 1 −1
|𝐴| = [−2 0] = −2 − 0 = −2 ≠ 0 = 1(−2 − 1) − 2(1 − 1) − 1(−1 − 2) = −3 − 0 + 3 = 0
4 1
Cofactor of –2 = + (1) = 1 Since |𝐴| = 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡

Cofactor of 0 = – (4) = – 4 I column −1 − 2 0

(f) 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐴 = [ 3 1 5]
Cofactor of 4 = – (0) = 0 4 7 −1
Cofactor of 1 = + (– 2) = – 2 II column −1 − 2 0
|𝐴| = [ 3 1 5]
1 0
∴ 𝐴𝑑𝑗. 𝐴 = [ ] 4 7 −1
−4 − 2
1 0 1 = −1(−1 − 35) + 2(−3 − 20) + 0(21 − 4) = 36 − 46
𝐴𝑑𝑗. 𝐴 [ ]
𝐴−1 = = −4 − 2 = [− 0 ] = −10 ≠ 0
|𝐴| −2 2
2 1
Cofactor of – 1 = + (– 1 – 35) = – 36

Cofactor of – 2 = – (– 3 – 20) = 23 I column

1 −1
(c) 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐴 = [ ] Cofactor of 0 = + (21 – 4) = 17
3 4
Cofactor of 3 = – (2 – 0) = – 2
|𝐴| = [1 − 1] = 4 − 3 = 7 ≠ 0
3 4 Cofactor of 1 = + (1 – 0) = 1 II column
Cofactor of 1 = + (4) = 4
Cofactor of 5 = – (– 7 + 8) = – 1
Cofactor of – 1 = – (3) = – 3 I column
Cofactor of 4 = + (– 10 – 0) = – 10
Cofactor of 3 = – (– 1) = 1
Cofactor of 7 = – (– 5 – 0) = 5 III column
Cofactor of 4 = + (1) = 1 II column
Cofactor of – 1 = + (– 1 + 6) = 5
4 1
∴ 𝐴𝑑𝑗. 𝐴 = [ ]
−3 1 −36 − 2 − 10
∴ 𝐴𝑑𝑗. 𝐴 = [ 23 1 5 ]
4 1 4 1
[ ] − 17 − 1 5
𝐴𝑑𝑗. 𝐴
𝐴−1 = = −3 1 = [ 7 7 ] −36 − 2 − 10
|𝐴| 7 3 1 𝐴𝑑𝑗. 𝐴 1
− 𝐴−1 = = = [ 23 1 5 ]
7 7 |𝐴| −10 17 − 1 5
5 −2 18 1
(d) 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐴 = [ ]
3 7 1
5 5
|−23 −1 −5|
|𝐴| = [5 − 2] = 35 + 6 = 41 ≠ 0 =
3 7 | 10 10 10 |
−17 1 −1
Cofactor of 5 = + (7) = 7
10 10 2
Cofactor of – 2 = – (3) = – 3 I column
Cofactor of 3 = – (–2) = 2
0 −2 4
Cofactor of 7 = + (5) = 5 II column (g) 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐴 = [ 1 7 3 ]
2 5 −4
7 2
∴ 𝐴𝑑𝑗. 𝐴 = [ ]
−3 5 |𝐴| = 0(−28 − 15) + 2(−4 − 6) + 4(5 − 14)
7 2 7 2 = 0 − 20 − 36 = −56 ≠ 0
𝐴𝑑𝑗. 𝐴 [ ]
𝐴−1 −3 5 41 41
= = =[
3 5
] Cofactor of 0 + (– 28 – 15) = – 43
|𝐴| 41
−
41 41 Cofactor of – 2 = – (– 4 – 6) = 10 I column
Cofactor of 4 = + (5 – 14) = – 9
1 2 −1 Cofactor of 1 = – (8 – 20) = 12
(e) 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐴 = [−1 2 1]
1 1 −1 Cofactor of 7 = + (0 – 8) = – 8 II column
Cofactor of 3 = – (0 + 4) = – 4

27
Cofactor of 2 = + (– 6 – 28) = – 34 𝟏 −𝟏
𝟏 −𝟏 𝟏
(a)[ ] (b) [𝟐 𝟏 𝟎]
Cofactor of 5 = – (0 – 4) = 4 III column 𝟐 𝟐
𝟑 𝟐 𝟏
Cofactor of – 4 = + (0 + 2) = 2
Solution:
−43 12 − 34
(𝑎) 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐴 = [1 − 1]
∴ 𝐴𝑑𝑗. 𝐴 = [ 10 − 8 4 ] 2 2
−9 − 4 2
|𝐴| = [1 − 1] = 2 + 2 = 4 ≠ 0
𝐴𝑑𝑗. 𝐴 1 −43 12 − 34 2 2
𝐴−1 = = = [ 10 − 8 4 ]
|𝐴| −56 Cofactor of 1 = + (2) = 2
−9 − 4 2
43 −3 17 Cofactor of – 1 = – (2) = –2 I column
56 14 28 Cofactor of 2 = – (– 1) = 1
| |
= −5 1 −1 Cofactor of 2 = + (1) = 1 II column
| 28 7 14 |
9 1 −1 2 1
∴ 𝐴𝑑𝑗. 𝐴 [ ]
56 14 28 −2 1
2 −1 1 1 1
(h) 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐴 = [ 1 2 0 ] 𝐴𝑑𝑗. 𝐴 1 2 1
𝐴 −1
= = [ ] = [2 4 ]
3 4 −5 |𝐴| 4 −2 1 1 1
−
2 4
1 −1 2 1
2 −1 1 ≫ 𝐴(𝐴𝑑𝑗. 𝐴) = [ ][ ]
|𝐴| = [ 1 2 0 ] 2 2 −2 1
3 4 −5 2+2 1−1 4 0
=[ ]=[ ]
4−4 2+2 0 4
1 0
= 2(–10 – 0) + 1(–5 – 0) + 1(4 – 6) ≫ 𝐴(𝐴𝑑𝑗. 𝐴) = 4 [ ] = 4𝐼 = |𝐴|𝐼(|𝐴| = 4)
0 1

= –20 – 5 – 2 = –27  0 Similarly it can be verified that ( Adj A) A A I.

1 −1 1 2 1
Cofactor of 2 = + (– 10 – 0) = – 10 Now, 𝐴𝐴−1 = [ ] [ ]
2 2 4 −2 1
Cofactor of – 1 = – (– 5 – 0) = 5 I column 1 2+2 1−1 1 4 0 1 0
= [ ]= [ ]=[ ]=𝐼
4 4−4 2+2 4 0 4 0 1
Cofactor of 1 = + (4 – 6) = – 2
∴ 𝐴𝐴−1 = 𝐼
Cofactor of 1 = – (5 – 4) = – 1
Similarly, it can be verified that 𝐴𝐴−1 = 𝐼
Cofactor of 2 = + (–10 – 3) = – 13II column
1 −1 1
Cofactor of 0 = – (8 + 3) = – 11 (b) 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐴 = [2 1 0]
3 2 1
Cofactor of 3 = + (0 – 2) = – 2
|𝐴| = 1(1 − 0) + 1(2 − 0) + 1(4 − 3) = 4 ≠ 0
Cofactor of 4 = – (0 – 1) = 1 III column
Cofactor of 1 = + (1 – 0) = 1
Cofactor of – 5 = + (4 + 1) = 5
Cofactor of – 1 = – (2 – 0) = – 2 I column
−10 − 1 − 2
∴ 𝐴𝑑𝑗. 𝐴 = [ 5 − 13 1 ] Cofactor of 1 = + (4 – 3) = 1
−2 − 11 5 Cofactor of 2 = – (– 1 –2) = 3
𝐴𝑑𝑗. 𝐴 1 −10 − 1 − 2
𝐴−1 = = = [ 5 − 13 1 ] Cofactor of 1 = + (1 – 3) = – 2 II column
|𝐴| −27
−2 − 11 5 Cofactor of 0 = – (2 + 3) = – 5
Cofactor of 3 = + (0 – 1) = – 1

10. For the following matrices find A–1 and Cofactor of 2 = – (0 – 2) = 2 III column
verify that (i) A (Adj A)
Cofactor of 1 = + (1 + 2) = 3
-1 -1
= (Adj A) A = |A| I and (ii) AA =A A=I

28
 1 3 −1 4x - 3y = 5
−2 − 2 2 3 4
𝐴𝑑𝑗. 𝐴 = [ ] ∆= | | = −9 − 16 = −25
1 −5 3 4−3
7 4
∆1 = | | = −21 − 20 = −41
5 −3
1 3 −1 3 7
1 −1 1 ∆2 = | | = 15 − 28 = −13
−2 − 2 2 4 5
∴ 𝐴(𝐴𝑑𝑗. 𝐴) = [2 1 0] [ ]
1 −5 3 ∆1 −41 41
3 2 1 𝑥= = =
∆ −25 25
1+2+1 3+2−5 −1−2+3 ∆2 −13 13
𝑦= = =
= [2−2+0 6−2+0 −2+2+0] ∆ −25 25
3−4+1 9−4−5 −3+4+3 41 13
∴𝑥= ,𝑦 =
25 25
4 0 0
= [0 4 0] (2) 3𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 12
0 0 4
2𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 12
1 0 0
= 4[0 1 0 ] 33
∆ = | | = 12- 6 = 6
0 0 1 24
12 3
= 4𝐼 = |𝐴|𝐼 = (|𝐴| = 4) ∆1 = | | = 48 − 36 = 12
12 4
Similarly, we can verify that ( Adj A) A = |𝐴| I . 3 12
∆2 = | | = 36 − 24 = 12
2 12
 A (Adj A) = (Adj A) A = |𝐴| I
∆1 12
𝐴𝑑𝑗.𝐴
𝑥= = =2
Now, 𝐴−1 = ∆ 6
|𝐴|
∆2 12
1 3 −1 𝑦= = =2
∆ 6
1 −2 − 2 2
= [ ]
4 1 −5 3 ∴ 𝑥 = 2 ,𝑦 = 2

1 3 −1
1 −1 1 (3) 6x + 4 y = 10
1 −2 − 2 2
𝐴𝐴−1 = [2 1 0] [ ]
4 1 −5 3 x + 7y = 8
3 2 1
6 4
∆=| | = 42-4 =38
4 0 0 1 0 0 1 7
1
= [0 4 0] = [0 1 0] = 𝐼
4 10 4
0 0 4 0 0 1 ∆1 = | | = 70 − 32 = 38
8 7
-1
 AA = I ∆2 = |
6 10
| = 48 − 10 = 38
1 8
Similarly, it can be verified that
∆1 38
-1 -1 𝑥= = =1
AA = A A = I. ∆ 38
∆2 38
𝑦= = =1
∆ 38
Cramer’s Rule
∴ 𝑥 = 1 ,𝑦 = 1

Using Cramer’s rule, solve the following

equations: (4) x + 6y = -16

(1) 3x + 4 y = 7, 4x - 3y = 5 - 2x + 3y = -13
(2) 3x + 3y = 12, 2x + 4 y = 12
(3) 6x + 4 y = 10, x + 7y = 8 1 6
∆=| | = 3+12 =15
(4) x + 6y = -16,- 2x + 3y = -13 −2 3
(5) 2x + y = 4, 3x + 4 y = 11 −16 6
(6) x + y + z = 11, 2x - 6 y - z = 0, 3x + 4 y + 2z = 0 ∆1 = | | = −48 + 78 = 30
−13 3
(7) 𝒙 + 𝟑𝒚 − 𝒛 = 𝟒, 𝒙 − 𝟐𝒛 = −𝟓, 𝟑𝒙 + 𝒚 = 𝟓
1 − 16
(8) Z + 2x +1 = 0, -y + z + 2 = 0, x + 2y = 5 ∆2 = | | = −13 − 32 = −45
−2 − 13
Solution: ∆1 30
𝑥= = =2
(1) 3x + 4 y = 7 ∆ 15

29
 ∆2 −45
𝑦= = = −3 1 3 −1
∆ 15 ∆ = |1 0 − 2| = 1(0 + 2) − 3(0 + 6) − 1(1 − 0)
∴ 𝑥 = 2 , 𝑦 = −3 3 1 0
= 2 − 18 − 1 = −17
4 3 −1
(5) 2x + y = 4
∆1 = |−5 0 − 2| = 4(0 + 2) − 3(0 + 10) − 1(−5 − 0)
3x + 4 y = 11 5 1 0
2 1 = 8 − 30 + 5 = −17
∆=| | = 8-3 =5
3 4 1 4 −1
4 1 ∆2 = |1 − 5 − 2| = 1(0 + 10) − 4(0 + 6) − 1(5 + 15)
∆1 = | | = 16 − 11 = 5
11 4 3 5 0
= 10 − 24 − 20 = −34
2 4
∆2 = | | = 22 − 12 = 10
3 11 1 3 4
∆1 5 ∆3 = |1 0 − 5| = 1(0 + 5) − 3(5 + 15) + 4(1 − 0)
𝑥= = =1 3 1 5
∆ 5 = 5 − 60 + 4 = −51
∆2 10
𝑦= = =2 ∆1 −17
∆ 5 𝑥= = =1
∆ −17
∴ 𝑥 = 1 ,𝑦 = 2
∆2 −34
𝑦= = =2
∆ −17
(6) x + y + z = 11 ∆2 −51
2x - 6 y - z = 0 𝑧= = =3
∆ −17
3x + 4 y + 2z = 0
∴ 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 2, 𝑧 = 3

1 1 1
∆ = |2 −6 − 1| Worked Examples
3 4 2
1. Two businessmen are trading in shares
= 1(−12 + 4) − 1(4 + 3) + 8 + 18) = −8 − 7 + 26
have three banking company shares as
= 11
shown in the following table:
11 1 1
∆1 = | 0 − 6 − 1 | = 11(−12 + 4) − 0 + 0 = −88 Merchant Vijaya Canara Corporation
0 4 2
Bank Bank Bank
1 11 1
∆2 = |2 0 − 1| = 1(0 − 0) − 11(4 + 3) + 1(0 − 0)
3 0 2 Mr. Jain 200 100 300
= −77
Mr. Gupta 250 150 100
1 1 11
∆3 = | 2 − 6 0 | = 1(0 − 0) − 1(0 − 0) + 11(8 + 18)
3 4 0 The approximate prices (in ₹ ) three banking
= 286 company shares in three stock exchange market
are given below.
∆1 −88
𝑥= = = −8
∆ 11 Vijaya Canara Corporation
∆2 −77 Bank Bank Bank
𝑦= = = −7
∆ 11
Bangalore 39 40 38
∆2 286
𝑧= = = 26 Bombay 40 50 35
∆ 11
∴ 𝑥 = −8, 𝑦 = −7, 𝑧 = 26 New Delhi 35 45 42
In which market each of the above businessmen has
to sell their shares to get maximum receipt. Solve by
(7) 𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 𝑧 = 4, matrix multiplication method.
𝑥 − 2𝑧 = −5,
3𝑥 + 𝑦 = 5

30
Solution: In which market each of the above businessmen has
to sell his stocks to get maximum receipt? Solve by
𝑉𝐵 𝐶𝐵 𝐶𝑂𝑅. 𝐵
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐴 = [ 200 100 300 ]Jain Gupta matrix multiplication method.
250 150 100 Solution:
𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑔. 𝐵𝑜𝑚𝑏 𝑁𝐷𝑒𝑙ℎ𝑖
𝐺. 𝑁 𝑆. 𝐹 𝐶. 𝑁
𝐴 = [ 39 40 35 ] 𝑉𝐵 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑃 = [ 250 300 150 ]
40 50 45 𝐶𝐵
400 350 100
38 35 42 𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝐵
𝑋 𝑌 𝑍
39 40 35
200 100 300 70 60 55
∴ 𝐴𝐵 = [ ] [40 50 45] 𝑄= [ ]
250 150 100 50 55 60
38 35 42
150 140 1000
200 × 39 + 100 × 40 + 300 × 38 200 × 40 + 100 × 50 + 300 × 35 200 × 35 + 100 × 45 + 300 × 42
= [250 × 39 + 150 × 40 + 100 × 38 250 × 40 + 150 × 50 + 100 × 35 250 × 35 + 150 × 45 + 100 × 42]
70 60 55
250 300 150
=[
7800 + 4000 + 11400 8000 + 5000 + 10500 7000 + 4500 + 12600
] ∴ 𝑃𝑄 = [ ] [ 50 55 60 ]
9750 + 6000 + 3800 10000 + 7500 + 3500 8950 + 6750 + 4200 400 350 100
150 140 132
𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑔. 𝐵𝑜𝑚𝑏. 𝑁𝐷
= [23200 23500 24100] 𝐽𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑢𝑝𝑡𝑎 =[
250 × 70 + 300 × 50 + 150 × 150 250 × 60 + 300 × 55 + 150 × 140 250 × 55 + 300 × 60 + 150 × 132]
19550 21000 19900 400 × 70 + 350 × 50 + 100 × 150 400 × 60 + 350 × 55 + 100 × 140 400 × 55 + 350 × 60 + 100 × 132

Jain has to sell his shares in New Delhi and Gupta has to sell
17500 + 15000 + 22500 15000 + 16500 + 21000 13750 + 18000 + 19800
his shares in Bombay to get maximum receipt. =[
28000 + 17500 + 15000 24000 + 19250 + 14000 22000 + 21000 + 13200
]

55000 52500 51550

=[ ]
2. Keerthi buys 8 dozen of pens, 10 dozen of pencils 60500 57250 56200
and 4 dozen of rubber. Pens cost ₹ 18 per dozen, A has to sell his oil stock in market X and B also
pencils ₹ 9 per dozen and rubber ₹ 6 per dozen. has to sell his oil stock in market X to get maximum
Represent the quantities bought by a row matrix and receipt.
prices by a column matrix and hence obtain the total
cost. 4. At Bangalore merchant A has 300 bags of
rice, 600 bags of wheat and 800 bags of
Solution: Ragi and another merchant B has 250 bags,
Let A be the row matrix of quantities and B be the 700 bags and 1000 bags of same food
column matrix of prices. grains. The prices (in ₹ ) at three cities are:

∴ 𝐴 = [8 10 4] Place Rice Wheat Ragi

Mysore 100 90 80
18
𝐵=[9] Mangalore 110 80 70
6 Kolar 120 70 80
18
𝐴𝐵 = [8 10 4] [ 9 ] = [144 + 90 + 24] = [258] To which city, each merchant will send his
6 supply in order to get maximum gross
receipts? Solve by matrix multiplication
∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑠 258
method.
Solution:
3. Two oil merchants have the following stock of 300 600 800
oil (in kg): 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑃 = [ ]
250 700 1000
Merchant Groundnut Sunflower Coconut 100 110 120
𝑄 = [ 90 80 70 ]
A 250 300 150
80 70 80
B 400 350 100
100 110 120
300 600 800
The approximate prices (in ₹ per kg) of three types ∴ 𝑃𝑄 = [ ] [ 90 80 70 ]
250 700 1000
of oil in 3 markets are: 80 70 80
30000 + 54000 + 64000 33000 + 48000 + 56000 36000 + 42000 + 64000
= [ ]
Market Groundnut Sunflower Coconut 25000 + 63000 + 80000 27500 + 56000 + 70000 30000 + 49000 + 80000

X 70 50 150 148000 137000 142000

=[ ]
168000 153500 179000
Y 60 55 140
A has to send his supply in order to Mysore and B
Z 55 60 132
has to send his supply in order to Kolar to get
maximum gross receipts.

31
 wheat is ₹ 132. Find the prices of rice and wheat
5. If 15 kgs of commodity A and 17 kgs of using Cramer’s rule.
commodity B together costs ₹ 241 and 25 kgs of
Solution:
A and 13 kgs of B together cost ₹ 279; find the
prices of each per kg by using Cramer’s rule Let the price of rice be ₹ x per kg and the price of wheat
method. be ₹ y per kg.
Solution:  it is given that
Let prices of commodities A and B be ₹ x a n d ₹ y
2x + 5y = 85 and 3x + 8y = 132
per kg respectively.
2 5
 15x + 17 y = 241 and 25x +13 y = 279 ∆=| | = 16 -15 = 1
3 8
15 17 85 5
∆=| | = 195 - 425 = -230≠0 ∆1 = | | = 680 − 660 = 20
25 13 132 7
241 17 2 85
∆1 = | | = 3133 − 4743 = −1610 ∆2 = | | = 264 − 255 = 9
279 13 3 132
15 241 ∆1 20
∆2 = | | = 4185 − 6025 = −1840 𝑥= = = 20
25 279 ∆ 1
∆1 −1610 ∆2 9
𝑥= = =7 𝑦= = =1
∆ −230 ∆ 1
∆2 −1840 The price of rice is ₹ 20 per kg and the price of wheat is
𝑦= = =8
∆ −230 ₹ 9 per kg

∴The price of commodity A is 7 per kg.and the price of Summary

commodity B is 8 per kg
Unlike scalars, the basic operations such as addition,
subtraction and multiplication can be performed only if
6. The price of 2 kgs of rice and 5 kgs of wheat is certain conditions are satisfied by the participating
₹ 85 and price of 3 kgs of rice and 8 kgs of matrices. Like scalars division of one matrix by another
is not defined.

32
Unit 2
Linear and Quadratic Equations
Learning Objectives Note: The expression 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 is called the discriminant
and is denoted by ∆. If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0

At the end of this unit, you will be able to: 𝑏

then the roots are rational and equal i.e. − .
2𝑎
• Explain linear and quadratic equations
If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 ≠ 0 and positive, then the roots are real and
• Discuss solutions of linear and quadratic equations distinct.
• Infer substitution method
• Analyze elimination method If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 ≠ 0 and negative, then the roots are
• Discuss cross multiplication method imaginary and distinct.

Introduction Worked Examples

Theory of equations are frequently used in solving the Solve the following equations:
problems of business. A statement of equality containing
one or more variable is known as an equation. Two or
more equations are said to be equivalent if they have 1. 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏 = 𝟎
the same solution. In this unit, we study the methods of
Solution:
solving linear and quadratic equations.
2𝑥 − 1 = 0

Linear and Quadratic Equations Here 𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = −1

−𝑏 −(−1)
∴ 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑥 = =
An equation of the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 ≠ 0, 𝑏 are 𝑎 2
constants, is called a linear equation in the variable x. 1
≫ 𝑥 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
An equation of the form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 where 𝑎 ≠ 2
0, 𝑏, 𝑐 are constants is called a quadratic equation in the
variable x.
2. 𝟓𝒙 − 𝟑 = 𝟎
A value of x, which satisfies the given equation, is called
a solution or a root. Solution:

Fundamental theorem: An equation of degree n has 5𝑥 − 3 = 0

exactly n roots. 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 = 5. 𝑏 = −3
Hence, a linear equation has exactly one root and a −𝑏 −(−3)
quadratic equation has exactly two roots. ∴ 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑥 = =
𝑎 5
(i) The linear equation 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0 has exactly one root
−𝑏 3. 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟏𝟏 = 𝟎
𝑥= (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 ≠ 0)
𝑎
Solution:
(ii) The quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 has exactly
two roots 3𝑥 + 11 = 0

𝑥=
−𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
I.e. 𝑥 =
−𝑏+√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
and 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = 11
2𝑎 2𝑎
−𝑏 −11
−𝑏 − √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 ∴ 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑥 = =
𝑥= 𝑎 3
2𝑎
−11
These roots can also be found by factorization. ≫ 𝑥 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
3

7
4. 𝟕𝒙 = 𝟎 4
𝑥=±
2 ×4
Solution:
1 −1
𝑥= , 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠.
7𝑥 = 0 2 2
≫ 7𝑥 + 0 = 0 (b) by factorization

𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 = 7, 𝑏 = 0 ≫ (2𝑥)2 − 12 = 0
−𝑏 0 ≫ (2𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 − 1) = 0 [ using 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 − 𝑏)]
∴ 𝑥= =− =0
𝑎 7
≫ 2𝑥 + 1 = 0, 2𝑥 − 1 = 0
∴ 𝑥 = 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
−1 1
≫ 𝑥= , 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
2 2
5. 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟔 = 𝟎

Solution: 7. 𝟔𝒙𝟐 − 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟏 = 𝟎

𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = 0 Solution:

(𝑎) 𝑏𝑦 using the formula: (a) by using the formula

𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = −5, 𝑐 = 6 𝑎 = 6, 𝑏 = −5. 𝑐 = 1

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 −𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥= 𝑥=
2𝑎 2𝑎

5 ± √25 − 24 5 ± √25 − 24
𝑥= 𝑥=
2 12

5 ± √1 5±1
𝑥= 𝑥=
2 12

5+1 5−1 5+1 5−1

≫ 𝑥= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥= ,
2 2 12 12

𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑥 = 3, 𝑥 = 2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠. 6 4

𝑥= ,
12 12
(b) by factorization
1 1
𝑥= ,
𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = 0 2 3

≫ 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 6 = 0 (b) by factorization

≫ 𝑥(𝑥 − 2) − 3(𝑥 − 2) = 0 6𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 1 = 0

≫ (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3) = 0 ≫ 6𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 1 = 0

≫ 𝑥 − 2 = 0, 𝑥 − 3 = 0 ≫ 2𝑥(3𝑥 − 1) − 1(3𝑥 − 1) = 0

≫ 𝑥 = 2, 𝑥 = 3 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 ≫ (2𝑥 − 1)(3𝑥 − 1) = 0

≫ 3𝑥 − 1 = 0, 2𝑥 − 1 = 0

6. 𝟒𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏 = 𝟎 ≫ 3𝑥 = 1, 2𝑥 = 1
1 1
Solution: ≫𝑥= ,𝑥=
3 2
4𝑥 2 − 1 = 0

(a) by using the formula

8. 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟖 = 𝟎
𝑎 = 4, 𝑏 = 0, 𝑐 = −1
Solution:
−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥= (a) by using the formula
2𝑎
𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 6, 𝑐 = 8
−0 ± √0 − 16
𝑥=
2×4 −6 ± √36 − 32
≫ 𝑥=
2

8
 −6 ± √4 −1 + 3 −1 − 3
≫ 𝑥= 𝑥= ,
2 4 4
−6 ± 2 1
≫ 𝑥= 𝑥 = , −1
2 2
−6 + 2 −6 − 2 (b) by factorization
≫ 𝑥= ,
2 2 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1 = 0
≫ 𝑥 = −2, − 4 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠.
≫ 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 𝑥 − 1 = 0
(b) by factorization
≫ 2𝑥(𝑥 + 1) − 1(𝑥 + 1) = 0
𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 8 = 0
≫ (𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 − 1) = 0
≫ 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 8 = 0
≫ 𝑥 + 1 = 0, 2𝑥 − 1 = 0
≫ 𝑥(𝑥 + 2) + 4(𝑥 + 2) = 0
1
≫ 𝑥 = −1, 𝑥 =
≫ (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 4) = 0 2

≫ 𝑥 + 2 = 0, 𝑥 + 4 = 0

≫ 𝑥 = −2, 𝑥 = −4 11. 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 − 𝟏 = 𝟎
Solution:
𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 1 = 0
9. 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 + 𝟏 = 𝟎 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 1, 𝑐 = −1
−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
Solution: 𝑥=
2𝑎
(a) by using the formula −1 ± √1 + 4
𝑥=
2
𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 1, 𝑐 = 1 −1 ± √5
𝑥=
−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 2
𝑥= −1 + √5 −1 − √5
2𝑎 𝑥= ,
2 2
−1 ± √1 − 4
𝑥=
2 12. Solve the equation by formula method 𝟏𝟐𝒙𝟐 +
𝟐𝟑𝒙 = 𝟐𝟒.
−1 ± √−3
𝑥=
2 Solution:
−1 ± √3𝑖 12𝑥 2 + 23𝑥 = 24.
𝑥=
2
12𝑥 2 + 23𝑥 − 24 = 0
−1 + √3𝑖 −1 − √3𝑖
𝑥= , 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 = 12, 𝑏 = 23, 𝑐 = −24
2 2
−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
10. 𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 − 𝟏 = 𝟎
−23 ± √232 − 4(12)(−24)
Solution: 𝑥=
2 × 12
(a) by using the formula
−23 ± √529 + 1152
𝑥=
𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = 1, 𝑐 = −1 24

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 −23 ± √1681

𝑥= 𝑥=
2𝑎 24

−1 ± √1 + 8 −23 ± 41
𝑥= 𝑥=
4 24
−23 + 41 −23 − 41
−1 ± √9 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑥= 24 24
4
18 −64
−1 ± 3 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑥= 24 24
4

9
 3 −8 35
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ≫𝑥=−
4 3 9

13. Solve the equation 16. 𝟎. 𝟖𝒙 − 𝟎. 𝟕 + 𝟏. 𝟕𝒙 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟓 − 𝟒. 𝟕𝒙

𝟐 𝟓 𝟕 Solution:
+ =
𝒙−𝟒 𝒙−𝟑 𝒙−𝟏
Rearranging the equation, we get
Solution:
0.8𝑥 + 4.7𝑥 + 1.7𝑥 = 2.75 − 0.7
Multiply the given equation by the LCM
7.2𝑥 = 3.45
(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 1), 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡
345 69 23
𝑥= = = = 0.479
2(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 1) + 5(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 1) = 7(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 3) 720 144 48

≫ 2𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 6 + 5𝑥 2 − 25𝑥 + 20 = 7𝑥 2 − 49𝑥 + 84
17. Find the numbers whose sum is 58 and
≫ 7𝑥 2 − 33𝑥 + 26 = 7𝑥 2 − 49𝑥 + 84
difference is 10.
≫ 7𝑥 2 − 33𝑥 + 26 − 7𝑥 2 + 49𝑥 − 84 = 0
Solution:
≫ 16𝑥 − 58 = 0
Let x be one of the numbers.
58
≫𝑥= ∴ the other number has to be 58 − 𝑥 as the sum of two
16
numbers has to be 58.
29
≫𝑥= The difference is given to be 10.
8
∴ 𝑥 − (58 − 𝑥) = 10
14. Solve the equation ≫ 𝑥 − 58 + 𝑥 = 10

𝒂 𝒂 𝒃 𝒃 ≫ 2𝑥 = 58 + 10
− = − 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒂 ≠ 𝒃
𝒙 𝒃 𝒙 𝒂
≫ 2𝑥 = 68
Solution:
≫ 𝑥 = 34
Multiply the given equation by the LCM
And the other number is 58 − 𝑥 = 58 − 34 = 24
𝑎𝑏𝑥, 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡
∴ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑒 34 𝑎𝑛𝑑 24.
𝑎2 𝑏 − 𝑎2 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑏 2 − 𝑏 2 𝑥

≫ 𝑎2 𝑥 − 𝑏 2 𝑥 = 𝑎2 𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏 2 Solutions of Linear and Quadratic

≫ (𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 )𝑥 = 𝑎𝑏(𝑎 − 𝑏) Equations
≫ (𝑎 + 𝑏) (𝑎 − 𝑏)𝑥 = 𝑎𝑏(𝑎 − 𝑏)
A system of linear equations in two variables is given by
𝑎𝑏(𝑎 − 𝑏) the equations
≫ 𝑥=
(𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 − 𝑏)
𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 = 0 … (1)
𝑎𝑏
≫ 𝑥= 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 = 0 … (2)
(𝑎 + 𝑏)
An equation of the form

15. Solve the equation 𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑥2 + 𝑐 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 ≠ 0 , b, c are constants is

called a quadratic equation in the variable x. Hence, a
𝒙 𝟐𝒙 𝟏 linear equation has exactly one root and a quadratic
− =
𝟓 𝟕 𝟑 equation has exactly two roots.
Solution: 1. The linear equation
Multiply the given equation by the 𝐿𝐶𝑀 5 × 7 × 3
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 ≠ 0 has exactly one root
We get 21𝑥 − 30𝑥 = 35
𝑏
≫ −9𝑥 = 35 𝑥=− 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 ≠ 0
𝑎

10
2. The quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 has 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 = −𝑐1 … … (1)
exactly two roots
𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 = −𝑐2 … … (1)

𝑥=
−𝑏 ± √𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐 Multiply equation (1) by 𝑏2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (2) 𝑏𝑦 𝑏1
2𝑎
We get 𝑎1 𝑏2 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑦 = −𝑏2 𝑐2
−𝑏 − √𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑥= 𝑎2 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑦 = −𝑏1 𝑐2
2𝑎

Methods of Finding the Solutions of a System of Linear Subtracting, we get (𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 )𝑥 = 𝑏1 𝑐2 − 𝑏2 𝑐1

Equations 𝑏1 𝑐2 − 𝑏2 𝑐1
𝑥=
𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 = 0 … (1) 𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1
𝑏2 𝑐1 −𝑏1 𝑐2
𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 = 0 … (2) Or 𝑥 =
𝑎2 𝑏1 −𝑎1 𝑏2

Similarly, multiply (1) by 𝑎2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (2) 𝑏𝑦 𝑎1

1. Method: Substitution Method
We get
Find the value of 𝑦 from equation (1). 𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑏1 𝑦 = −𝑎2 𝑐1
𝑎1 𝑥+𝑐1
i.e. 𝑦 = − 𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑎1 𝑏2 𝑦 = −𝑎1 𝑐2
𝑏1

Substitute this value of 𝑦 in (2) and determine the value Subtracting, we get
of 𝑥 (𝑎2 𝑏1 − 𝑎1 𝑏2 )𝑦 = −𝑎1 𝑐2 − 𝑎2 𝑐1
−(𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑐1 ) 𝑎1 𝑐2 − 𝑎2 𝑐1
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 [ ] + 𝑐2 = 0 ∴ 𝑦=
𝑏1 𝑎2 𝑏1 − 𝑎1 𝑏2

𝑏2 (𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑐1 )
≫ 𝑎2 𝑥 − = −𝑐2
𝑏1 II. Method: Cross Multiplication Method
Multiply by 𝑏1
𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 = 0 … … (1)
≫ 𝑎2 𝑏1 𝑥 − 𝑎1 𝑏2 𝑥 − 𝑏2 𝑐1 = −𝑏1 𝑐2
𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 = 0 … … (1)
≫ (𝑎2 𝑏1 − 𝑎1 𝑏2 )𝑥 = 𝑏2 𝑐1 − 𝑏1 𝑐2
x y 1
𝑏2 𝑐1 − 𝑏1 𝑐2
≫ 𝑥=
𝑎2 𝑏1 − 𝑎1 𝑏2 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑎1 𝑏1
This value of 𝑥 is substituted in
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 𝑎2 𝑏2
−( 𝑎1 𝑥+𝑐1 )
𝑦=
𝑏1
𝑥 𝑦 1
𝑎1 (𝑏2 𝑐1 − 𝑏1 𝑐2 ) ∴ = =
−[ + 𝑐1 ] 𝑏1 𝑐2 − 𝑏2 𝑐1 𝑎2 𝑐2 − 𝑎1 𝑏2 𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1
(𝑎2 𝑏1 − 𝑎1 𝑏2 )
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑦 = 𝑥 1
𝑏1
∴ =
𝑏1 𝑐2 − 𝑏2 𝑐1 𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1
−𝑎1 𝑏2 𝑐1 + 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 𝑐1 + 𝑎1 𝑏2 𝑐1
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑦 = 𝑏1 𝑐2 −𝑏2 𝑐1 𝑏2 𝑐1 −𝑏1 𝑐2
𝑏1 (𝑎2 𝑏1 − 𝑎1 𝑏2 ) ∴𝑥= which is the same as 𝑥 =
𝑎1 𝑏2 −𝑎2 𝑏1 𝑎2 𝑏1 −𝑎1 𝑏2
𝑏1 (𝑎1 𝑐2 + 𝑎2 𝑐1 )
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑦 = 𝑦 1
𝑏1 (𝑎2 𝑏1 − 𝑎1 𝑏2 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =
𝑎2 𝑐1 − 𝑎1 𝑐2 𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1
𝑎1 𝑐2 + 𝑎2 𝑐1 𝑎2 𝑐1 −𝑎1 𝑐2 𝑎1 𝑐2 −𝑎2 𝑐1
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑦 = ∴𝑦= which is the same as 𝑥 =
𝑎2 𝑏1 − 𝑎1 𝑏2 𝑎1 𝑏2 −𝑎2 𝑏1 𝑎2 𝑏1 −𝑎1 𝑏2

Note: While solving the system of linear equations,

anyone of these methods can be use.
This method is called substitution method.

Worked Examples
III. Method: Elimination Method
The elimination of one of the unknowns can be done in I. Solve the following system of equations:
the following method. The given equations are
In these problems, all the three methods are illustrated.

11
1. 𝟐𝒙 + 𝒚 = −𝟏 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟕𝒚 = 𝟐

𝑥−𝑦=4 Solution:

Solution: By elimination method

By substitution method 3𝑥 − 5𝑦 = 1 … . (1)

2𝑥 + 𝑦 = −1 … . . (1) 4𝑥 + 7𝑦 = 2 … . (2)

𝑥−𝑦=4 … . . (2) Multiply (1) by 7 and (2) by 5

1. ≫ 𝑦 = −2𝑥 − 1 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 (2), 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 ∴ 21𝑥 − 35𝑦 = 7

20𝑥+35𝑦=10
𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 1 = 4 ≫ 3𝑥 = 3 Adding
41𝑥=17
3 17
∴ 𝑥 = 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑥 = 1 ∴ 𝑥=
3 41

𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 (1) , 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 Multiply (1) by 4 and (2) by 3

2(1) + 𝑦 = −1 ∴ 12𝑥 − 20𝑦 = 4
∴ 𝑦 = −1−2 12𝑥+21𝑦=6
Subtracting
41𝑦=2
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑦 = − 3
2
By elimination method: ∴ 𝑦=
41
2𝑥 + 𝑦 = −1 … … (1) By Substitution method
3𝑥−1
𝑥−𝑦=4 … … (2) From (1) 𝑦=
5
Adding (1) and (2), we get
Substituting this in (2), we get
3𝑥 = 3 3𝑥 − 1
4𝑥 + 7 ( )=2
3 5
∴𝑥= =1
3 ≫ 20𝑥 + 21𝑥 − 7 = 10
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑥 = 1
≫ 41𝑥 = 17
Multiply (2) by 2 17
≫𝑥=
(1) ≫ 2𝑥 + 𝑦 = − 1 41

2 × (2) ≫ 2𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 8 Substituting this in (1), we get

17
Subtracting, we get 3𝑦 = −9 3 ( ) − 5𝑦 = 1
41
∴ 𝑦 = −3
51
≫ 5𝑦 = −1
By cross multiplication method: The equation is 41
2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 1 = 0 51 − 41
≫ 5𝑦 =
41
𝑥−𝑦−4=0
10
x y 1 ≫ 5𝑦 =
41
2 1 1 2 1 2
≫𝑦=
1 -1 -4 1 -1 41
By cross multiplication method: The equation are
𝑥 𝑦 1
= = 3𝑥 − 5𝑦 − 1 = 0
−4 + 1 1 + 8 −2 + 1
𝑥 𝑦 1 4𝑥 + 7𝑦 − 2 = 0
𝑖. 𝑒. , = =
−3 9 −3
x y 1
−3 9
∴ 𝑥= ,𝑦 = 3 -5 -1 3 -5
−3 −3
4 7 -2 4 7
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = −3

2. 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟓𝒚 = 𝟏 𝑥 𝑦 1
= =
10 + 7 −4 + 6 21 + 20

12
 𝑥 𝑦 1 ∴ 𝑦 = −10
≫ = =
17 2 41
∴ 𝑥 = 14, 𝑦 = −10
17 2
∴𝑥= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 =
41 41
5. Solve the following by substitution method

3. 𝟑. 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟕. 𝟐𝒚 = 𝟏. 𝟔 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟒𝒚 = 𝟕

𝟐. 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟖. 𝟑𝒚 = 𝟗. 𝟏 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟑𝒚 = 𝟓

Solution: Solution:

We shall do this problem by one of the methods say 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 7 … . (1)

cross multiplication method. The other methods are left
4𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 5 … . (2)
as exercise.
(1) ≫ 3𝑥 = 7 − 4𝑦
3.5𝑥 + 7.2𝑦 = 1.6 … . . (1)
7−4𝑦
≫ 𝑥 = … . (3)
2.4𝑥 − 8.3𝑦 = 9.1 … . . (2) 3

Multiply both the equation by 10 Substituting this value of x in (2), we get

∴ 35𝑥 + 72𝑦 = 16 … . (1) 7 − 4𝑦

4( ) − 3𝑦 = 5
3
24𝑥 − 83𝑦 = 91 … . (2)
Multiply by 3
x y 1 ∴ 28 − 16𝑦 − 9𝑦 = 15

35 72 -16 35 72 −25𝑦 + 28 = 15

∴ 25𝑦 = 28 − 15 = 13
24 -83 -91 24 -83
13
∴ 𝑦 =
𝑥 𝑦 1 25
= =
−6552 − 1328 −384 + 3185 −2905 − 1728 Substituting this value of y in (3), we get
𝑥 𝑦 1 13
= = 7 − 4( )
−7880 2801 −4633 𝑥 = 25
3
−7880 −2801
∴ 𝑥= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 175 − 52
−4633 4633 𝑥 =
3 × 25
7880 −2801
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 123 41
4633 4633 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑥 = =
75 25
41 13
4. 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟒𝒚 = 𝟐 ∴ 𝑥= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 =
25 25
5𝑥 + 7𝑦 = 2
Solution: 6. Find the number whose sum is 58 and
difference is 10.
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 2 … . . (1)
Solution:
5𝑥 + 7𝑦 = 2 … . . (2)
Let x and y be the two numbers.
Multiply (1) by 7 and (2) by 4
∴ 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡
∴ 21𝑥 + 28𝑦 = 14
20𝑥+28𝑦=0 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 58
Subtract:
𝑥=14
𝑥 − 𝑦 = 10
Substitute this value of x in (1), we get
Adding (1) and (2), we get
3(14) + 4𝑦 = 2
2𝑥 = 68
∴ 4𝑦 = 2 − 42
68
∴ 4𝑦 = −40 ∴ 𝑥=
2

13
∴ 𝑥 = 34 8. A father is 40 years older than his daughter. In
10 years, the father’s age will be 16 years more
Substituting this value of x in (1), We get
than 3 times the age of his daughter. Find the
34 + 𝑦 = 58 present ages.

𝑦 = 58 − 34 Solution:
𝑦 = 24 Let the present age of the daughter be x years.
∴ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 34 𝑎𝑛𝑑 24 . ∴ the present age of the father is x + 40 years.

After 10 years, daughter’s age will be x + 10 and

father’s age will be 𝑥 + 40 + 10 = 𝑥 + 50 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
7. The price of 2kgs of rice and 5kgs of wheat is 85
and price of 3kgs of rice and 8kgs of wheat is It is given that
132. Find the prices of rice and wheat.
𝑥 + 50 = 3(𝑥 + 10) + 16
Solution:
𝑥 + 50 = 3𝑥 + 46
Let the prices of rice and wheat be x and y respectively.
3𝑥 − 𝑥 = 50 − 46
It is given that
2𝑥 = 4
2𝑥 + 5𝑦 = 85 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3𝑥 + 8𝑦 = 132
𝑥=2
We shall solve these two equations by cross
multiplication. ∴ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑎𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 2 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑

𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 2 + 40

x y 1
= 42 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠.
2 5 -85 2 5

3 5 -132 3 8
Summary

𝑥 𝑦 A linear expression equated to zero is called a linear

∴ = equation. Thus, the general form of a linear equation is
5(−132) − 8(−85) (−85)3 − (−132)2
1 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 ≠ 0 .
=
2×8 −3 ×5 An equation of the type: 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 is called a
𝑥 𝑦 1 linear equation in two variables. A linear equation with
∴ = = more than one variable has infinite number of solutions.
−660 + 680 −255 + 264 16 − 15
𝑥 𝑦 1 Solutions of a system of linear equations can be found
∴ = =
20 9 1 by: (i) substitution method (ii) elimination method, and
𝑥 1 𝑦 1 (iii) cross multiplication method.
∴ = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =
20 1 9 1 If a, b and c are real constants with a 0, an equation that
∴ 𝑥 = 20 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 9 can be written as 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 is called a quadratic
equation.
∴ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 ₹20 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑
The formula for solving quadratic equation is given by
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 ₹9 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑔 .
−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
An equation of degree n has exactly n roots. Hence, a
linear equation has exactly one root and a quadratic
equation has exactly two roots

14
Unit 3
Matrices
Learning Objectives
Equality of Matrices
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
Two matrices A and B are said to be equal if they are of
• Discuss matrix the same order and the corresponding elements of A and
• Identify type of matrices B are equal:
• Explain algebra of matrices 1 3 7 1 3 7
• Describe transpose of a matrix E.g: (1) A=[ ], B=[ ]
8 −7 4 8 −7 4
The orders are same and the corresponding elements are
Introduction equal

∴ A= B
Matrix is an ordered set of numbers listed rectangular
𝑥 2 −1 2
form. (2) A=[ ], and B=[ ] then
0 𝑦 0 4
Let A denote the matrix
𝐴 = 𝑏 ←→ 𝑥 = −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 4.

2 5 7 8
[5 6 8 9]
Types of Matrices
3 9 0 1
1. Rectangular matrix: A matrix of order m × n is called
This matrix A has three rows and four columns. We say a rectangular matrix.
it is a 3 × 4 matrix.
1 2 −1
We denote the element on the second row and fourth E.g: 𝐴 = [ ] is a rectangular matrix
4 7 0
column with 𝑎2,4 .

2. Square matrix: A matrix in which the number of rows

Matrix is equal to the number of columns

(i.e., m × m matrix) is called square matrix.

A matrix is an array (or arrangement) of certain numbers
2 6 −11
along rows and columns. Horizontal arrangements are −1 4
E.g: 𝐴 = [ ] B=[5 0 8 ]
called rows and vertical arrangements are called 7 0
7 −4 1
columns. The numbers are called the elements.
3. Diagonal matrix: A square matrix in which all the
1 −1 2 0 7 −3 5 elements except the principal diagonal elements are
E.g: A=[ ], B=[ ], C=[ 0 6],
2 5 −1 4 10 zero, is called a diagonal matrix.
7 − 12
2 0 −1
D=[ 4 10 7 ] 4 0 0
2 0
11 −2 8 E.g: 𝐴 = [ ] B=[0 −1 0]
0 −1
0 0 8
Order (Type of a Matrix)
are diagonal matrices.
If a matrix has m rows and n columns then the matrix is
said to be of order m × n. 4. Scalar matrix: A diagonal matrix in which all the
principal diagonal elements are equal, is called a
In the above examples, A is of order 2 × 2, B is of order 2 scalar matrix.
× 3, C is of order 3 × 2, D is of order 3 × 3.
4 0 0
2 0
E.g: 𝐴 = [ ] B=[0 4 0]
0 2
0 0 4

15
5. Unit matrix (or Identity matrix): A scalar matrix in If A and B are matrices of the same order then their
which all the principal diagonal elements are equal to difference A – B is obtained by subtracting the
1 is called a unit matrix elements of B by the corresponding elements of A

1 0 0 2 0
1 0 E.g: 𝐴 = [ 5 −1 ]3X2
E.g: 𝐴 = [ ] B=[0 1 0]
0 1 4 7
0 0 1
−1 8
A unit (or Identity) matrix is denoted by 1. 𝐵=[ 9 0 ] 3X2
7 −3
6. Null matrix (or zero matrix): A matrix in which all
the elements are 0 is called a null matrix. A null (or 2 − (−1) 0−8
zero) matrix is denoted by 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴 − 𝐵 = [ 5 − 9 −1 − 0 ]
4−7 7 − (−3)
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 3 −8
E.g: 𝐴 = [ ] B=[0 0 0 ] 𝑐 = [0 0 ]
0 0 0 0 = [ −4 −1 ]
0 0 0
−3 10
0 0 0
𝐷=[ ] −1 − 2 8−0
0 0 0
𝐵 −𝐴 = [9−5 0 − (−1) ]
7−4 −3−7
7. Row matrix: A matrix having only one row and any −3 −8
number of columns (i.e., 1 × n matrix) is called a row =[ 4 1 ]
matrix. 3 − 10

E.g: [1 − 3 0 ] ∴ 𝐴−𝐵 ≠ 𝐵−𝐴

8. Column matrix: A matrix having only one column 3. Scalar multiplication: If 𝐴 is a matrix of order
and any number of rows (i.e., m × 1 matrix) is called 𝑚 × 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 is a scalar, then the matrix 𝑘𝐴 is
a column matrix. obtained by multiplying all the elements of 𝐴 𝑏𝑦 𝑘.
2 −5 4
1 E.g: 𝐼𝑓 𝐴 = [ ]2 X 3 then
−7 3 10
E.g: [−7] 4 −10 8
2𝐴 = [ ] 2X3
0 −14 6 20
−5
1 1 2
2
and 𝐴 = [−7 3 ]
Algebra of Matrices 2
5
2 2
4. Multiplication of matrices: Multiplication of
1. Addition of matrices: Addition of two matrices matrices is defined if and only if the number of
𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 is defined if and only if they are of the same columns of the first matrix is equal to the number of
order rows of the second matrix. i.e., if A is a matrix of order
𝑚 × 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 is a matrix of order 𝑛 × 𝑝 then only
If A and B are matrices of the same order then 𝐴𝐵 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝐵 will be a matrix of order
their sum A + B is obtained by adding 𝑚 × 𝑝. The mode of multiplication is always
𝑟𝑜𝑤 × 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛
the corresponding elements of A and B
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
2 −1 0 0 −1 7 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐴 = [ ]2 X 3 and
E.g: 𝐴 = [ ] 𝐵=[ ] 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
4 7 10 5 8 15
𝑥1 𝑦1
2+0 −1 + (−1) 0+7
Then 𝐴 + 𝐵 = [ ] 𝐵 = [ 𝑥2 𝑦2 ]3X 2
4+5 7+8 10 + 15 𝑥3 𝑦3
2 −2 7 𝑥1 𝑦1
=[ ] 𝑎 𝑏1 𝑐1
9 15 25 then 𝐴𝐵= [ 1 ] [ 𝑥2 𝑦2 ]
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 𝑥3 𝑦3
0+2 (−1) + (−1) 7+0
𝐵+𝐴=[ ]
5+4 8+7 15 + 10 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑥2 + 𝑐1𝑥3 𝑎1 𝑦1 + 𝑏1 𝑦2 + 𝑐1𝑦3
=[𝑎1 𝑥1 + 𝑏2 𝑥2 + 𝑐1𝑥3 𝑎2 𝑦1 + 𝑏2 𝑦2 + 𝑐1𝑦3
]
2 1
2 −2 7
=[ ] 𝑥1 𝑦1
9 15 25 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
Also 𝐵𝐴 = [ 𝑥2 𝑦2 ] [
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
]
𝑥3 𝑦3
∴ 𝐴+𝐵 = 𝐵+𝐴
𝑥1 𝑎1 + 𝑦1𝑎2 𝑥1 𝑏1 + 𝑦1 𝑏2 𝑥1 𝑐1 + 𝑦1𝑐2
2. Subtraction of matrices: Subtraction of two =[ 𝑥2 𝑎1 + 𝑦2 𝑎2 𝑥2 𝑏1 + 𝑦2 𝑏2 𝑥2 𝑐1 + 𝑦2 𝑐2 ]
matrices A and B is defined if and only if they are of 𝑥3 𝑎1 + 𝑦3 𝑎2 𝑥3𝑏 + 𝑦3 𝑏2 𝑥3 𝑐1 + 𝑦3 𝑐2

the same order. From these, we observe that 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴. Hence in

general 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴.

16
Transpose of a Matrix −1 5 2 1
𝐴=[ ], 𝐵 = [ ]
0 6 3 −8

If A is a matrix of order 𝑚 × 𝑛, then the matrix obtained −1 0 2 3

∴ 𝐴′ = [ ] , 𝐵′ = [ ]
by interchanging the rows and columns is called the 5 6 1 −8
transpose of A and is denoted by . A‘ or AT A‘ will be a
matrix of order 𝑛 × 𝑚. −1 5 2 1 −1 + 2 5+1
𝐴+𝐵 =[ ] +[ ]=[ ]
0 6 3 −8 0+3 6−8
1 3 −5 1 6
E.g: If A = [ ]2 X 3 then =[ ]
−4 7 8 3 −2
1 −4
A‘=[ 3 ]3 X 2 ∴ (𝐴 + 𝐵)′ =
7
−5 8 1 3
[ ] … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (1)
6 −2

Worked Examples −1 0 2 3 −1 + 2 0+3

𝐴′ + 𝐵 ′ = [ ] +[ ]=[ ]
5 6 1 −8 5+1 6−8

𝟏 𝟐 −𝟏 𝟎
1. If 𝑨 = [ ] , 𝑩=[ ] find
𝟑 𝟒 𝟒 𝟕 1 3
𝐴′ + 𝐵 ′ = [ ] … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (2)
6 −2
𝑨 + 𝑩, 𝑨 − 𝑩, 𝟐𝑨 + 𝟑𝑩, 𝟐𝑨 − 𝟑𝑩, 𝟓𝑨
+ 𝑩, 𝑨 − 𝟕𝑩 From (1) and (2) : (𝐴 + 𝐵)′ = 𝐴′ + 𝐵′
Solution:
−1 5 2 1 −1 + 2 5−1
𝐴−𝐵 =[ ] - [ ]=[ ]
1 2 −1 0 0 6 3 −8 0−3 6+8
𝐴+𝐵 = [ ]+[ ]
3 4 4 7 −3 4
=[ ]
= −3 14
1−1 2+0 0 2
[ ]=[ ]
3+4 4+7 7 11 ∴ (𝐴 − 𝐵)′ =
−3 −3
[ ] … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (3)
1 2 −1 0 4 −14
𝐴−𝐵 =[ ]−[ ]
3 4 4 7
−1 0 2 3 −1 − 2 0−3
𝐴′ − 𝐵 ′ = [ ] -[ ]=[ ]
1+1 2−0 2 2 5 6 1 −8 5−1 6+8
=[ ]=[ ]
3−4 4−7 −1 −3
1 2 −1 0 −3 −3
2𝐴 + 3𝐵 = 2 [ ]+ 3[ ] 𝐵′ = [ ] … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (4)
3 4 4 7 4 −14

2−3 4−0 −1 4 From (3) and (4) : (𝐴 − 𝐵)′ = 𝐴′ − 𝐵′

=[ ]=[ ]
6 − 12 8 + 21 18 29
1 2 −1 0 3. Find the matrices 𝑨 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝟐𝑨 + 𝑩 =
2𝐴 − 3𝐵 = 2 [ ]− 3[ ]
3 4 4 7 𝟐 𝟑 𝟏
[ ] 𝒂𝒏𝒅
2+3 4−0 5 4 𝟏 𝟒 𝟎
=[ ]=[ ]
6 − 12 8 − 21 −6 −13 𝟒 𝟔 𝟏
𝟑𝑨 + 𝟐𝑩 = [ ]
𝟐 𝟑 𝟓
1 2 −1 0
5𝐴 + 𝐵 = 5 [ ]+[ ]
3 4 4 7
Solution:
5−1 10 + 0 4 10
=[ ]=[ ]
15 + 4 20 + 7 19 27 2 3 1
2𝐴 + 𝐵 = [ ] ……….(1) 3𝐴 + 2𝐵 =
1 4 0
1 2 −1 0 4 6 1
𝐴 − 7𝐵 = [ ] −7[ ] [ ]………..(2)
3 4 4 7 2 3 5
Multiply (1) by 2
1+7 2−0 8 2 4 6 2
=[ ]=[ ] ∴ (1) × 2 ≫ 4𝐴 + 2𝐵 = [ ]
3 − 28 4 − 49 −25 −45 2 8 0
4 6 1
−𝟏 𝟓 𝟐 𝟏 (2) ≫ 3𝐴 + 2𝐵 = [ ]
2. If 𝑨 = [ ] , 𝑩=[ ] 2 3 5
𝟎 𝟔 𝟑 −𝟖
Verify (𝑨 + 𝑩)′ = 𝑨′ + 𝑩′ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝑨 − 𝑩)′ = 𝑨′ − 𝑩′ 0 0 1
Subtracting, we get A=[ ]
Solution: 0 5 −5
Substituting this in (1), we get

17
 0 0 1 2 3 1 Equating the corresponding elements, we get 𝑥 = 5, 𝑦 =
2[ ] +B=[ ]
0 5 −5 1 4 0 11

2 3 1 0 0 2 𝟎 −𝟐
∴𝐵=[ ] -[ ] 7. If A = [ ] . 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 A2−𝟒𝑰 =
1 4 0 0 10 − 10 −𝟐 𝟎
𝟎 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑰 is the unit matrix of second order.

2−0 3−0 1−2 2 3 −1

=[ ] =[ ]
1−0 4 − 10 0 + 10 1 −6 10 Solution:
0 −2 0 −2 0+4 0+0 40
A2 = [ ][ ]=[ ]=[ ]
0 0 1 2 3 −1 −2 0 −2 0 0+0 4+0 04
∴𝐴=[ ] 𝐵=[ ]
0 5 −5 1 −6 10 10 −4 0
−4𝐼 = −4 [ ]=[ ]
01 0−4

𝟐 −𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
4. If 𝑨 = [ ] , 𝑩[ ] 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝑨𝑩 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩𝑨
−𝟐 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 40 −4 0 4−4 0+0 00
A2−4𝐼 = [ ] + [ ]=[ ] =[ ] = 0
04 0−4 0+0 4−4 00
Solution:
∴ A2−4𝐼 = 0
2 −2 1 1
𝐴𝐵 = [ ] [ ]
−2 2 1 1

𝟑 𝟏
8. If A = [ ] . 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 A2−𝟖𝑨 + 𝟏𝟑𝑰 = 𝟎
2(1) + (−2)(1) 2(1) + (−2) 𝟐 𝟓
=[ ]
−2(1) + 2(1) (−2)1 + 2(1) Solution:
3 1 3 1 9+2 3+5 11 8
A2 =[ ][ ]=[ ]=[ ]
2 5 2 5 6 + 10 2 + 25 16 27
2−2 2 − 2) 0 0
=[ ] =[ ] 31 −24 −8
−2 + 2 −2 + 2 0 0 −8𝐼 = −8 [ ]=[ ]
25 −16 − 40
1 0 13 0
13𝐼 = 13 [ ]=[ ]
1 1 2 −2 0 1 0 13
𝐵𝐴 = [ ] [ ]
1 1 −2 2
11 8 −24 −8
Adding , A2−8𝐴 + 13𝐼 = [ ]+[ ]+
16 27 −16 − 40
13 0
1(2) + 1(−2) 1(−2) + 1(2) [ ]
=[ ] 0 13
1(2) + 1(−2) 1(−2) + 1(2)
11 − 24 + 13 8−8+0 0 0
=[ ]= [ ]
16 + 16 + 0 27 − 40 + 13 0 0

2−2 −2 + 2) 0 0 ∴A2−8𝐴 + 13𝐼 = 0

=[ ] =[ ]
2−2 −2 + 2 0 0

𝟓 𝟐 −𝟏
𝟏 −𝟏 −𝟏 𝟎 9. If A = [ ],
5. Simplify: 𝑨 = [ ] , 𝑩=[ ] 𝟎 𝟕 𝟏
−𝟐 −𝟑 𝟎 −𝟖
−𝟑 𝟏
Solution: B = [ 𝟒 𝟕 ] 𝑽𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 (𝑨𝑩) ‘=B’ A’
1 −1 −1 0 𝟏 −𝟏
[ ] [ ] =
−2 −3 0 −8 Solution:
1(−1) + (−1)0 −1(0) + (−1)(−8)
[ ]
(−2)(−1) + (−3)0 (−2)(0) + (−3)(−8) 5 0
−3 4 1
A’=[ 2 7] B’ = [ ]
1 7 −1
−1 + 0 0+8 −1 8 −1 1
=[ ]=[ ]
2+0 0 + 24 2 24 −3 1
5 2 −1
𝐴𝐵 = [ ][4 7]
𝒙 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 0 7 1
6. Find 𝒙 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒚 𝒊𝒇 , [𝒚] =[ ] [ ] 1 −1
𝟒 𝟓 −𝟏
5(−3) + 2(4) + (−1)1 5(1) + 2(7) + (−1)(−1)
Solution: = [ ]
0(−3) + 7(4) + 1(1) 0(1) + 7(7) + 1(−1)
𝑥 2(4) 3(−1) 8−3 5
[𝑦] = [ ]= [ ] = [ ]
4(4) 5(−1) 16 − 5 11
−15 + 8 − 1 5 + 14 + 1
=[ ]
0 + 28 + 1 0 + 49 − 1

18
 47 44
A3 =[ ]
11 3
−8 20
𝐴𝐵 = [ ]
29 48
12. Find the product of 𝑨 = [𝒙 𝒚 𝒛], 𝑩 =
𝒂 𝒉 𝒈 𝒙
(𝐴𝐵) ‘= [−8 29
] ………(1) [ 𝒉 𝒃 𝒇 ] , 𝑪 = [ 𝒚]
20 48
𝒈 𝒇 𝒄 𝒛
5 0
−3 4 1
B’ A’ = [ ][2 7]
1 7 −1 Solution:
−1 1
−3(5) + 4(2) + (1)(−1) −3(0) + 4(7) + (1) (1) A is a matrix of order 1 × 3, 𝐵 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 3 × 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 3 ×
=[ ]
1(5) + 7(2) + (−1)(1) 1(0) + 7(7) + (−1) 1 1.

∴ 𝐴𝐵𝐶 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 1 × 1.

−15 + 8 − 1 0 + 28 + 1 𝑎 ℎ 𝑔
=[ ]
5 + 14 + 1 0 + 49 − 1 𝐴𝐵 = [𝑥 𝑦 𝑧] [ ℎ 𝑏 𝑓 ],
𝑔 𝑓 𝑐

−8 20 = [𝑎𝑥 + ℎ𝑦 + 𝑔𝑧 ℎ𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑓𝑧 𝑔𝑥 + 𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧]
B’ A’ = [ ] ……….(2)
29 48
(𝐴𝐵)𝐶 = [𝑎𝑥 + ℎ𝑦 + 𝑔𝑧 ℎ𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑓𝑧 𝑔𝑥 + 𝑓𝑦 +
𝑥
𝑐𝑧] [𝑦]
From (1) and (2), (𝐴𝐵) ‘=B’ A’ 𝑧
=[(𝑎𝑥 + ℎ𝑦 + 𝑔𝑧)𝑥 + (ℎ𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑓𝑧)𝑦 + (𝑔𝑥 + 𝑓𝑦 +
𝟐 −𝟒 𝑐𝑧)𝑧]
10. If A = [ ] find (A‘)2 - A‘ + 𝑰.
𝟒 𝟏
= [𝑎𝑥 2 + ℎ𝑦𝑥 + 𝑔𝑧𝑥 + ℎ𝑥𝑦 + 𝑏𝑦 2 + 𝑓𝑧𝑦 + 𝑔𝑥𝑧 + 𝑓𝑦𝑧
Solution:
+ 𝑐𝑧 2 ]
2 −4 2 4
A=[ ] A‘ = [ ] = [𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑦 2 + 𝑐𝑧 2 + 2ℎ𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑓𝑧𝑦 + 2 𝑔𝑥𝑧]
4 1 −4 1
2 4 2 4
(A‘)2 = A‘ A‘ = [ ] [ ]
−4 1 −4 1
𝟏 𝟐 𝟐
4 − 16 8+4 13. 𝑰𝒇 𝑨 = [𝟐 𝟏 𝟐 ], prove that 𝑨𝟐 − 𝟒𝑨 − 𝟓𝑰 = 𝟎
= [ ]
−8 − 4 − 16 + 1 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏
−12 12
∴ (A‘)2 = [ ] Solution:
−12 − 15
−2 −4 1 2 2 1 2 2
- A‘ = [ ] 𝐴2=[2 1 2 ], [2 1 2 ]
4 −1
2 2 1 2 2 1
1 0
𝐼=[ ] 1+4+4 2+2+4 2+4+2
0 1
=[2 + 2 + 4 4+1+4 4+2+2]
−12 − 2 + 1 12 − 4 + 0
∴ (A‘)2 - A‘ + 𝐼 = [ ]= 2+4+2 4+2+2 4+4+1
−12 + 4 + 0 − 15 − 1 + 1
−13 8 9 8 8
[ ]
−8 − 15 𝐴2=[ 8 9 8 ]
8 8 9
−4 − 8 − 8
𝟑 𝟒 −4𝐴=[ −8 − 4 − 8 ]
11. If A = [ ] find A3
𝟏 −𝟏 −8 − 8 − 4
Solution: −5 0 0
−5𝐴=[0 − 5 0]
3 4 3 4 0 0 −5
A2 = [ ] [ ]
1 −1 1 −1
Adding ≫ 𝐴2 − 4𝐴 − 5𝐼 =
9+4 12 − 4 13 8
= [ ] =[ ] 9−4−5 8−8+0 8−8+0
3−1 4+1 2 5 [8 − 8 + 0 9 − 4 − 5 8 − 8 + 0]
13 8 3 4 8−8+0 8−8+0 9−4−5
A3= A2. A = [ ] [ ]
2 5 1 −1
0 0 0
39 + 8 52 − 4 =[ 0 0 0 ] = 0
=[ ]
6+5 8−5 0 0 0

19
∴ 𝐴2 − 4𝐴 − 5𝐼 = 0 𝒙 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟒
16. Solve for x, y, z given that [𝒚] = [𝟒 𝟓 𝟔] [𝟓]
𝒛 𝟕 𝟖 𝟗 𝟔
𝟏 −𝟐 𝟑
Solution:
14. If A = [𝟒 𝟕 − 𝟓]
𝟎 𝟖 𝟏𝟎 𝑥 2 3 4 4
[𝑦] = [4 5 6] [5]
−𝟐 𝟒 𝟖 𝑧 7 8 9 6
𝑩 = [ 𝟎 𝟔 𝟑 ] 𝑽𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝟐(𝑨 + 𝑩) = 𝟐𝑨 + 𝟐𝑩
𝟓 𝟕 𝟏𝟏 8 + 15 + 24 47
=[16 + 25 + 36] = [ 77 ]
Solution: 28 + 40 + 54 122
1−2 −2+4 3+8 ∴ 𝑥 = 47 , 𝑦 = 77, 𝑧 = 122
A +B= [ 4 + 0 7 + 6 − 5 + 3 ]
0 + 5 8 + 7 10 + 11
−1 2 11 𝟏 𝟑 𝟓 𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟗 𝟖 𝟕
= [4 13 − 2] 17. Evaluate: [ ]+𝟐[ ]− 𝟑[ ]
𝟐 𝟒 𝟔 𝟑 𝟒 𝟓 𝟔 𝟓 𝟒
5 15 21
−1 2 11 Solution:
2(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 2 [4 13 − 2] 1 3 5 0 1 2 9 8 7
5 15 21 [ ]+2[ ]− 3[ ]
2 4 6 3 4 5 6 5 4
−2 4 22 1 3 5 0 2 4 27 24 21
= [8 26 − 4] ……(1) = [ ]+[ ]−[ ]
2 4 6 6 8 10 18 15 12
10 30 42
1 + 0 − 27 3 + 2 − 24 5 + 4 − 21
1 −2 3 2 −4 6 =[ ]
2 + 6 − 18 4 + 8 − 15 6 + 10 − 12
2𝐴 = 2 [4 7 − 5] = [8 14 − 10]
0 8 10 0 16 20 −26 − 19 − 12
=[ ]
−10 − 3 4
−2 4 8 −4 8 16
2𝐵= 2 [ 0 6 3 ] = [ 0 12 6 ]
5 7 11 10 14 22
18. Find the matrix 𝑿 𝒔𝒖𝒄𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝑨 + 𝟐𝑿 =
2−4 − 4 + 8 6 + 16 𝟓 −𝟏 𝟐 −𝟓
= [8 + 0 14 + 12 − 10 + 6] 𝑩 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝑨 = [ ] 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩 = [ ]
𝟒 𝟕 𝟒 𝟗
0 + 10 16 + 14 20 + 22
−2 4 22 Solution:
2𝐴 + 2𝐵 = [ 8 26 − 4 ] …….(2) 𝐴 + 2𝑋 = 𝐵
10 30 42
∴ 2𝑋 = 𝐵 − 𝐴
From (1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (2) , 2(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 2𝐴 + 2𝐵
1
∴ 𝑋 = (𝐵 − 𝐴)
2
𝟎 𝟏 𝟏 𝟎
15. 𝑰𝒇 𝑨 = [ ] 𝑩=[ ] 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝑨𝟐 + 𝑩𝟐 − 1 2 −5 5 −1 1 −3 − 4
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 −𝟏 = {[ ]−[ ]} = [ ]
𝟐𝐈 = 𝟎 2 4 9 4 7 2 0 2
3
Solution: 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑋 = [− 2 − 2]
0 1
0 1 0 1 0+1 0+0 1 0
𝐴2 = [ ][ ]=[ ]=[ ]
1 0 1 0 0+0 1+0 0 1
1 0 1 0 1+0 0+0 1 0 Summary
𝐵2 =[ ][ ]=[ ]=[ ]
0 −1 0 −1 0+0 0+1 0 1
1 0 −2 0 In this unit we have studied the concepts of matrices
−2𝐼 = −2 [ ]=[ ]
0 1 0 −2 and its importance in solving real world problems of
1 0 1 0 −2 0 business. While a matrix is an array of numbers
Adding, 𝐴2 + 𝐵2 − 2I = [ ]+[ ]+[ ]
0 1 0 1 0 −2 arranged into certain number of rows and columns, a
1+1−2 0+0+0 0 0 determinant is a scalar.
=[ ]=[ ]
0+0+0 1+1−2 0 0
∴ 𝐴2 + 𝐵2 − 2I = 0

20
Unit 1
Number System and Factorization
Learning Objectives 1 is called the multiplicative identity.

To this set 𝑁 a number 0 is included with a property that

At the end of this unit, you will be able to: 𝑎 + 0 = 0 + 𝑎 = 𝑎 ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝑁 . 0 is called the zero or
additive identity. The set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ...........} is called
• Discuss natural numbers
the set of whole numbers and is denoted by W.
• Describe properties of natural numbers
• Explain real numbers ∴ 𝑤 = {0, 1, 2 , 3 , 4 , … … . } … … . (2)
• Recognize imaginary number (or complex numbers)
Only with the set W it is not possible to find a value of x
• Infer prime number, composite numbers and prime
satisfying an equation of the form 𝑥 + 2 = 0 ..
factorization
• Discuss Highest Common Factor (HCF) ∴ to this set 𝑊 , the numbers –1, -2, -3, -4, ….......are
• Describe Least Common Multiple (LCM) added. These numbers are called negative integers. 1,
2, 3, 4........ are called positive integers.

Introduction Note: 0 is neither +𝑣𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑟 − 𝑣𝑒

The set of all positive integers, negative integers

In olden days, there were no methods of counting the together with 0 is called the set of all integers and is
objects. Hence, the counting numbers were invented, denoted by I or Z.
which are called natural numbers. These are denoted by ∴ 𝐼 𝑜𝑟 𝑍
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, .........The set of these numbers is called the = { … … − 4, − 3, − 2,
set of natural numbers and is denoted by N. − 1 , 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 4, … … . } … … (3)
∴ 𝑁 = {0, 1, 2 , 3 , 4 , … … . } … … . (1) 1, 3, 5, ........ are called odd integers and 2, 4, 6, ..........
There are infinity of natural numbers and hence N is an are called even integers.
infinite set. For the study of any branch of mathematics, With the help of only the set 𝑍 , it is not possible to find a
it is very essential to know the basic concepts of value of x satisfying the equation 2𝑥 − 3 = 0.
mathematics. In this unit, we shall understand them so
that the foundation for higher studies in mathematics will Hence, the set 𝑍 was expanded to include such numbers
be strong. also. These numbers are called rational numbers.
𝑝
Definition: A number of the form where 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 are
𝑞
Properties of Natural Numbers integers, 𝑞 ≠ 0 and 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 have no other common
factors except 1, is called a rational number. The set of
Set N = {1, 2, 3, .......} be the set of natural numbers. all rational numbers is denoted by 𝑄 .

1. Closure law: ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑁, 𝑎 + 𝑏 ∈ 𝑁 and 𝑎. 𝑏 ∈ 𝑁 . ∴ 𝑄

𝑝
= { : 𝑝, 𝑞 ∈ 𝑧, 𝑞
2. Associative law: ∀ 𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐 ∈ 𝑁 , (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + 𝑞
(𝑏 + 𝑐)
≠ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝, 𝑞 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 1}
(𝑎𝑏)𝑐 = 𝑎(𝑏𝑐)
Note: All integers are also rational number
3. Distributive law: ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑁,
With this set Q alone, it is not possible to find a value of
𝑎 ∙ (𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 + 𝑎 ∙ 𝑐 x satisfying an equation of the form 𝑥 2 − 2 = 0 . Hence
3 5
(𝑎 + 𝑏) ∙ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑐 + 𝑏 ∙ 𝑐 to this set 𝑄 the numbers like √2,√4 ,√7 etc .., were
included which are called irrational numbers.
4. Commutative Law:∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑁, 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 +
𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∙ 𝑎 A number which is not a rational number is called an
irrational number. A number which can be expressed
5. Identity Law:∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝑁 either as a terminating decimal or as a non-terminating
1∙ 𝑎 =𝑎 ∙ 1 = 𝑎

1
periodic (or recurring) decimal is called a rational Imaginary Numbers or Complex Numbers
1
number. For example, = 0.5
2

1 Now with the help of only the set of real numbers R, it is

= 0.3333 … … not possible to find a value of x satisfying an equation of
3
the form𝑥 2 + 4 = 0. The numbers, which satisfy such
1
= 0.142857142857142857 … … … … … …. equations, are called imaginary numbers or complex
7 numbers.
A number which can neither be expressed as a
terminating decimal nor as a non-terminating periodic √−1 is called an imaginary unit and is denoted by i.
decimal is called an irrational number. ∴ 𝑖 = √−1
3 5
For example, √2 , √4,√7 etc. ≫ 𝑖 2 = −1, 𝑖 3 = −𝑖 , 𝑖 4 = 1 , 𝑖 5 = 𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑐

An imaginary number (a complex number) is

Real Numbers represented by 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 where 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 are real numbers
and 'i' is the imaginary unit.
The set of all rational numbers and irrational numbers is Note: All real numbers are complex numbers since any
called the set of real numbers and is denoted by 𝑅 . real number x can be represented as 𝑥 + 0𝑖 .
∴ 𝑅 = {𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑠} . (5) The set of all complex numbers is denoted by 𝐶 .
𝑅 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑖𝑔𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑡 .

Properties of Real Numbers

Let R be the set of all real numbers.

1. Closure law: ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑎 + 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝑅

2. Associative law:∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 , 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅, (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐

= 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐)

(𝑎𝑏)𝑐 = 𝑎(𝑏𝑐)

3. Distributive law: ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 , 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅,

𝑎 ∙ (𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 + 𝑎 ∙ 𝑐
(𝑎 + 𝑏) ∙ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑐 + 𝑏 ∙ 𝑐 ∴ 𝐶 = {𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏: 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖
= √−1 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡}
4. Commutative law:∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅

𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑
Prime Numbers, Composite Numbers and
𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎 Prime Factorization
5. Identity law: ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅
Prime number: An integer p > 1 is said to be a prime
𝑎 + 0 = 0 + 𝑎 = 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑
number if the only positive divisors of p are 1 and itself.
𝑎∙1 =1∙𝑎 =𝑎 E.g., 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, .................
0 is called the additive identity and 1 is called the
Composite number: An integer which is not a prime
multiplicative identity.
number is called a composite number. 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12,
6. Inverse law: ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅 there exists −𝑎 ∈ 𝑅 such 14, .........................
that 𝑎 + (−𝑎) = (−𝑎) + 𝑎 = 0. a is called the
1 There are infinity of prime numbers and infinity of
additive inverse of a ∀ 𝑎 ≠ 0 ∈ 𝑅 there exists ∈ composite numbers.
𝑎
1 1
𝑅 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎 ( ) = ( ) 𝑎 = 1 Prime power factorization: If any positive integer can
𝑎 𝑎

1
be expressed in the form.
is called the multiplicative inverse of 𝑎 .
𝑎 ∝ ∝ ∝ ∝
𝑝1 1 ,𝑝2 2 ,𝑝3 3 …......𝑝𝑘 𝑘

2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , 𝑝3 , … … … . 𝑝𝑘, and prime numbers and We apply Euclid’s algorithm for the HCF of the numbers.
∝1 , ∝1, , ∝3 , … … … . ∝𝑘, are positive integers, then it is Let us illustrate this method for the HCF of 24 and 78.
called the prime power factorization of the given integer. 24 ) 78 (3
E.g: (i) 890 72
6
2 890
6 ) 24 ( 4
5 445 24
89 00

The last non-zero remainder is 6 which is the HCF of 24

∴ 890 = 21 × 51 × 891 and 78.
Here 2, 5, 89 are all prime numbers with powers 1

(ii) 18900 Least Common Multiple (LCM)

2 18900 The LCM of two numbers is determined by finding the

multiples of the numbers, selecting the common
2 9450 multiples and then selecting the least of these common
multiples.
3 4725
For example: Find the LCM of 24 and 78

3 1575
2 24, 78

3 525
2 12, 39

5 175
2 6, 39

5 35
3 3, 39

7
1 1, 13

∴ 18900 = 22 × 33 × 52 × 71 .
𝐿𝐶𝑀 = 23 × 3 × 13 = 312
2, 3, 5, 7 are all prime numbers with powers 2, 3, 2, 1
The HCF and LCM of two positive integers are very
respectively.
useful in arithmetical calculations.
The relation between HCF and LCM is given by
Highest Common Factor (HCF)
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝐿𝐶𝑀 =
𝐻𝐶𝐹
The HCF of any two numbers is determined by finding
the factors of both the numbers, selecting the common Hence, we can find the LCM by this formula also.
factors among these factors and then selecting the Procedure for Finding the HCF and LCM of Two
highest of these common factors. The HCF of two Numbers a and b
numbers is also called the Greatest Common Divisor
(GCD). (i) HCF: If a < b, divide b by a, let r be the remainder.
Divide a by r, let s be the remainder. Divide r by s let t
For example: To find the HCF of 24 and 78. be the remainder continue this process till the remainder
The factors of 24 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24 is 0. The last non-zero remainder is the HCF.

The factors of 78 are 1, 2, 3, 6, 13, 26, 39, 78 (ii) LCM: Express a as a product of prime numbers.
Express b as a product of prime numbers. Then LCM =
The common factors of 24 and 78 are 1, 2, 3, 6. product of highest powers of all the factors of a and b.
Out of these common factors, the highest is 6.

∴ HCF = 6. Worked Examples

This method of determining the HCF is not easy
because it is a difficult task to find the factors of bigger 1. What is a natural number? (or a positive integer)
numbers.

3
Solution: Solution:
Any counting number is called a natural number. 1, 2, 3, All rational numbers and irrational numbers are called
4, ................are natural numbers. Natural numbers are real numbers.
also called positive integers. 2 1 1 3 4
E.g: 4, 10, , , , √2, √5, √7 𝑒𝑡𝑐.
3 2 7

2. What is a whole number?

8. What is an imaginary number?
Solution:
Solution:
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ............. are called whole numbers.
A number of the form 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 where 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 are real
numbers and 𝑖 = √−1 is an imaginary unit, is called an
3. What is a negative integer? imaginary (or complex) number.
Solution: E.g: 𝑖, − 𝑖, 1 + 𝑖, √3 + 2𝑖 , − 4 + 7𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑐.
−1, −2, −3, −4, … … . . are called negative integers.

9. What is a prime number?

4. What is an integer? Solution:
Solution: An integer 𝑝 > 1 is said to be a prime number if the only
The numbers ..........−4, − 3, − 2, − factors of 𝑝 are 1 and 𝑝 itself.
1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, … … are called integers. E.g: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, .............

5. What is a rational number? 10. What is a composite number?

Solution: Solution:
𝑝
A number of the form where p and q are integers, 𝑞 ≠ A number which is not a prime number is called a
𝑞
0 and 𝑝, 𝑞 do not have any other common factors composite number.
except 1, is called a rational number. E.g: 4, 6, 8, 9, 10,12, ................
OR
A number which can be expressed either as a 11. What is the HCF of any two integers?
terminating decimal or as a non-terminating recurring (or
periodic) decimal is called a rational number. Solution:
1 1 2 −4 The HCF of any two integers a and b is the greatest of
E.g: , , , 𝑒𝑡𝑐.
2 7 3 9 all the common factors of a and b.

6. What is an irrational number? 12. What is the LCM of any two integers?
Solution: Solution:
A number which is not a rational number, is called an The LCM of any two numbers a and b is the smallest of
irrational number. all the common multiples of a and b.
OR 13. What is the relation between HCF and LCM of
A number which cannot be expressed as a terminating any two integers?
decimal or as a non-terminating recurring (or periodic) Solution:
decimal, is called an irrational number. E.g:
3 4 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
√2, √5, √7 𝑒𝑡𝑐 . 𝐿𝐶𝑀 =
𝐻𝐶𝐹

7. What is a real number?

14. Express the following rational numbers either as
a terminating decimal or as a non-terminating
decimal or as a non-terminating periodic decimal:

4
 𝟏 𝟏 𝟒 𝟕 HCF of x and 50 is 2.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
𝟐 𝟕 𝟓 𝟑
LCM of x and 50 is 450.
Solution:
1 Product of the numbers = 50x.
= 0.5
2 The formula is
1 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
= 0.142857142857142857 … … … … …. 𝐿𝐶𝑀 =
7 𝐻𝐶𝐹
4 50𝑥
= 0.8 ≫ 450 =
5 2
7 ≫ 50𝑥 = 2 × 450
= 2.3333 … … … ..
3
2 × 450
≫ 𝑥 = = 18
50
15. Express the following decimals as a rational ∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 17
𝒑
number in the form .
𝒒

(𝟏) 𝟎. 𝟓𝟐𝟕 (𝟐) 𝟐. 𝟕𝟒 (𝟑) 𝟒𝟏. 𝟕 (𝟒) 𝟏𝟐𝟖. 𝟗𝟑

17. Find the least number divisible by 20 and 22.
(𝟓) 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓. . (𝟔) 𝟕. 𝟏𝟐𝟑𝟏𝟐𝟑𝟏𝟐𝟑 … ..
Solution: The least number divisible by 20 and 22 is the
Solution: LCM of 20 and 22.

527
(1) 0.527 = 2 20
1000
274 2 10
(2) 2.74 =
100
137 5
= (𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑦 2)
50

417 ∴ 20 = 22 × 5
(3) 41.7 =
10
417 2 22
(4) 41.7 =
10
11
(5) 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = 0.5555 … …

10𝑥 = 5.5555 … … (𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑦 10) ∴ 22 = 2 × 11

𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝐿𝐶𝑀 𝑜𝑓 20 𝑎𝑛𝑑 22 𝑖𝑠 22 × 5 × 11 = 220

9𝑥 = 5 ∴ The least number divisible by 20 and 22 is 220.

5
∴𝑥=
9
18. Find the greatest number less than 250 and
5
∴ 0.5555 … … = divisible by 4 and 10.
9

(6) 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = 7.123123123 … . Solution:

1000𝑥 = 7123.123123 … … … (𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑦 1000) The smallest number divisible by 4 and 10 is their LCM.

𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 2 4
2
999𝑥 = 7116

∴ 𝑥=
7116
=
2372 ∴ 4 = 22
999 333
2 10
5
16. (1) The HCF of two numbers is 2 and LCM is 450.
If one of the numbers is 50, find the other. ∴ 10 = 2 × 5
Solution: ∴ 𝐿𝐶𝑀 𝑜𝑓 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 10 𝑖𝑠 22 × 5 = 20
Let the other number be x. Any higher number divisible by 4 and 10 is a multiple of
the LCM 20.

5
𝑖. 𝑒. , 1 × 20, 2 × 20, 3 × 20, 4 × 20 𝑒𝑡𝑐. ∴ A multiple of Summary
20 less than 250 is 12 × 20 = 240

∴ The greatest number less than 250 and divisible by 4 In this unit, we have discussed basic concepts of
and 10 is 240 mathematics. The concept and properties of natural
number, integer, real numbers, rational and imaginary
numbers have been explained in detail.

6
Unit 5
Arithmetic Progression and Geometric
Progression
Learning Objectives i.e., (a + d) − a or (a + 2d) − (a + d) or (a + 3d) − (a + 2d)
etc

At the end of this unit, you will be able to: This is also called the last term and is denoted by 𝑙

• Arithmetic Progression (A.P.)

• nth term of A.P Sum to n Terms of an A.P
• Sum of n terms of A.P
• 4.Concept of Geometric Progression
• nth Term of a G.P. The sum to n terms of A.P 𝑎, 𝑎 + 𝑑, 𝑎 + 2𝑑, 𝑎 +
• Sum to ‘n’ Terms of a G.P. 3𝑑, … … … 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 𝑖𝑠
• Sum to Infinity of a G.P.
a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + ........ +[a + (n −1)d]
which is given by
Introduction 𝑛
𝑠𝑛 = (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑)
2
A large number of business computations involve a
Since l = a + (n − 1) d, we can write the formula for
series of numerical values each member of which
Sn as
possesses a relationship with the previous member.
Such series are called progression. 𝑛
𝑠𝑛 = (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑)
2
In this unit, we will study the AP and its formulae in order
𝑛
to solve some application oriented s. ≫ 𝑠𝑛 = [𝑎 + 𝑙]
2
Set of numbers: {1,3,6,12} is a set of numbers. 𝑛 𝑛
≫ 𝑠𝑛 = (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑) = [𝑎 + 𝑙] 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑙 = 𝑇𝑛
Sequence of numbers: A sequence of numbers is 2 2
= 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
a set of numbers arranged in a definite order.
E.g. (i) {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10} is a sequence
Worked Examples
2 2 2 2 2
(ii) {1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ,......,10 } is a sequence
1 1 1 1 1. Find the 10th term of the A.P., -3,
(iii) {1, , , , … … … , } 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
2 4 8 128 -1, 1, 3, 5,......

A sequence is also called progression. Solution:

The A.P. is −3,− 1, 1, 3, 5,......

Arithmetic Progression (A.P.)
a= -3 and d = 2, n = 10
An arithmetic progression is a sequence of
th
numbers in which each term after the first term is n term = a + (n - 1)d
obtained by adding a constant quantity to its 10th term = -3 + (10 - 1)2
previous term. This constant quantity is called
common difference. In general, an Arithmetic = -3 +18 = 15
Progression (A.P.) is given by:

a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d........
2. If the 5th term of an A.P. is 10 and 8th term is
Here a is the first term and ‘d’ is the common 16, find the first term and the common
difference. difference.
To find the common difference of an A.P.,
subtract any term from its next term.

33
Solution: nth term =11 − 8n
5𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑠 10 ≫ 𝑎 + 4𝑑 = 10 15th term =11 − 8(15) = 11 −120 = −109
8𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑠 16 ≫ 𝑎 + 7𝑑 = 16

Let us solve these equations. 5. Find the 17th term of the series 3, 6, 9, 12…

(2) − (1)  3d = 6 Solution:

d = 2 a = 3, d = 3, n = 17
Substituting d = in (1), we get 2
17th term = 3 + (17 −1)3 = 3 + 16(3) = 51
a + 4(2) = 10

a = 10 − 8
a =2 6. Which term of the A.P. -1, 3, 7, is 79?

Therefore, first term is 2 and the common difference Solution:

is 2.
-1, 3, 7, is the given A.P.

3. If the 4th term of an A.P. is 7 and the 7th  a = −1, d = 4

term is 13, find the 12th term.
nth term = a + (n − 1)d = 79
Solution:
 −1 + (n − 1)4 = 79
4th term = 5  a + 3d = 7 ….…..(1)  −1 + 4n − 4 = 79
7th term =13  a + 6d = 13 ……..(2)  4n − 5 = 79
Let us solve these equations  4n = 84

(2) − (1)  3d = 6  n = 21
21st term of the given A.P. is 79
d = 2

Substituting 𝑑 = 2 in (1), we get

7. Determine A.P. whose nth term is 5n + 4.
a + 3(2) = 7
Solution:
a = 7 − 6 = 1
nth term = 5n + 4
a = 1, d = 2
 1st term = 5(1) + 4 = 9 2nd term = 5(2) + 4 = 14 3rd term
12th term = a + 11d = 1 + 11(2) = 1 + 22 = 23 = 5(3) + 4 = 19

12th term is 23. A.P. is 9, 14,19,.....

8. How many numbers are there between 12

4. Find the common difference, nth term and and 108, which are divisible by 5?
15th term of the A.P. 3,− 5,− 13,......
Solution:
Solution:
The first and the last numbers divisible by 5
3,− 5,− 13,………. is an A.P. between 12 and 108 are 15 and 105.
a = 3, d = −5 − 3 = −8  a = 15, l = 105

common difference = −8 l = a + (n − 1)d

 105 = 15 + (n −1)5
nth term = a + (n − 1)d
 (n − 1)5 = 105 − 15 = 90
= 3 + (n − 1)(−8)
90
𝑛 − 1 = = 18
5
= 3 − 8n + 8

34
 n = 18 + 1 = 19 15
= × 38 = 15 × 19 = 285
2
Hence there are 19 terms between 12 and 108
∴ 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑡𝑜 15 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 285
which are divisible by 5.

11. Find the sum to n terms of the A.P. -1, 2,5

9. Determine the A.P. whose sum to n terms
2 ………., and hence find the sum to 10 terms.
is n .
Solution:
Solution:
The A.P. is -1, 2, 5 ...
𝟐
𝑺𝒏 = 𝒏  a = −1,d = 5 − 2 = 2 − (−1) = 3
 Sn−1 Sum to n terms =

2 𝑛
 Tn= (n − 1) 𝑠𝑛 = (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑)
2
= Sn − Sn−1 𝑛
= (2(−1) + (𝑛 − 1)3)
2
2 2 𝑛
= n − (n − 1) = (−2 + 3𝑛 − 3)
2
2 2
=n − n + 2n − 1 𝑛(3𝑛 − 5)
=
2
 Tn = 2n − 1
Put n=10=5
 T1 = 2(1) − 1 = 1
10(30 − 5) 10 × 25
∴ 𝑠10 = = = 5 × 25 = 125
T2 = 2(2) − 1 = 3 2 2
T3 = 2(3) − 1 = 5 etc.
12. How many terms of the A.P. 42, 36, 30,
A.P. is 1, 3, 5,.....
amount to 150?
Solution:
10. Determine the A.P. whose nth term is 3n - 5.
It is given that Sn = 150. We have to find n.
Find the15th term and sum to 15 terms.
Solution: Sn = 150

Tn = 3n - 5(given) 𝑛
𝑠𝑛 = (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑)
2
 T1 = 3(1) − 5 = −2 Here 𝑎 = 42, 𝑑 = −6
T2 = 3(2) − 5 = 1 𝑛
∴ 𝑠𝑛 = (2(42) + (𝑛 − 1)(−6)) = 150
T3 = 3(3) − 5 = 4 etc., 2
𝑛
=> (84 − 6𝑛 + 6) = 150
A.P. is −2,1,4,..... 2
𝑛
Here a = −2,d = 3 . => (90 − 6𝑛) = 150
2
nth term = a + (n − 1)d 𝑛
=> × 2(45 − 3𝑛) = 150
2
15th term = −2 + (15 − 1)3
=> 𝑛(45 − 3𝑛) = 150
= −2 + 42 = 40
=> 45𝑛 − 3𝑛2 = 150
𝑛
𝑠𝑛 = (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑)
2 => 15𝑛 − 𝑛2 = 50 (𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑦 3)
15 => 𝑛2 − 15𝑛 + 50 = 0
∴ 𝑠15 = (2(−2) + (15 − 1)3)
2
=> 𝑛2 − 10𝑛 − 5𝑛 + 50 = 0
15
= (−4 + 42)
2 => 𝑛(𝑛 − 10) − 5(𝑛 − 10) = 0

=> (𝑛 − 10)(𝑛 − 5) = 0

35
=> 𝑛 = 10, 𝑛 = 5 substituting a = −8 , we get
Either 10 terms or 5 terms of the A.P. amount to (−8 − d)(−8)(−8 + d) = 288
150.
2
 (64 − d ) = −36
Verification: 42 + 36 + 30 + 24 + 18 +12 + 6 + 0 + (−6) +
2
(−12)  d = 64 + 36
Sum of 10 terms =150 2
 d = 100
Sum of 5 terms =150
 d = 10

∴ the numbers are −8 − 10, − 8,− 8 + 10 or −8 + 10,

13. If a = -5, l = 52 and Sn = 470, find n and d. −8,−8 −10

i.e., −18, − 8,2 or 2,− 8,− 18

Solution:
l = a + (n- 1) d and
15. Find the sum of the first 20 positive
𝑛
𝑠𝑛 = (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑) integers.
2
=> 52 = −5 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 470 Solution:
𝑛 The first 20 positive integers are 1, 2, 3, 4 ….20.
= (2(−5) + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑)
2
Here a = 1,d = 1,l = 20
=> 57 = (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 470
𝑛
𝑛 𝑠𝑛 = (𝑎 + 𝑙)
= (−10 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑) 2
2
20
𝑛 ∴ 𝑠20 = (1 + 20)
∴ 470 = (−10 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑) 2
2
𝑛 = 10(21) = 210
=> 470 = (−10 + 57)
2
∴ the sum of first 20 positive integers is 210.
𝑛
=> 470 = (47)
2
2 × 470 16. The sum of the first eleven terms of an
=> 𝑛 = = 2 × 10 = 20
47 𝟏
A.P. is 𝟖𝟐 . If the 15th term is 12, find the A.P
𝟐
Now, 57 = (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
Solution:
=> 57 = (20 − 1)𝑑
𝑛
=> 57 = 19𝑑 𝑠𝑛 = (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑), 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
2
57
=> 𝑑 = =3 1
19 𝑆11 = 82
2
Therefore 𝑛 = 20 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 = 3
11 165
=> [2𝑎 + (11 − 1)𝑑] =
2 2
=> 2𝑎 + 10𝑑 = 15
14. The sum of 3 numbers in A.P. is –24 and
𝑇𝑛 = 12
then product is 288. Find the numbers.
=> 𝑎 + (15 − 1)𝑑 = 12
Solution:
=> 𝑎 + (14)𝑑 = 12
Let a - d, a, a + d be the 3 numbers in A.P.
=> 2𝑎 + 28𝑑 = 24 (𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑦 (2))
 Sum = a − d + a + a + d = −24
2𝑎 + 10𝑑 = 15
 3a = −24
2𝑎 + 28𝑑 = 24
 a = −8
Subtracting, we get
Product = (a − d)a(a + d) = 288
18𝑑 = 9

36
 1 2 2 2 2
∴𝑑= = (4 − 3d) + (4 − d) + (4 + d) + (4 + 3d)
2
2 2 2
1
Substituting 𝑑 = in (1), we get = 16 − 24d + 9d + 16 − 8d + d + 16 + 8d + d +16 +
2
2
1 24d + 9d
2𝑎 + 10 [ ] = 15
2 2
= 64 + 20d
i.e., 2𝑎 = 15 − 5
2
 64 + 20d = 84
=> 2𝑎 = 10
2
=> 𝑎 = 5  20d = 84 − 64 = 20
1 1 2
∴ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐴. 𝑃 𝑖𝑠 5, 5 , 6, 6 , … … … ….  d = 1  d = 1
2 2
Therefore, the numbers are 4 − 3,4 − 1,4 + 1,4 + 3 or
4 + 3,4 + 1,4 − 1, 4 − 3 i.e.,1,3,5,7 or 7,5,3,1
17. The ratio of 7th term to 3rd term of an A.P.
is 12:5. Find the ratio of the 13th term to the 4th
term. 19. If the 5th term of an A.P. exceeds the 2nd
term by 12and 15th term is 28, find the A.P.
Solution:
Solution:
Let the A.P. be a, a + d, a + 2d,.....
7𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑎 + 6𝑑 12 5th term = a + 4d,2nd term = a + d
= =
3𝑟𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑎 + 2𝑑 5  (a + 4d) − (a + d) = 12
=> 5𝑎 + 30𝑑 = 12𝑎 + 24𝑑  3d = 12d = 4
=> 7𝑎 = 6𝑑
15th term = a + 14d = 28
13𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑎 + 12𝑑
=  a + 14  4 = 28
4𝑟𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑎 + 3𝑑
7(𝑎 + 12𝑑) a = 28 − 56
= (𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
7(𝑎 + 3𝑑) a = −28
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑦 7
The A.P. is −28, − 24, −16, −12, − 8, − 4, 0, 4, 8,.....
7𝑎 + 84𝑑
=
7𝑎 + 21𝑑
6𝑎 + 84𝑑 20. If the nth terms of the A.Ps 3, 10, 17, and
= [𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 (1)] 63, 65, 67, are equal, find the value of n.
6𝑎 + 21𝑑
90𝑑 10 Solution:
= =
27𝑑 3
3, 10, 17, .......
Therefore the 13th term: 4th term is 10:3
a = 3, d = 7

18. The sum of the first four terms of an A.P.  nth term = a + (n − 1)d = 3 + (n − 1)7 = 7n − 4
is 16 and the sum of their squares is 84. Find
the numbers. 63, 65, 67.........

Solution: a = 63, d = 2

Let a − 3d, a − d, a + d, a + 3d be the four terms of

 nth term = a + (n − 1)d = 63 + (n − 1)2 = 2n + 61
an A.P.
 7n − 4 = 2n + 61  5n = 65  n = 13
 Sum = a − 3d + a − d + a + d + a + 3d = 16

 4a = 16  a = 4
Worked Examples on Business
Sum of their squares = (a − 3d)
2
+ (a − d)
2
+ (a + d)
2 Application of Progressions
2
+ (a + 3d)
1. The first year, a man saves 100. In each
succeeding year, he saves 25 more than the

37
year before. How much money would be the value of the car at the end of 5 years is given
accumulated at the end of 20 years? by 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1

𝑇5 = 9000(0.9)5−1
Solution:
= 9000(0.9)4
It is given that 𝑎 = 100, 𝑑 = 25, 𝑛 = 20
9 4
𝑛 = 9000 × ( )
𝑠𝑛 = (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑), 10
2
9000 × (9)4 9 × (9) 4 59049
20 = = = = 5904.9
𝑠𝑛 = (2 × 100 + (20 − 1)25) 10000 10 10
2
Therefore, the value of the car at the end of 5 years is
= 10(200 + 475)
5904.90
= 10(675)

= 6750 𝟐
4. A ball rebounds the distance it falls. It id
𝟑
Therefore, he would have accumulated 6750 at the end
dropped from a height of 5 meters. How far does it
of 20 years
travel before coming to rest?
Solution:
2. A man is employed in a firm on a pay of 2
350 per month with an annual increment of 15. a = 5, r=
3
What will be his pay during 10th year? What 𝑎
∴ 𝑆𝑛 =
are his total earnings during the 10 years? 1−𝑟
5 5 × 3 15
Solution: ∴ 𝑆𝑛 = = = = 15
2 3−2 1
1−
3
It is given that 𝑎 = 1350, 𝑑 = 15, 𝑛 = 10 Therefore, ball travels 15meters before coming to rest.
𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑

= 350 + (10 − 1)15 Concept of Geometric Progression

= 350 + 135 = 485
A geometric progression is a sequence of numbers
𝑛
𝑠𝑛 = (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑), in which each term after the first term is obtained
2 by multiplying its previous term by a constant
10 quantity called common ratio.
𝑠𝑛 = (2 × 350 + (10 − 1)15)
2
In general, a Geometric Progression is given by a,
= 5(700 + 135) 2 3
ar, ar , ar ...
= 5(835) = 4175
Here a is the first term and ‘r’ is the common ratio.
Therefore, his pay during the 10th year will be 485
To find the common ratio of a G.P. divide any term
per month. His total earnings during 10 years is
𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑟 2 𝑎𝑟 3
4175x12= 50100. from its previous term,𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑟 etc.
𝑟 𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑟 2

nth Term of a G.P.

3. A car purchased for 10,000 depreciates in
2 3
value 10% every year. Find its value at the end The nth term of the G.P. a, ar, ar , ar , is given by
of 5 years.
n−1
T = ar ….. (4)
Solution:

At the end of year 1 =10000–1000=9000

Sum to ‘n’ Terms of a G.P.
At the end of year 2 =9000–900=8100
At the end of year 3 =8100–810=7290 etc., The sum to ‘n’ terms of the G.P.

a = 9000, common ratio = 1 − r = 1 − 0.1 = 0.9 2 3 n−1

a, ar, ar , ar , ....ar is
and n = 5
2 3 n−1
a + ar + ar + ar + ..... + ar which is given by

38
 𝑎(1−𝑟 𝑛) 3. If the 3rd term of a G.P. is 8 and the 6th
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 |𝑟| < 1……………..(5)
1−𝑟
term is 64, find the 10th term.
f |𝑟| > 1then
Solution:
𝑎(1−𝑟 𝑛)
𝑆𝑛 = ……………. (6) 2 5
1−𝑟
3rd term = ar = 8 6th term = ar = 64

Dividing (2) by (1), we get

Sum to Infinity of a G.P.
𝑎𝑟 5 64
=
𝑎𝑟 2 8
If |r| 1 then sum to infinity of the G.P. by a, ar,
𝑎𝑟 2 , 𝑎𝑟 3 … … …. is given by 3
 r =8
𝑎
𝑆𝑛 =  r =2
1−𝑟
Substituting r = 2 in (1), we get

Worked Examples on G.P. 2

a(2) = 8

1. Find the 10th term of the G.P. 1, 2, 4,  4a = 8

8, ...
a =2
Solution:
9
 10th term = ar
The G.P. is 1, 2, 4, 8,…
9
a = 1, r = 2 = 2(2)
10
nth term = arn−1 =2 = 1024

10th term = 1(2)10−1 = 29 = 512

4. Find the common ratio, nth term and 10th
term of the G.P., 3,-9, 27, -81,....
𝟏 𝟏
2. If the 5th term of a G.P. is and 9th term is .
𝟑𝟐 𝟐𝟓𝟔
Find the first term and the common ratio. Solution:

Solution: 3,− 9,27,− 81, is the G.P.

1 −9 27 −81
5th term of a G.P.= 𝑎𝑟 5−1 = 𝑎𝑟 4 = ……(1) ∴ 𝑎 = 3, 𝑟 = = = = −3
32 3 −9 27

1 ∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = −3
8th term = 𝑎𝑟 8−1 = 𝑎𝑟 7 = ……(2)
256
n−1 n−1 n−1 n−1+1
Dividing (2) by (1) we get nth term = ar = 3(−3) = (−1) 3 =
1 n−1 n
(−1) 3
𝑎𝑟 7 256
=
𝑎4 1 10−1 10 9 10 10
32  10th term = (−1) 3 = (−1) 3 = −3 =
−59049
32 1
= 𝑟3 = =
256 8
= −59049
1
=𝑟=
2
1 5. Find the 6th term of the G.P. 5, 15, 45,......
Substituting 𝑟 = in (1) we get
2

1 4 1
𝑎( ) = Solution:
2 32

1 The G.P. is 5,15,45,......

32 1 15 45
𝑎= = ∴ a=5, r= , =3
1 2 5 15
16
n−1
1 1 nth term = ar
∴ 𝑓irst term is amd the common ratio
2 2
6−1 5
6th term = 5(3) = 5 3

39
 (𝑟 𝑛−1)
= 5  243 => 𝑟 𝑛−1 = 32, 63 =
𝑟−1
= 1215
(𝑟𝑟 𝑛−1 − 1)
=> 63 =
𝑟−1
6. Which term of the G.P. 3, 12, 48, is 768?
(𝑟(32) − 1)
=> 63 =
𝑟−1
Solution: −160 = −5 63(r − 1) = 32r − 1
3, 12, 48,… is the given G.P.  63r − 63 = 32r −1
12 48
∴ 𝑎 = 3, 𝑟 = = =4  63r − 32r = 63 −1
3 12
 31r = 62
n−1
nth term = ar
 r =2
n−1
 3(4) = 768
n−1
Substituting r = 2 in r = 32, we get
n−1 768
 4 = n−1 5
2 =2
3  n −1 = 5
n−1
 4 = 256  n =6
n−1 4  n = 6 and r = 2
 4 =4

 n −1 = 4
 n =5 9. The sum of three numbers in a G.P. is
𝟔𝟑
𝟒
5th term is 768 and their product is 27, find the numbers.
Solution:
𝑎
7. Determine the G.P. whose nth term is given Let , 𝑎, 𝑎𝑟 be the 3 numbers in G.P
𝑟
n−1
by 3  5 . 𝑎 63
∴ + 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 = .
𝑟 4
Solution:
𝑎
+ 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 = 27
Tn= 3  5n−1 𝑟

 T1 T2 T3 (2) =>𝑎3 = 27

= 3  51−1 = 3  50 = 3 => 𝑎 = 3

= 3  52−1 = 3  5 = 15 Substituting 𝑎 = 3 in (1) we get

3 63
= 3  53−1 = 3  52 = 75 etc., + 3 + 3𝑟 = .
𝑟 4

Multiply by 4r
the G.P. is 3, 15, 75,........
2
 12 + 12r + 12r = 63r

2
 12r + 12r − 63r + 12 = 0
8. If a = −5, l = −160 and Sn = −315, find n and r.
2
 12r − 51r + 12 = 0
Solution:
2
 4r − 17r + 4 = 0
𝑎(1−𝑟 𝑛)
𝑙 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 , 𝑆𝑛 = 2
1−𝑟
 4r − 16r − r + 4 = 0
−5(𝑟 𝑛
− 1)  4r(r − 4) − 1(r − 4) = 0
−160 = −5𝑟 𝑛−1 , − 315 =
𝑟−1  (r − 4)(4r − 1) = 0
1
 r = 4 or r =
4

40
Therefore, the numbers are −2 −2
, −2, (−2)(−5)𝑜𝑟 (−2)(−5), −2, ,
−5 −5
3 3
, 3, 3 × 4 𝑜𝑟 3 × 4,3, 2 2
4 4 𝑖. 𝑒. , , −2, 10 𝑜𝑟 10, −2,
5 5
3 3
𝑖. 𝑒. , , 3, 12 𝑜𝑟 12, 3,
4 4
12. Find the three numbers in G.P. whose
product is 64 and the sum of their squares
10. Find the sum of 1, 2, 4, 8, up to 10 terms. is 84.
Solution: Solution:
1, 2, 4, 8, is the G.P. 𝑎
Let 𝑎, 𝑎𝑟be the three numbers in G.P
𝑟
2 4 8 𝑎
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 = 1, 𝑟 = = = =2 ∴ . 𝑎. 𝑎𝑟 = 64 … … … (1)
1 2 4 𝑟
𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎2
1−𝑟 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎2 𝑟 2 = 84 … … … (2)
𝑟2
1(2𝑛 − 1) (1) => 𝑎3 = 64
= = 2𝑛 − 1
𝑟−1 => 𝑎 = 4
Substituting a=4 in (2), we get
∴ 𝑆10 = 210 − 1 = 1024 − 1 = 1023 16
+ 16 + 16𝑟 2 = 84
𝑟2
2
𝟒𝟐 Multiply by r , we get
11. The sum of three numbers in G.P is and
𝟓
their product is -8.Find the numbers. 2 4 2
16 + 16r + 16r = 84r
Solution: 4 2 2
i.e., 16r + 16r − 84r + 16 = 0
𝑎
Let 𝑎, 𝑎𝑟be the three numbers in G.P
𝑟 4 2
i.e.,16r − 68r + 16 = 0
𝑎 42
∴ + 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 = … … … (1) 4 2
𝑟 5 i.e., 4r − 17r + 4 = 0
𝑎
. 𝑎. 𝑎𝑟 = −8 … … … (2) 4 2 2
𝑟 i.e., 4r − 16r − r + 4 = 0
(2) =>𝑎3 = −8 2 2 2
 4r (r − 4) − 1(r − 4) = 0
=> 𝑎 = −2
2 2
 r − 4 = 0,4r −1 = 0
Subtracting 𝑎 = −2 in (1) we get
1
−2 42 => 𝑟 2 = 4, 𝑟 2 =
4
− 2 − 2𝑟 =
𝑟 5 1
=>𝑟 = ±2, 𝑟 = ±
2
Multiply by 5r
1
Therefore if 𝑟 = 2 𝑜𝑟 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒
2
2
 −10 − 10r −10r = 42r
4 4
, 4 , (4)(2)𝑜𝑟 (4)(2), 4, , 𝑖. 𝑒. ,2, 4, 8 𝑜𝑟 8, 4, 2
2 2 2
 −10r − 10r − 42r −10 = 0
1
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑓 𝑟 = −2, or − , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒
2 2
 −10r − 52r −10 = 0 4 4
, 4 , (4)(−2)𝑜𝑟 (4)(−2), 4, ,
2 −2 −2
 5r + 26r + 5 = 0
𝑖. 𝑒. , −2, 4, −8 𝑜𝑟 − 8, 4, −2
2
 5r + 25r + r + 5 = 0

 5r(r + 5) + 1(r + 5) = 0 13. How many terms of the series 3, 6, 12, 24,
 (r + 5)(5r + 1) = 0 must be taken to make the sum 381?
1
𝑟 = −5, 𝑟 = −
5

Therefore, the numbers are

41
Solution:
3, 6, 12, 24,. .............................. is the given A.P. 15. The first term of a G.P. is 10 and the
fourth term is 640. Find the common ratio
Here a = 3,r = 2 and the sum of the first four terms.
𝑎(𝑟 𝑛 − 1) Solution:
𝑆𝑛 =
𝑟−1
It is given that a = 10 and T4 = 640
3(2𝑛 − 1)
381 =
𝑟−1 T4 = 640
381=3. 2𝑛 −3
3
 ar = 640
Dividing by 3, we get
3
127= 2𝑛 − 1  10r = 640

2𝑛 = 127 + 1 = 128 3
 r = 64
=> 2𝑛 = 27  r =4
Therefore n=7 common ratio is 4.
7 terms must be taken 𝑎(𝑟 4 − 1) 10(44 − 1) 10 × (256 − 1)
𝑆4 = = =
𝑟−1 4−1 3

14. Find the common ratio, nth term, sum to 10 × (255)

= = 850
n terms12th term and sum to 12 terms of 3
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
the G.P , , , , … … ….
𝟑 𝟔 𝟏𝟐 𝟐𝟒

Solution: 16. Find the sum to n terms of the series 3 + 33

+ 333 + .......
1 1 1 1
The given G.P is , , , , … … ….
3 6 12 24 Solution:
1 1⁄ 1
Here 𝑎 = , 𝑟 = 1⁄
6
= Sn = 3 + 33 + 333 + ......
3 3 2

1 = 3(1 + 11 + 111 + .....)

∴ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑖𝑠
2 Dividing and multiplying by 9, we get
nth term = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 3
𝑆𝑛 = (9 + 99 + 999 + ⋯ … . )
1 1 𝑛−1 1 9
i.e., 𝑇𝑛 = ( ) = … … … . (1)
3 2 3.2𝑛−1
1
𝑎(1−𝑟 𝑛 ) = [(10 − 1) + (100 − 1) + (1000 − 1) + ⋯ . )]
Sum to n terms = 3
1−𝑟
1
1 1 = [(10 + 100 + 1000 + ⋯ . ) − (1 + 1 + 1 + ⋯ )]
(1 − 𝑛 ) 3
= 3 2
1 Now, 10 + 100 + 1000 + ⋯ to n terms is a G.P. with
1−
2
first term = 10 and common ratio = 10.
1 2𝑛 − 1
= [ × 2] 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑎 = 10, 𝑟 = 10
3 2𝑛
10(10𝑛 − 1)
∴ 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑚 =
1 (2𝑛 −1) 10.1
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑆𝑛 = ……(2)
3 2𝑛−1
1 10(10𝑛 − 1) 1 10(10𝑛 − 1)
Substituting n=12 in (1) we get ∴ 𝑆𝑛 = [ − 𝑛] = [ − 𝑛]
3 10 − 1 3 9
1 1 1 1
𝑇12 = = = =
3. 212−1 3. 211 3 × 2048 6144
17. Find the value of x if 𝒙 − 𝟏, 𝒙 − 𝟐, 𝒙 +
Substituting n=12 in (2) we get
𝟏 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝑮. 𝑷.
1 (212 − 1) 1 (4096 − 1) 1 (4095)
𝑆𝑛 = = = Solution:
3 212−1 3 211 3 2048
1365 𝑥 − 1, 𝑥 − 2, 𝑥 + 1 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐺. 𝑃
=
2048

42
 𝑥−2 𝑥+1 2 Cross multiplying, we get
∴ = (x − 2) = (x + 1)(x − 1)
𝑥−1 𝑥−2
ae = bd
2 2
i.e., x − 4x + 4 = x −1

 4x = 5
21. If three numbers are in G.P., prove that
5
𝑥 = their logarithms are in A.P.
4
Solution:

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 Let a, b, c be three numbers in G.P.

18. Find the sum to infinity of the G.P. 𝟏, , , , … …
𝟐 𝟒 𝟖
𝑏 𝑐
∴ = (Common ratio)
Solution: 𝑎 𝑏

1 1 1 = 𝑏 2 = 𝑎𝑐 (By cross multiplication)

1, , , , … … 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑚 𝐺. 𝑃.
2 4 8
Taking logarithms on both sides, we get
1
Here 𝑎 = 1, 𝑟 =
2 2
log b = log(ac)
𝑎 1 1
𝑆∞ = = = =2  2 log b = log a + log c
1−𝑟 1−1 1
2 2
 log b + log b = log a + log c

 log b − log a = log c − log b

19. Three numbers are in G.P. The sum of the
first two terms is 15 and the sum of the These are common differences, w h ic h are equal.
second and the third is 30. Find the
log a, log b, log c are in A.P.
numbers.

Solution:
Summary
2
Let a, ar, ar be the three numbers in G.P.
An arithmetic progression (A.P.) is given by a, a+d,
∴ 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 = 15
a+2d. a is the first term and d is the common
𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 2 = 30 difference. The nth term of the A.P.
(2) => 𝑟(𝑎 − 𝑎𝑟) = 30 Tn = a+ (n – 1)d
=> 𝑟(15) = 30 Sum to n terms of an A.P.
=> 𝑟 = 2 𝑛 𝑛
𝑠𝑛 = (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑) = (𝑎 + 𝑙)
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟 = 2 𝑖𝑛 (1), 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 2 2

𝑎 + 2𝑎 = 15 A Geometric Progression is given by a, ar, ar2,

15
=> 3𝑎 = 15 = =5 ar3 …...where a is first term and r is common ratio.
3
2
∴ the numbers are 5,5 × 2,5 × 2 i. e. , 5,10,20 nth term of a G.P.

Tn = arn-1
20. If a, b, c, d, e are in G.P. Prove that ae =
bd. Sum to n terms of a G.P.

Solution: 𝑎(𝑟 𝑛 − 1)
𝑠𝑛=
𝑟−1
a, b, c, d, e are in G.P.
Sum to infinity of a G.P. (if |𝑟| < 1
𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑒
= = = 𝑎
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑆∞=
1−𝑟
𝑏 𝑒
∴ =
𝑎 𝑑

43
Unit 6
Permutations
Learning Objectives n! can be written as n(n − 1)! or n(n − 1)(n − 2)! etc.
For example,
At the end of this unit, you will be able to: 10! = 10  9!
• Discuss fundamental principle =
• Explain permutation
• Describe circular permutations = 10  9  8! etc.
• Identify concept of combination
10!= 10  9  8  7  6  5  4  3  2 1 = 3628800

6! = 6  5  4  3  2 1
Introduction
= 720
Permutations play an important role in the theory of
probability, which is being used in many areas. These Permutation
permutations are sheer amusement. In this unit, we shall
study the fundamentals.
A permutation is an arrangement of different things
Consider the following example: in a row.
Suppose there are cities A, B, C and there are three Definition: The number of ways of arranging n
different ways of travelling from A to B and two different different things taken r at a time is called the
ways to travelling from B to C. In how many different number of permutations of n things taken r at a
ways one can travel from A to C via B? time and is written as 𝑛𝑃𝑟 .
There are 3 × 2 different ways of travelling from A to C
Theorem: The number of permutations of n things
via B.
taken r at a time is given by:

𝑛𝑃𝑟 = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … … . . (𝑛 − 𝑟 + 1)

Fundamental Principle
Proof: Let a1, a2, a3, , an be n different things.

If one operation is done in m different ways, and after it The number of permutations of n things taken r at a time
has been done if a second operation is done in n is the same as the number of ways of filling up r blanks
different ways and after this has been done if the third in a row.
operation is done in p different ways etc., then all these
operations can be done in succession in mnp ways.

Factorial Notation

This product of first ‘n’ natural numbers is

denoted by n ! The first blank space can be filled in n ways. After filling
This is read as ‘factorial n’. up this space in one of these ways, the second space can
be filled in (𝑛 − 1)) ways. After filling up the second space
n! = 1  2  3 (n −1)n in one of these ways, the third space can be filled in
1! = 1 (𝑛 − 2) ways etc., the 𝑟 𝑡ℎ space can be filled in
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … … (𝑛 − 𝑟 + 1) ways.
2! = 1  2 = 2
By fundamental principle, the number of ways of filling up
3! = 1  2  3 = 6 the r boxes in succession is equal to 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 −
2) … … (𝑛 − 𝑟 + 1)
4 ! = 1  2  3  4 = 24
∴ 𝑛 𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2)……(𝑛−𝑟+1)!
0! is defined to be equal to 1. 𝑃𝑟 =
(𝑛−𝑟)!

44
∴ 𝑛 𝑛! 3. How many three digit numbers can be
𝑃𝑟 =
(𝑛−𝑟)!
formed using the digits 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
repetitions being allowed?
Particular Cases Solution:
The first digit can be chosen in 5 ways.
𝐼𝑓 𝑟 = 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛 𝑛! 𝑛!
𝑃0 = = =1
(𝑛−0)! 𝑛! The second digit can be chosen in 5 ways. The third
digit can be chosen in 5 ways.
𝐼𝑓 𝑟 = 𝑛, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛 𝑛! 𝑛!
𝑃n = = =𝑛!
(𝑛−n)! 0! Therefore, the three digits can be arranged in 5  5 
5 ways.
𝐼𝑓 𝑟 = 1, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛 𝑛! 𝑛(n−1)!
𝑃1 = = =𝑛!
(𝑛−1)! (n−1)!
Therefore, the number of three-digit numbers is 5  5
Example: The number of permutations of 4 things taken  5 = 125.
3 at a time is
4!
4𝑃3 = = 4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24 4. Find the number of three-digit numbers
(4 − 3)!
using 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, repetitions being not
The number of permutations of 4 things taken allowed.
all at a time is
Solution:
4!
4𝑃3 = = 4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24 The first digit can be selected in 5 ways. After
(0)!
fixing thefirst digit in one of these ways, the
second digit can be fixed in 4 ways. After fixing
Permutation of Things When Some of them the second digit in one of these ways, the third digit
are Alike can be fixed in 3 ways.

Therefore, the number of three-digit numbers = 5  4

The number of permutations of n things when p things  3 = 60.
are alike of one kind, q things are alike of second kind, r
things are alike of third kind etc., is given by the formula
𝑛! 5. How many three-digit numbers that can be
p!q!r!……. formed which are less than 400 using the
digits 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, repetitions being not
allowed.
Worked Examples
Solution:
10 7 6
1. Find 𝒑𝟒 , 𝒑𝟑 , 𝒑𝟐
The first digit can be either 2 or 3. Therefore, the
Solution: first digit can be chosen in 2 ways.
10
𝑝4 = 10  9  8  7 = 5040 After choosing the first digit in one of these 2 ways,
the second digit can be chosen in 4 ways and the
7
𝑝3 = 7  6  5 = 210 third digit can be chosen in 3 ways.
6
𝑝2 = 6  5 = 30 Therefore, the number of three-digit numbers less
than 400

= 2  4  3 = 24
n
2. If 𝒑𝒏 = 𝟕𝟐𝟎, find n.

Solution:
6. Find the number of three digit even
n
𝑝𝑛 = 720 numbers that can be formed using 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, repetitions being allowed.
i.e., n! = 6  5  4  3  2 1
Solution:
i.e., n! = 6!
The first digit can be chosen in 5 ways, the
n = 6 second digit can be chosen in 5 ways and the last
digit can be chosen in 3 ways.

45
The number of three digit even numbers is 5  5  3 = Solution:
75 .
i. 4 Physics books are to be together. Hence, they
can be considered as 1 unit.

7. If
n
𝒑𝟒 =12
n
𝒑𝟐 find n. Therefore, total number of books =13.

Solution: These can be arranged in 13! ways and 4

Physics can be arranged among themselves in
n n 4! ways.
𝑝4 =12 𝑝2

n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3) = 12n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3) Therefore, required number of ways = 13! 4 !

2 ii. 5 Chemistry books are to be together. Hence,

n − 5n + 6 − 12 = 0
they can be considered as 1 unit and they can be
2 arranged among themselves in 5! ways.
n − 5n − 6 = 0 (n − 6)(n + 1) = 0
7 mathematics books are to be together.
n − 6 = 0,n + 1 = 0 Hence, they can be considered as 1 unit and
n = 6,n = −1 they can be arranged among themselves in 7!
ways. The total number of books now can be
But n cannot be –1 taken as 6 and they can be arranged in 6!
n = 6 ways.

Therefore, the number of ways of

arranging the books= 6! 5! 7!
8. Find the number of permutations of the
letters of the word ‘LOOK’. iii. No two Mathematics books are to be together.

Solution: Let us arrange the remaining books. 4 Physics

and 5 Chemistry books i.e., totally 9 books can
The word ‘LOOK’ has four letters in which there be arranged in 9! ways. Consider one of these
are two Os. arrangements.
Therefore, the number of permutations p1  p2  p3  p4  c1  c2  c3  c4  c5 
4! 4×3×2×1
= = = 12 Therefore, for Mathematics books no two of
2! 2×1
which are to be together, the number of places
is 10 as marked by .
n
9. Prove that, (2n)! = 2 [1  3  5  (2n −1)](n !)
7 Mathematics books can be arranged in
10𝑃7 ways
Solution:
Therefore the required number of ways of
(2n)! = (2n)(2n − 1)(2n − 2)(2n − 3)(2n − 4)……4  3  2
arranging the books is 10𝑃7 × 9!
1
iv. 7 Mathematical books are considered as 1 unit
(2n)! = (2n)(2n − 2)(2n − 4)......4  2 1  3…..(2n −1) and they can bearranged among themselves in
7! ways.
= 2n  2(n − 1)  2(n − 2).....2  2  2 1  3…. . (2n −1)
4 Physics books are considered as 1 unit and
= (2  2  2....2)n(n −1)(n − 2)...1 1  3…. . (2n −1) they can be arranged among themselves in 4!
n ways.
= 2 (n!)[1  3  5. (2n − 1)]
5 Chemistry books are considered as 1 unit and
they can bearranged among themselves in 5!
10. In how many ways can 7 Mathematics ways.
books, 4 Physics books and 5 Chemistry
The required number of ways of arranging
books be arranged in a shelf so that:
the books is 3! 7! 4 ! 5!.
i. Physics books are together,
ii. Chemistry books are together and
Mathematics books are to be together,
11. How many four digit numbers that can be
iii. no two Mathematics books are together,
formed using 0, 1, 3, 5 which are divisible by
and
5 (without repetition)?
iv. books of the same subjects are together.

46
Solution: x circular permutations gives 4x linear
permutations which areequal to 4!.
Since the numbers are to be divisible by 5, the last
digit has to be 0 or 5.  4x = 4 !
If it is 0, the first digit can be chosen in 3 ways, 4!
=> 𝑥 = = 3! = (4 − 1)!
the second digitcan be chosen in 2 ways and the 4
third digit can be chosen in 1 way.
Now if we take n things, the number of circular
Therefore, with 0 as the last digit, the number of permutations
four digit numbers is 3  2 1 = 6 .
= (n − 1)!
If the digit is 5, the first digit can be chosen in 2
Note: If the n things are different, say persons, then the
ways, the second digit can be chosen in 2 ways
number of circular permutations= (𝑛 − 1)! because
and third digit can be chosen in 1 way.
anticlockwise and clockwise arrangements are different.
with 5 as the last digit, the number of four digit But if the n things are alike say beads to form a
numbers is necklace, then the anticlockwise and clockwise
arrangements are same. Therefore, the number of
2  2 1 = 4 ways. (𝑛−1)!
circular permutations will be half of (𝑛 − 1)! 𝑖. 𝑒. ,
2
The total number of four digit numbers which are
divisible by 5 is 6 + 4 = 10.
Worked Examples
Circular Permutations
1. Find the number of ways in which a group
of 6 men and 4 women be seated at a round
Instead of arranging the things along a line, we arrange table.
the things along a circle, which is called Circular
Permutation. Solution:

To find the number of circular permutations of n things Total number of people to be seated is 10.
taken all at a time. Therefore, the number of ways of these 10 people
to be seated at a round table is (10 − 1)! = 9!
Let us take n = 4
Let the four things be A, B, C, D. Let us arrange these
along a circle. Let the number of circular permutations of 2. In how many ways can 12 beads of the
these four things be x. Let us consider one of these same colour and size be strung together to
circular permutations form a necklace.
Solution:
Since the beads are of the same colour and size,
the anticlockwise and clockwise arrangements are
same
1
Therefore, the number of permutations = (𝑛 − 1)!
2

By shifting A to B, B to C, C to D, D to A. 1 11!
= (12 − 1)! =
2 2

3. In how many ways 7 boys and 7 girls be

seated at around table so that no two girls
shall sit next to each other.
We get the above arrangements. We observe that these
four circular arrangements are not different as the
relative position of each with the others is the same. But
the corresponding linear permutations are

A B C D, D A B C, C D A B , B C D A which are all

different.
Therefore, one circular permutation gives 4 linear
permutations.

47
Solution: Since 5 particular persons are to be excluded in
eachselection, only 15 people remain out of which
First, arrange 7 boys at a round table. This can 12 are to be selected.
be done in ( 7 − 1)! = 6! ways. After arranging these
6 boys in any one of these 6! ways, the 7 girls can Required number of selections
be arranged in 7! ways. Therefore, the number of 15 × 14 × 13
ways that 7 boys and 7 girls be seated at a round = 15𝐶12 =
3×2×1
table so that no two girls shall sit together is 6! ×7!.
= 5  7 13 = 455

Concept of Combination
4. From 7 gentlemen and 4 ladies, a
committee of 5 is tobe formed. In how
A combination is a selection of things.
many ways can this be done to include at
Definition: The number of ways of selecting ‘r’ least one lady?
things out of ‘n’ things is called the number of
Solution:
combinations of n things taken r at a time
This is denoted by 𝑛𝐶𝑟 The committee may be formed in the following
𝑛𝑃 ways.
Th 1: 𝑛𝐶𝑟 = 𝑟
𝑟!
i. 1 lady and 4 gentlemen and this can be done in
Th 2: 𝑛𝐶𝑟 = 𝑛𝐶𝑛−𝑟
7×6×5
= 4𝐶1 × 7𝐶4 = 4 ×
Th 3: 𝑛𝐶𝑟−1 + 𝑛𝐶𝑟 = 𝑛 + 1𝐶𝑟 3×2×1
= 140 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
Particular Cases
ii. 2 ladies and 3 gentlemen and the can be done in
𝑛! 𝑛! 4×3 7×6×5
𝑛𝐶0 = = =1 = 4𝐶2 × 7𝐶3 = × = 210𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
(𝑛 − 0)! 0! 𝑛! 2×1 3×2×1
𝑛! 𝑛! 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)!
𝑛𝐶1 = = = =𝑛 iii. 3 ladies and 2 gentleman and this can be done
(𝑛 − 1)! 1! (𝑛 − 1)! (𝑛 − 1)!
in
𝑛! 𝑛! 𝑛! 𝑛! 7×6
𝑛𝐶𝑛 = = = = =1 = 4𝐶3 × 7𝐶2 = 4 × = 84𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
(𝑛 − 𝑛)! 𝑛! 0! 𝑛! 0! 𝑛! 𝑛! 2×1

iv. 4 ladies and 1 gentleman and this can be done

Worked Examples in

1. Find the values of 𝟕𝑪𝟑 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟏𝟎𝑪𝟐 = 4𝐶4 × 7𝐶1 = 1 × 7 = 7 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

Solution: Therefore, total number of 5 member committee

7! 7×6×5×4! 7×6×5
with at least one lady = 140 + 210 + 84 + 7 = 441 .
7𝐶3 = (7−3)!3! = = = 35
4!3×2 6

10! 10×9×8!
10𝐶2 = (8)!2! = = 45 5. In how many ways can a person choose
8!×2×1
one or more of the goods: T.V., Refrigerator,
Washing machine, Radiogram?
2. Find n if 𝒏𝑪𝟏𝟎 = 𝒏𝑪𝟒 Solution:

Solution: 1 good can be chosen in 4𝐶1 = 4 ways.

4×3
𝑛𝐶10 = 𝑛𝐶4 2 goods can be chosen in 4𝐶2 = = 6 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
2×1

=> 𝑛𝐶10 = 𝑛𝐶𝑛−4 ( 𝑛𝐶𝑟 = 𝑛𝐶𝑛−𝑟 ) 3 goods can be chosen in 4𝐶3 = 4𝐶1 = 4 ways.
=>𝑛 − 4 = 10 => 14 4 goods can be chosen in 4𝐶4 = 1 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

6. In an examination paper, there are two parts

3. From a group of 20 people, how many each containing 4 questions. A candidate is
selections of 12 people can be made to required to attempt 5 questions but not
exclude 5 particular persons. more than 3 questions from any part. In
how many ways can 5 questions be
Solution: selected?

48
Solution: Case (i)
5 questions can be selected in the following ways: I Box II Box III Box
1. 2 and 3: This can be done in 4𝐶2 × (a) 1 ball 1 ball 3 balls
4×3
4𝐶3 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 = × 4 = 24 (b) 1 ball 3 balls 1 ball
2×1
(c) 3 balls 1 ball 1 ball
2. 3 and 2: This can be done in 4𝐶3 × 2 balls can be selected for one box in 5𝐶2 ways.
4×3
4𝐶2 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 = × 4 = 24
2×1 2 balls can be selected for second box from the
∴ 5 𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 24 + 24 = 48 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 remaining 3 balls in 3𝐶2 ways.

The last ball can be placed in the third box in 3

ways.
7. There are 12 points in a plane of which 4
are collinear. Find the number of (i) straight Number of ways
lines, (ii) triangles that can be formed from 5 3
these points. = C  C  3 = 10  3  3 = 90
2 2

Solution: Therefore, total number of ways = 60 + 90 = 150

i. Two points are required for a line. If no three of

the given 12 points are collinear then the Summary
number of straight lines that can be formed is
1 2 C . But 4 points are given to be collinear.
2 If the first operation can be performed in any one of
From these 4 points, we get only one straight the m ways and then a second operation can be
line. However, if these 4 points were non- performed together in any oneof the m × n ways.
collinear, we would get 4𝐶2 number of straight A permutation is an arrangement of a given
lines. number of objects in a definite order.
∴ 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 = 12𝐶2 + 1 − 4𝐶2 The total number of permutations of n distinct
objects is n!, i.e. 𝑛𝑃𝑟 = n!
12 × 11 4×3
= +1− = 66 + 1 − 6 − 61
2×1 2×1 Permutation of n objects taking r at a time:
𝑛!
𝑛𝑃𝑟 = (𝑛−𝑟)!
ii. Three non-collinear points are required to form
a triangle. If none of the 12 points are not If we take n things, the number of circular
collinear, then the number of triangles that can permutations = (𝑛 – 1)!
be formed is 12𝐶3 . If n things are alike, then the number of circular
(𝑛 –1)!
Since 4 of these points are collinear, we would permutations will be
2
not get 4𝐶3 triangles from these 4 points.
When no attention is given to the order of
Number of triangles = 12𝐶3 − 4𝐶3 arrangement of theselected objects, we get a
combination
12 × 11 × 10
= −4 𝑛𝐶𝑟 𝑛!
3×2×1 𝑛𝐶𝑟 = =
𝑟! 𝑟! (𝑛 − 𝑟)!
= 2 × 11 × 10 − 4 = 220 − 4 = 216
𝑛𝐶𝑟 = 𝑛𝐶𝑛−𝑟

The total number of combinations of n distinct objects at

8. Five balls of different colours are to be placed
a time =2𝑛 − 1
in three boxes of different sizes. Each box
can hold all five balls. In how many different
ways we can place the balls so that no box
remains empty? (IIT-1981)
Solution:
The five balls of different colours can be placed in
three boxes in the following ways.

49
Unit 7
Ratio and Proportions
Learning Objectives
Properties
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
a. Componendo :
• Discuss ratio
• Describe proportions If 𝑎: 𝑏 = 𝑐: 𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 (𝑎 + 𝑏): 𝑏 = (𝑐 + 𝑑): 𝑑,
• Know variation and its types
this property is called Componendo.
𝑎 𝑐
Introduction 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓: = (𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛)
𝑏 𝑑
Add 1 on both sides.
Ratio and Proportions are very extensively used in
𝑎 𝑐
many branches of knowledge like Physics, +1= +1
Chemistry Mathematics and also business 𝑏 𝑑
problems. In business problems related to cost- 𝑎+𝑏 𝑐+𝑑
𝑖. 𝑒. , =
volume profit analysis or break-even analysis and 𝑏 𝑑
others, the techniques of ratio and proportions are 𝑎+𝑏 𝑐+𝑑
extensively used. ∴ 𝑎: 𝑏 = 𝑐: 𝑑 ⟺ =
𝑏 𝑑
∴ (𝑎 + 𝑏): 𝑏 = (𝑐 + 𝑑): 𝑑
Ratio
b. Dividendo :

Any two quantities of the same kind compared by If 𝑎: 𝑏 = 𝑐: 𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 (𝑎 − 𝑏): 𝑏 = (𝑐 −

dividing one by the other are said to be in a ratio. 𝑑): 𝑑, 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑜
𝑎 𝑐
Example: If a man earns ₹ 5,000 and saves ₹ 500 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓: = (𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛)
𝑏 𝑑
then the ratio of savings to earnings is
Subtracting 1 from both sides we get
𝑆𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 500 1
= = 𝑎 𝑐
𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 5000 10 −1= −1
𝑏 𝑑
i.e., Savings: Earnings = 1: 10.
𝑎−𝑏 𝑐−𝑑
𝑝 𝑖. 𝑒. , =
A simple definition of ratio is (ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑞 ≠ 0) 𝑏 𝑑
𝑞
∴ (𝑎 − 𝑏): 𝑏 = (𝑐 − 𝑑): 𝑑
Antecedent and Consequent
𝑝 c. Componendo et Dividendo :
If is a ratio then p is called the antecedent and q is
𝑞
called the consequent. 𝑎 𝑐
If = then
𝑏 𝑑
2
E.g. If is a ratio, 2 is the antecedent and 3 is the
3
(𝑎 + 𝑏): (𝑎 − 𝑏) = (𝑐 + 𝑑): (𝑐 − 𝑑).
consequent.
This property is called Componendo et Dividendo
Equality of Ratios
𝑎 𝑐
Two ratios 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑏 ≠ 0, 𝑑 ≠ 0 are said to be
𝑏 𝑑 𝑎 𝑐
equal if 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓: = (𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛)…….(1)
𝑏 𝑑

𝑎𝑑 = 𝑏𝑐 Add 1 on both sides.

𝑖. 𝑒. , =
𝑎 𝑐
⟺ 𝑎𝑑 = 𝑏𝑐 𝑎 𝑐
𝑏 𝑑 +1= +1
𝑏 𝑑
or 𝑎: 𝑏 = 𝑐: 𝑑 ⟺ 𝑎𝑑 = 𝑏𝑐 𝑎+𝑏 𝑐+𝑑
𝑖. 𝑒. , = ………..(2)
𝑏 𝑑
2 8
𝑒. 𝑔.: 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙=2 X 12 = 24 = 3 X 8
3 12 Subtracting 1 from both sides we get

50
𝑎 𝑐
−1= −1
𝑏 𝑑
3. Two numbers are in the ratio 3:5. If 7 is added to
𝑎−𝑏 𝑐−𝑑
𝑖. 𝑒. , = ………………..(3) each, they are in the ratio 8:9. Find the numbers.
𝑏 𝑑

Dividing (2) from (3) , we get Solution:

𝑎+𝑏 𝑐+𝑑 Let the numbers be x and y.

𝑏 = 𝑑
𝑎−𝑏 𝑐−𝑑 x and y are in the ratio of 3 : 5
…
𝑏 𝑑
𝑎+𝑏 𝑐+𝑑 Therefore, the numbers x and y can be taken as
𝑖. 𝑒. , = x=3a and y=5a where a is a constant and y  x .
𝑎−𝑏 𝑐−𝑑
𝑖. 𝑒. , (𝑎 + 𝑏): (𝑎 − 𝑏) = (𝑐 + 𝑑): (𝑐 − 𝑑)
If 7 is added to each, we get 3a + 7 and 5a + 7.
These are in the ratio 8 : 9
Worked Examples 3𝑎 + 7 8
∴ =
5𝑎 + 7 9
1. Find the ratio between two numbers such that Cross multiplying, we get
their sum is 60 and difference is 8.
9(3a + 7) = 8(5a + 7)
Solution:
27a + 63 = 40a + 56
Let the two numbers be x and y.
i.e., 40a − 27a = 63 − 5613a = 7
 x + y = 60 ……….(1)
7
x − y =8 ……….(2) ∴𝑎=
13
Let us solve these questions. 7 21 7
∴ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑥 = 3 × = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 5 ×
13 13 13
Adding (1) and (2), we get 35
=
2x = 68 13
21 35
 x = 34 ∴ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑
13 13
Substituting x = 34 in (1), we get

34 + y = 60 4. What number should be added to each term in the

y = 60 − 34 ratio 5 : 6 so that it becomes 8 : 11?

i.e., y = 26 Solution:

The ratio between x and y is Let the number x be added to each term in the
5
ratio
𝑥 34 17 6
= =
𝑦 26 13 Then we get
5+𝑥
=
8
6+𝑥 11
∴ 𝑥 ∶ 𝑦 = 17 ∶ 13
On cross multiplication, we get

11(5 + x) = 8(6 + x)
4
2. A ratio in its lowest terms is . If the
9 i.e., 55 + 11x = 48 + 8x
difference between the quantities is 25. Find
the quantities. i.e., 11x − 8x = 48 − 55

Solution: 3x = −7

Let the two quantities be x and y −7

𝑥=
3
𝑥 4 4𝑎
∴ = = ( 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 > 3)
𝑦 9 9𝑎

∴ 𝑥 = 4𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 9𝑎, 𝑦 − 𝑥 = 9𝑎 − 4𝑎 5. The incomes of A and B are in the ratio of 5 : 6

and their expenditures are in the ratio of 4 : 5. If they
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑦 − 𝑥 = 5𝑎, 25 = 5𝑎, 𝑎 = 5 both save ₹ 400 at the end of year, find the annual
Therefore, the quantities are 4 X 5 and 9 X 5 i.e., 20 incomes of A and B.
and 45.

51
Solution: 9𝑥 2
2𝑥 2 + 3 ( )
4
The ratio of the incomes of A and B is 5 : 6. = 2
9𝑥
𝑥2 +
Therefore, their incomes may be taken as 5a 4
and 6a. Since they save Rs. 400 their expenditure 8𝑥 2 + 27𝑥 2
4 35𝑥 2 35
is 5a − 400 and 6a − 400 each. = = =
84 + 9𝑥 2 13𝑥 2 13
5𝑎 − 400 4 4
∴ =
6𝑎 − 400 5
i.e., 5(5a − 400) = 4(6a − 400)25a − 2000 = 24a −1600
9. Divide ₹ 5880 in the ratio 3:6:5.
25a − 24a = 2000 −1600
Solution:
 a = 400
The amount ₹ 5880 has to be divided in the ratio
A’s income is 5 X 400 = Rs.2000 of 3:6:5.
B’s income is 6 X400 = Rs.2400 Let these amounts be 3x, 6x, 5x .
6. If a:b=2:3,b:c=5:7,and c:d=9:3 ,find a:d  3x + 6x + 5x = 588014x = 5880
Solution: 5880
x= = 420
14
𝑎 2 𝑏 5 𝑐 9
= , = , =
𝑏 3 𝑐 7 𝑑 3 Therefore, the three parts are 3x, 6x, 5x .i.e., 3  420,
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 2 5 9 6  420, 5  420.
∴ × × = × ×
𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 3 7 3

𝑎 10
i.e., 1260, 2520, 2100
i.e., = , a:d =10:7
𝑑 7

7. An article is sold at a gain of 25% on cost price.

2 2 2 2
Find the ratio of selling price to cost price. 10. If 2x − 3y : x + y is equal to 2 : 41, find x
:y
Solution:
Solution:
Let the cost price of the article be x.
25𝑥 𝑥 2𝑥 2 −3𝑦 2 2
25% of x is = =
100 4 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 41

Therefore, the selling price = cost price + 25% on On cross multiplication, we get
cost price.
2 2 2 2
𝑥 5𝑥 41(2x − 3y ) = 2(x + y )
=𝑥+ =
4 4 2 2 2 2
82x − 123 y = 2x + 2 y
5𝑥
𝑆𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 5
= 4 = i.e., 82x
2 2 2
− 2x = 123 y + 2y
2
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑥 4
2 2
Therefore, selling price: cost price 5:4 80x = 125 y

𝑥2 125 25 5 2
= = =( )
𝒙 𝟐 𝟐𝒙𝟐 +𝟑𝒚𝟐 𝑦2 80 16 4
8. If = , 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅
𝒚 𝟑 𝒙𝟐 +𝒚𝟐 𝑥 5
=
𝑦 4
Solution:
𝑥 2 i.e., 𝑥: 𝑦 = 5: 1
=
𝑦 3

3𝑥 Proportions
∴𝑦=
2

2 3𝑥 2 If two ratios
𝑎
𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑐
𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡
𝑎
=
2𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 2𝑥 + 3 ( 2 ) 𝑏 𝑑 𝑏
= 𝑐
𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 3𝑥 2 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑖𝑑 to be in proportion. The numbers
𝑥2 + ( ) 𝑑
2 a and d are called extremes and the numbers b and c
are called the means. The product of the extremes is
equal to the product of the means.

52
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑎: 𝑏 = 𝑐: 𝑑 ⟺ 𝑎𝑑 = 𝑏𝑐 3 6
e.g: If = ,
6 12
Example: 3:4=6:8 ⟺3 X8 =24=4 X 6 62 36
then the third proportional between 3 and 6 is = =
3 3
Note: Difference between Ratio and Proportion
12 which is the consequent of the second ratio.
are distinguished as follows:

1. There are two terms in a ratio. Whereas

there are four terms in a proportion. Fourth Proportional
2. Ratio is a comparison of two quantities of the
same kind whereas proportion is a If 𝑎: 𝑏 = 𝑐: 𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑑 is called the third proportional between
comparison of two ratios. 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝐶.
3. In the ratio, the two quantities must be of the 𝑎 𝑐
𝑖. 𝑒. , =
same kind and in proportion, the first two are 𝑏 𝑑
of one kind and the last two may be of
then 𝑎𝑑 = 𝑏𝑐 (on cross multiplication)
another kind.
𝑏𝑐
∴ 𝑑=
𝑎
Continued Proportional 𝑏𝑐
The fourth proportional of a, b, c is given by 𝑑 =
𝑎
If 𝑎: 𝑏 = 𝑏: 𝑐 = 𝑐: 𝑑 = ⋯
E.g. If 2:3=4:6 then 6 is the fourth proportional of 2,3,4.
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
I.e., 𝐼𝑓 = = =⋯
𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 The fourth proportional of 2, 3, 4
Then a, b, c, d,. .............. are said to be in continued 3×4
proportion. = = 6 which is the consequent of the second ratio
4
3 6 12
E.g.: = = =⋯
6 12 24
The Rule of Proportions

Mean Proportional If a quantity Q is divided into three parts in the ratio

𝑝: 𝑞: 𝑟, then
If a : b = b : c then b is called the mean
proportional between a and c.
𝐼 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐼𝐼 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑄
𝑎 𝑏 = = =
= 𝑃 𝑞 𝑟 𝑃+𝑞+𝑟
𝑏 𝑐
𝑟
⇒ 𝑏 2 = 𝑎𝑐(𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) 𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 = ( )𝑄
𝑃+𝑞+𝑟
⇒ 𝑏 = √𝑎𝑐 𝑝
𝐼 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 = ( )𝑄
Therefore, the mean proportional between a and 𝑃+𝑞+𝑟
c is given by 𝑞
𝐼𝐼 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 = ( )𝑄
𝑏 = √𝑎𝑐 𝑃+𝑞+𝑟
3
e.g.: If =
6
6 Variation and its Types
12

then the mean proportional between 3 and 12 is Direct Variation

√3 𝑥 12= √ 36 =6 which is the consequent of the first
ratio (or the antecedent of the second ratio). If two terms 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 are such that 𝐴 =
𝐾𝐵 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐾 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 constant ≠
𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑠 𝐵 𝑜𝑟 we say that
Third Proportional 𝐴 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝐵. We write A ∝
𝐵 .This is called direct variation.
If 𝑎: 𝑏 = 𝑏: 𝑐 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑐 is called the third proportional
between 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏.
𝑎 𝑏 Inverse Variation
⇒ = ⇒ 𝑏 2 𝑎𝑐 (𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝑏 𝑐 If two terms 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 are such that 𝐴 =
𝐾
𝑏2 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐾 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 constant ≠
∴ 𝑐= 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 𝐵
𝑎 𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑠 𝐵 𝑜𝑟 we say that

53
𝐴 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑠 𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝐵. 1
1
= ( ) 2600 = 866.666 = 866.67
We write A ∝ .This is called inverse variation 3
𝐵
1
𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 = ( 6 ) 2600
1 1 1
Joint Variation + +
2 3 6
If three terms 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are such that 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑙𝑦 1
=( 6 ) 2600
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 18 + 12 + 6
2.3.6.
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑖. 𝑒. ,. A ∝
6
𝐵𝐶 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝐴 = 𝐾𝐵𝐶 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐾 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡. =( ) 2600
36
1 𝐵
If A ∝ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 A ∝ then A ∝ which implies A = 1
𝐶 𝐶
𝐾𝐵 𝐵 = ( ) 2600 = 433.33
𝐴∝ 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 6
𝐶 𝐶
Therefore, the three parts are 1300, 866.67, 433.33
The application of variations is in solving problems in
Time and Work. Time and distance and problems on
mixtures.
2. Find the mean proportional between 2 and 8.
(a) Time to complete a work varies directly as the
Solution:
amount of work and inversely as the number of workers
employed. The mean proportional between 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 8 𝑖𝑠 √2 × 8 =
(b) Time taken to travel a distance varies directly as the √16 = 4
distance but varies inversely as the speed. Therefore,4 is the mean proportional between 2 and 8

Worked Examples
3. Find the third proportional of 0.5 and 1.5.
1 1 1 Solution:
1. Divide 2600 into three parts in the ratio , ,
2 3 6
𝑏2
Solution: The third proportional of 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 𝑖𝑠
𝑎

By applying the rule of proportions, we can find three (1.5)2

The third proportional of 0.5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1.5 𝑖𝑠
parts of 2600 0.5

1.5 × 1.5
1 = = 3 × 1.5 = 4.5
2 0.5
𝐼 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 = ( ) 2600
1 1 1
+ +
2 3 6
1 4. Find the fourth proportional of 8, 12, 16
=( 2 ) 2600
18 + 12 + 6 Solution:
2.3.6.
18 The fourth proportional d of a, b, c is given by 𝑑 =
=( ) 2600 𝑏𝑐
36 𝑎
1
= ( ) 2600 = 1300 Therefore, fourth proportional of 8, 12, 16 is
2
12 × 16
1 = = 24
3 8
𝐼𝐼 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 = ( ) 2600
1 1 1
+ +
2 3 6
5. The marks in mathematics of three students
Rama, Anthony and Jabbar are proportional to 5 : 4 :
1 3. If Anthony obtained 70 marks, what are the marks
=( 3 ) 2600
18 + 12 + 6 of Rama and Jabbar.
2.3.6. Solution:
12
= ( ) 2600 The proportion of marks is 5 : 4 : 3
36
Total = 5 + 4 + 3 = 12

54
Since Anthony obtained 70 marks 5
=> 𝑥 =
4
4𝑥
= 70
12
70 × 12 8. If 10 men complete a work in 12 days, how many
∴𝑥= = 210
4 days will it take for 15 men to complete the same
5 work.
Therefore the marks obtained by Rama is × 210 =
12
3 Solution:
87.5 and marks obtained by jabbar is × 210 = 52.5
12
10 men complete a work in 12 days, then 15 men
complete the same work in how many days? This is a
6. If the monthly incomes of A and B are in the ratio problem on inverse variation because the number of
of 3 : 2 and those of B and C are in the ratio of 9 : 7, men and the number of days are in inverse
what is the ratio of the monthly incomes of A and C. proportion.

Solution:  10 : 15 = x : 12

Monthly incomes of A and B = 3 : 2. On multiplying 10 𝑥

𝑖. 𝑒. , =
both antecedent and consequent by 9, we get A : B 15 12
= 27 : 18. 10×12
On cross multiplication, we get 15𝑥 = 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑥 = 8
15
Monthly incomes of B and C = 9 : 7
Therefore, required number of days is 8
On multiplying both antecedent and consequent
by 2, we get
9. A contractor was allowed 16 days to finish a piece
B : C = 18 : 14 .
of work. He put 30 people to do this work. At the end
𝐴 𝐵 27 18 27 5
of 12 days, only of the work was finished. How
∴ × = × = 7
𝐵 𝐶 18 14 14
many extra people must be now employed to finish
Therefore, the ratio of the monthly incomes of A and the work on time?
C is 27 : 14 .
Solution:

The number of people required is inversely

7. Solve the equation proportional to the number of days and directly
proportional to the work. Since
√𝑥 + 1 + √𝑥 − 1 4𝑥 − 1 5 2
= 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑤𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑑 , 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 .
√𝑥 + 1 − √𝑥 − 1 2 7 7
2
Solution: ∴ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑠 30 ×
27
× 7
=
5
4
7
By componendo et dividend 2
30 × 3 × = 36
5
√𝑥 + 1 + √𝑥 − 1 + √𝑥 + 1 + √𝑥 − 1 4𝑥 − 1 + 2
= ∴ 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑36 − 30 = 6.
√𝑥 + 1 − √𝑥 − 1 − √𝑥 + 1 − √𝑥 − 1 4𝑥 − 1 − 2
2√𝑥 + 1 4𝑥 + 1
=> =
2√𝑥 − 1 4𝑥 − 1 10. If it takes 8 hours for a bus to travel a certain
distance at the rate of 50 Kms per hour. How long
√𝑥 + 1 4𝑥 + 1 will it take for a second bus to travel the same
=> =
√𝑥 − 1 4𝑥 − 1 distance at 55 Kms per hour?
Squaring Solution:
𝑥+1 16𝑥 2 +8𝑥+1
=> = More speed and less time means that the speed
𝑥−1 16𝑥 2 −24𝑥+9
andtime are inversely proportional.
Using Componendo et dividend we get
Speed Time
2𝑥 32𝑥 2 −16𝑥+10
=> = 50 8
2 32𝑥−8

16𝑥 2 −8𝑥+5 55 x
=> 𝑥 =
16𝑥−4
Therefore, 55 : 50 = 8 : x
=> 16𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 = 16𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 5
On cross multiplication, we get
=> 4𝑥 = 5

55
55x = 8  50 13. A varies as B and C jointly while B varies as D2
and C varies as A. Show that A varies as D.
8 × 50
∴𝑋=
55 Solution:

8 × 10 80 𝐴 ∝ 𝐵𝐶 => 𝐴 = 𝑘𝐵𝐶 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑋 = = = 7.27
11 11
𝐵 ∝ 𝐷 2 => 𝐵 = 𝑙𝐷 2 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
=7 hours 16 minutes and 12 seconds 1 𝑚
𝐶∝ => C = where m is constant
𝐴 𝐴
Therefore, the second bus travels the same distance
in 7 hours, 16 minutes and 12 seconds 𝑚
𝐴 ∝ 𝑘𝐵𝐶 => 𝐴 = 𝑘𝑙𝐷 2
𝐴
=> 𝐴2 = 𝑘𝑙𝑚𝐷 2
11. 7 trucks make 12 trips in 6 hours to transport a
quantity of goods. How many trips will be made by => 𝐴 = √𝑘𝑙𝑚𝐷
18 trucks in 7 hours to transport the same quantity => 𝐴 ∝ 𝐷
of goods?
Solution:
Summary
Trucks Trips Time
𝑝
7 12 6 If is a ratio then p is called the antecedent.
𝑞

18 x 7 𝑎 𝑐
Two ratios, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑏 ≠ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑, 𝑑 ≠ 0, are said
𝑏 𝑑

7 12  6 = 18  x  9 to be equal if ad = bc.

Proportion is a comparison of two ratios.
7 × 12 × 6
𝑥=
18 × 7 If a : b = c : d, then (a + b) : b = (c + d) : d.
7 × 12 If a : b = c : d, then (a – b) : b = (c – d) : d.
=
3×7
a : b = c:d, then (a + b) : (a – b) = (c + d) : (c – d)
7×4
= =4 Models of physical situations are often arrived at by
7
recording the values of variables in a table and by
∴ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑠 𝑖𝑠 4
sketching graphs. Examining the tabulated values
and the graph, we try to define the relationship
between the variables by an equation. If the value
12. If x varies as y prove that x2 + y2 varies as x2 - y2. of adependent quantity changes as a result of
Solution: changes in the value of an independent quantity,
then we say that one quantity varies with respect to
xy the other. However, the type of variation depends
 x = ky where k is constant. on the relationship. In this unit we learnt about
different types of variations like direct, indirect and
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 𝑘𝑦 2 +𝑦 2
Consider = (𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑘𝑦) joint variation
𝑥 2 −𝑦 2 𝑘𝑦 2 −𝑦 2

𝑥 2 + 𝑦2
=>
𝑥 2 − 𝑦2
(𝑘 2 + 1)𝑦 2
= (𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑦 2 )
(𝑘 2 − 1)𝑦 2

𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 𝑘2 + 1
=> = (𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦 2 )
𝑥 2 − 𝑦2 𝑘2 − 1

𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝑘2 + 1
=> = 𝑚 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑚 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
𝑥2 − 𝑦2 𝑘2 − 1

=> 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑚(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )

=> 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2

56
Unit 8
Shares, Stock and Interest
Learning Objectives Dividend. This dividend will be first paid to the
shareholders of preference shares.

After completion of this unit, the students will be aware (b) When company is closed down, it has to repay the
of the following topics: capital contributed by the shareholders after returning all
debts. At the time, the capital will be first returned to
• Introduction
preference shareholders before returning the capital to
• Shares
any other type of shareholders.
• Stocks
• Some Important Terms It is due to these two preferences; the shares are called
• Simple Interest (S.I.) preference shares.
• Compound Interest
• Annuities Equity Shares
These shares will not have any preference. They will get
Introduction dividends only after dividends are paid to preference
shareholders. Hence the rate of dividend is not fixed.
When the company is closed, the capital will be repaid
In this unit, we will discuss share. Further we will discuss
on these only after repayment on capital to preference
various kinds of shares. We will also focus on stock,
shares.
dividend, brokerage and yield. We will consider many
worked out examples to make the concept clearer.
Stocks
Shares
To become a shareholder, one has to pay the face value
of the share. After completely collecting the face values
According to section 2(46) of the Indian Companies Act
of all the shares, a company can convert its fully paid up
1956, the definition of shares is given as follows.
shares into stocks. Thus, stock is a bunch of fully paid
Definition up shares. Therefore, stock is the aggregate of fully paid
up shares of a company, consolidated for the purpose of
The required share capital necessary is divided into a
facilitating its division into fraction of any denomination.
number of equal parts each having the same face value.
A company with a share capital, if authorised by its
Each part so divided is called a share. These shares are
issued by the company to the people. One who Articles of Association, may convert some of all its fully
purchases the shares is called a share holder of the paid shares into stocks. A stock holder may transfer any
company. fraction of the stock held by him. The phrase 5% stock
of 150 means:
Example: If the required share capital of a company is
Rs.10 crores, it will be divided into equal shares of face (a) 100 stock can be bought or sold for 150.
value of 10 each, so that the company can issue 1 crore
(b) Each 100 stock gives a dividend of 5 p.a.
shares.
(c) An investment of 150 fetches an interest of 5
Kinds of Shares
every year.
Any company registered under the Indian Company’s Act
can issue only the following two types of shares viz. (i)
Preference Shares, and (ii) Equity Shares.
Preference Shares
These are the shares which provide the following two
preferences to the shareholders:

(a) The profit earned by a company shall be distributed

among the shareholders according to a fixed rate. The
portion of profit that the shareholder gets is called the

57
Shares vs Stock Some Important Terms

Share Stock 1. Face Value: This is the price of each share as

1. Stock has no face issued by the company. This share value will be
1. Share has a face printed on the share certificate.
value.
value. 2. Market Value: This is the price at which the shares
2. Stocks are always
2. Share may or may not are sold or purchased in a stock market.
fully paid.
be fully paid. 3. Par Value: If the market value of a share is equal to
3. Stocks can be
3. Shares are to be the face value, then it is called Par Value.
transferred or sold in
transferred or sold 4. At Discount: If the market of a share is less than
fraction.
wholly. the face value, it is said to be sold at discount (or
4. Stocks cannot be
4. Shares can be directly below par value).
directly issued to the
issued to the public. 5. At Premium: If the market value of a share is more
public.
5. The share than the face value, it is said to be sold at premium
5. The stock
denominations are (or above par value).
denominations may
always equal. 6. Dividend: The profit earned by the Company is
vary.
6. On conversion of distributed to the shareholders. The portion of the
shares into stocks, profit for each share is called the Dividend.
the provisions of the Note: Stock Exchange is a voluntary organisation which
Companies Act functions as a market place where all securities like
governing the shares shares and stocks can be purchased or sold under
shall not be specified rules and regulations of the Act. There are
applicable to the stock exchanges at Bangalore, Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata,
share capital as it Hyderabad.
has been converted.

Worked Examples
Stock Value and Cash Value
1. Find the cost of 500 shares at 15 per share.
(a) Stock value of the investment is the original face
value of the shares. For example, if a company is Solution:
started with a total capital of 10,00,000 and is divided Total number of shares = 500
into 1,00,000 shares of 10 each, the value of 10 is called
the nominal value or the face value or the stock value. Cost of each share = 15

(b) Cash value of the investment is its market value Therefore, cost of 500 shares = 500 × 15 = 7500.
which is the price at which shares can be sold or
purchased in a stock market.
2. Find the cost of 100 shares at 100 each at 10
(c) Par Value: If the market value of a share is equal to discount.
the face value of a share, it is called the par value.
Solution:
Dividend, Brokerage and Yield
Face value of each share = 100
Dividend: The total annual profit of a company is
distributed among the shareholders in proportion of the Discount value = 10
shares that the shareholders possess, is called the Market value of each share = 90.
Dividend
Cost of 100 shares = 100 × 90 = 9,000.
Brokerage: Brokerage is the commission that a broker
charges for the purchases and sale of stocks and
shares. Brokerage is calculated at the given percent on 3. Find the dividend on 50 shares of 20 each at 5%.
the cash value.
Solution:
Yield: Yield is defined to be the ratio of actual interest or
dividend received to the actual amount invested in the Cost of each share = 20. cost of 50 shares = 50 × 20 =
stock or share i.e., 1000

𝑁𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 Face value of 50 shares = 1000

𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 =
𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑 Dividend = 5%
5
Dividend for 1,000=1000 × = 50
100

58
4. What is the Nominal Interest earned by investing Solution:
12,000 in 16% at 96?
NV MV
Solution: 100 108
? x
16
MV=12,000 and Interest=16%= 100 ×𝑥
100
NV= = 12150
108
NV MV
100 12000 Annual Income=162.5
? 96 100 × 𝑥 13
12000 ×100 16 ∴ 162.5 = ×
Nominal Interest = × = 2000 108 100
96 100
 13x=162.50 X 108
Nominal Interest = 2000
 13x=17550
17550
 X= = 1350/−(𝑐𝑎𝑠ℎ)
13
5. What is the Nominal Interest and the effective rate Therefore Amount to be invested = 1350/-
of interest earned by investing 899 in 12% at 116?
NV MV
Solution: 100 108
NV MV ? 1350
100 899 1350 ×100
NV= = 1250/−(𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑐𝑘)
? 100 108

899 ×100 12 899×12

Nominal Interest= × = = 93
110 100 110
9. What is the yield on 1,000/- invested in 14% at 85?
Nominal Interest=93
Solution:
Amount invested = 1,000/-
6. What is the annual income derived by investing
1,000 in 12.5% at 80? 𝑁𝑉
𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 =
𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡
Solution:
NV MV
NV MV 100 85
100 1000 ? 1000
? 80 1000 ×100 20000
1000 ×100
NV= =
85 17
Nominal Interest= = 1250
80
20000 14 2800
1250 ×12.5
Interest = × = = 164.70
17 100 17
Interest= = 156.25
100
Nominal Interest=164.70
𝑁𝑉 2800 1 14
7. What is the amount paid as brokerage at 1.25% on 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = = × = = 0.1647
𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 17 1000 85
the purchase of 15,000 cash in 15% stock at 81?
Percentage Yield = 16.47%
Solution:
Brokerage =1.25% of MV
10. What amount of 16% stock at 93.5 can be
NV MV purchased for 1122?
100 81
15000 ? Solution:

15000 ×81 Interest 16%

MV= = 12150
100
NV MV
1.25 × 12150 100 93.5
∴ 𝐵𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 = = 151.87
100 ? 1122
1122 ×100
NV= = 1200/−
93.5
8. How much was invested in 13% stock at 108 to
field an annual income of 16,250? What amount of
stock was held by the investor?

59
11. What is the amount paid as brokerage at 1.25% 4500 × 100
=
on the purchase of 15,000 cash in 15% stock at 81? 𝑥
4500×100 8 36000
Solution: Annual Income= × =
𝑥 100 𝑥
Brokerage =1.25% of cash value (MV) Original annual income
125
= × 15000 = 187.50 NV MV
100 100 6.25
Amount paid as brokerage=187.50/- 4000 ?
4000×6.25
MV= = 250/−
100

12. How much money should I invest in 11.5% stock 36000

at 73 (including brokerage) to obtain an income of ∴ = 250 + 50
𝑥
150/- after a tax deduction at source of 20%?
36000
= 300
Solution: 𝑥

NV MV 36000=300x
100 80 300x=36000
? 150
36000
X= = 120/−
300

100×150 375
NV= = = 187.5/−
80 2
14. How much must be invested in 14.25% stock at
After 20% tax deduction, 80% remains
98 to produce the same income as would be
Let investment = x obtained by investing 9975 in 15% stock at 105?
𝑇𝑎𝑥 = 20%𝑥 Solution:

= 0.20𝑥 NV MV
100 105
Before deduction 𝑡𝑎𝑥 = 0.80𝑥 ? 9975
For 0.80x ,the investment is x 9975 𝑋 100
𝑁𝑉 =
How much is the investment for 150? 105
9975 𝑋 100 15
150𝑥 1500 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 = × = 1425/−
= = = 187.5 105 100
0.80𝑥 8
Investment=187.5 NV MV
100 98
73-115 ? x

? – 187.5 100 × 𝑥
𝑁𝑉 =
98
1875 × 73 27.375
= = = 1190.20/− 100 × 𝑥 14.25 1425𝑥
115 25 𝐴= × =
98 100 9800
=> 1425𝑥 = 1425 × 9800
13. A person sells out 4,000 of 6.25 Govt. of India
stock at 112.5 and reinvests the proceeds in 8% 1425 × 9800
∴𝑥= = 9800/−
Railway debentures, thereby increasing his annual 1425
income by 50/-. At what price did he buy the
debentures?
15. Ramesh has invested 4300 partly in 4.5% stock
Solution: at 72 and partly in the 5% stock at 95. If the total
invested income from both is 250/-, find his
NV MV
investment in two types of stock.
100 112.5
4000 ? Solution:
4000×112.5
MV= = 4500 NV MV
100
100 72
debentures= 8% ? x
reinvestment: 100 x ? 4500

60
 Period of time : T or N
100 × 𝑥
𝑁𝑉 =
72 Rate of Interest : R
100 × 𝑥 45 (per annum)
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 = ×
72 100
A = Principal + Interest = P + N
NV MV
100 95 The two kinds of interest that we study in this chapter
? (4300-x) are: (1) Simple interest (S.I.) and (2) Compound Interest
(C.I.).
(4300 − 𝑥) × 100
𝑁𝑉 =
95
(4300 − 𝑥) × 100 Simple Interest (S.I.)
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 =
95
Total Income = 250 The simple interest on the principal P for the number of
years N at the rate of interest R is calculated by using
100 × 𝑥 × 4.5 100(4300 − 𝑥)5
250 = + the formula:
72 × 100 100 × 95
𝑃𝑁𝑅
15𝑥 4300 − 𝑥 𝐼=
250 = + 100
240 19
For solving problem on the simple interest, we have the
𝑥 4300 − 𝑥
250 = + following formulae:
16 19
𝑥 4300 𝑥 1. To 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐼 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑃, 𝑁, 𝑅 are given
250 = + − 𝑃𝑁𝑅
16 19 19 𝐼=
100
1 1 4300
x[ + ] = 250 − 2. To 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑃 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐼, 𝑁, 𝑅 are given
16 19 19
100𝐼
19+16 250×19−4300 𝑃=
x[ ]= 𝑁𝑅
16×19 19
3. To 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑁 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐼, 𝑃, 𝑅 are given
3𝑥 100𝐼
= 4750 − 4300 𝑁=
16 𝑃𝑅
3𝑥 4. To 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑅 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐼, 𝑁, 𝑃 are given
= 450 100𝐼
16 𝑅=
𝑁𝑃
7200 5. To 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐴 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼 are given
3𝑥 = 450 × 16 => 𝑥 = = 2400/−
3 𝐴=𝑃+𝐼
Investment in the I type = 240 6. To 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑃 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴, 𝑁, 𝑅 are given
100𝐴
Investment in the II type = 4300-2400=1900 𝑃=
100 + 𝑁𝑅

Introduction Worked Examples

When we borrow some amount of money as loan from 1. Find the simple interest on Rs.2,000 for 10 years
somebody for a fixed period of time, an extra amount at the rate of 10% per annum.
charged is called the interest. This interest depends on
Solution:
three factors.
1. Amount borrowed Here P = 2000, N = 10, R = 10
2. The period of time, and 𝑃𝑁𝑅 2000 × 10 × 10
3. The rate of interest. ∴𝐼= = = 2000
100 100
Therefore, Simple Interest is 2000.
The amount borrowed is called the principal and is
denoted by P. The sum of the principal and the interest
is called the amount and is denoted by A.
2. Calculate the simple interest on 4,000 for 5 years
Thus, we have at the rate of 6% per annum.
Principal : P Solution:
Amount : A Here P = 4000, N = 5, R = 6

61
 𝑃𝑁𝑅 4000 × 5 × 6 100 𝐴 (100 × 5000) 500000
∴ 𝑆𝐼 = = = 1200 𝑃= = =
100 100 100 + 𝑅𝑁 100 + (25) × 4 125
4
Therefore, Simple Interest is 1200. Loan amount = 4000

3. Find the amount on Rs.15000 at 5% for 10 years.

7. A man deposits Rs.100 on the first of every month
Solution: in a savings bank account in which simple interest
is 2% per annum on the minimum monthly balances,
Here P = 15000, N = 10, R = 5 what is the amount accumulated at the end of
1
2 years?
𝑃𝑁𝑅 15000 × 10 × 5 2
∴ 𝑆𝐼 = = = 7500
100 100 Solution:
Therefore, Simple Interest is 7500.
Total Interest = interest on 100 for 30 months
+ interest on Rs.100 for 29 months
4. If a principal amount is charged the simple +....................................... .............
interest for Rs.750 for 5 years at the rate of 6% per + interest on Rs.100 for 1month
annum, what is the principal? 2 3 2 29
= (100 × × ) + (100 × × )+⋯
Solution: 100 12 100 12
2 1
+ (100 × × )
𝑃𝑁𝑅 100 12
∴ 𝑆𝐼 =
100 1
= (30 + 29 + ⋯ + 1)
𝑝×5×6 6
750 =
100 1 30
= ( (1 + 30)) Using the formula for the sum to n
6 2
750 × 100 𝑛
𝑃= = 25 × 100 = 2500 terms of A.P 𝑆𝑛 = (𝑎 + 𝑙)
2
5×6
=77.50
The amount deposited = 100 × 30 = 3000
5. If a person who takes a loan of Rs.3600 is asked
to repay Rs.6000 at the end of 3 years, what is the 1
The amount accumulated at the end of 2 years is
2
rate of interest charged as per simple interest?
3000+77.50=3077.50
Solution:

Here A = 6000, P = 3600, N = 3 8. A money lender lent Rs.250 and demanded Rs.340
SI = A − P towards the amount due at the end of 4 years. Find
the rate of interest (simple)
= 6000 − 3600
Solution:
= 2400
𝐼 = 340 − 250 = 110
Now,
100𝐼 100 × 110
𝑃𝑁𝑅 𝑅= = = 11
𝑃𝑁 250 × 4
∴ 𝑆𝐼 =
100
The rate of Interest is 11%
3600 × 3 × 𝑅
2400 =
100
2400 × 100 2400 2
Compound Interest
𝑅= = = 22 %
3 × 3600 36 × 3 9
If r% per annum is the rate of simple Interest for a sum
at the end of 1 Year, the amount A1
6. An amount of loan borrowed from a bank totals to
1 Will be
5000 at the end of 4 years as per the rate of 6 %
4
𝑟
simple interest. What is the loan amount borrowed? 𝐴1 = 𝑃 (1 + )
100

Solution: Now, if A1 is taken as the principal amount and interest

calculated on this amount at r% interest, at the end of 2
Let the loan amount be
years, the amount will become:

62
 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑛
𝐴2 = 𝑃 (1 + ) + 𝑃 (1 + ) 𝐴 = 𝑃 (1 + )
100 100 100 100

𝑟 𝑟 5 4
= 𝑃 (1 + ) (1 + ) (𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑃 (1 => 6000 = 𝑃 (1 + )
100 100 100
𝑟
+ ) 𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟) => 6000 = 𝑃(1.05)4
100
𝑟 2 6000
= 𝑃 (1 + ) => 𝑃 =
100 (1.05)4

Similarly, the amount at the end of 3years will be Taking log on both sides

𝑟 3 log 𝑃 = log 6000 − 4 log 1.05

𝐴3 = 𝑃 (1 + ) etc.,
100
= 3.7782 − 4 × 0.012
Continuing this way, we get the amount at the end of n
years is = 3.7782 + 0.0348

𝑟 𝑛 = 3.6934
𝐴𝑛 = 𝑃 (1 + )
100
𝑃 = 𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔3.6934
Total interest gained on is
= 4937.00
𝑟 𝑛
𝐴𝑛 − 𝑝 = 𝑃 (1 + ) −𝑝 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 = 4937
100

For solving problems concerning compound interest we

use the formula:
3. In how many years, Rs.1000 will be doubled at 6%
𝑟 𝑛
𝐴 = 𝑃 (1 + ) compound interest?
100
Solution:

Worked Examples 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴 = 2000, 𝑃 = 1000, 𝑟 = 6

𝑟 𝑛
𝐴 = 𝑃 (1 + )
100
1. Find the compound interest on Rs.4000 at the end
of 5 years at the rate of 8% per annum. 6 𝑛
=> 2000 = 1000 (1 + )
100
Solution:
=> 2 = (1.06)𝑛
𝑟 𝑛
𝐴 = 𝑃 (1 + ) Taking logs
100

5
= 4000 (1 +
8
) log 2 = nlog 1.06
100
0.3010 = 𝑛(0.0212
= 4000(1.08)5
0.3010
Taking log on both sides 𝑛=
0.0212
log 𝐴 = log 4000 + 5 log 1.08 3010
𝑛=
= 3.6021 × 5 × 0.0334 212
Taking logs on both sides,
= 3.6021 + 0.1670
log 𝑛 = log 3010 − log 212
= 3.7691
= 3.4786 − 2.3263
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔3.7691
= 1.1523
= 5876.00
𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔 1.1523
∴ at the end of 5years the amount A=5876.00
= 14.20
The principal 𝑝 = 4000.00
Hence in 14.2 years, Rs.1000 will be doubled.
Compound interest -5876-4000=1876.00

4. A man borrowed Rs.6250 from a bank and after 2

2. What sum amounts to Rs.6000 after 4 years at 5%
years paid Rs.6760 in full settlement of his debt.
compound interest?
Find the rate of compound interest charged by the
Solution: bank?

63
Solution: 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝐶. 𝐼. = ₹9665 − ₹6000 = ₹3665

A = 6760, P = 6250, n = 2 The difference between C.I. and S.I is ₹3665 − ₹3000 =
𝑛 ₹665
𝑟
𝐴 = 𝑃 (1 + )
100

𝑟 2
=> 6760 = 6250 (1 + ) 6. What principal will amount to Rs.1352 in two
100
years at 4% compound interest?
𝑟 2 6760
(1 + ) = Solution:
100 6250

Let P be the principal amount

𝑟 676
1+ =√ 𝑛
100 625 𝐴 = 𝑝 (1 +
𝑟
)
100
Taking logs on both sides,
4 2
1352 = 𝑝 (1 + )
𝑟 1 100
log (1 + ) = [log 676 − log 625]
100 2
1352 = 𝑝(1.04)2
1
= [2.8299 − 2.7959] i.e., 𝑃 = 1352/(1.04)2
2
1 Taking log on both sides
= [0.0340]
2 log 𝑃 = log 1352 − 2log 1.04
= 0.0170
= 3.1310 − 2(0.0170)
𝑟
1+ = 𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔0.0170 = 3.1310 + 0.0340
100
= 1.040 = 3.0970
𝑟 𝑝 = 𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔3.0970
= 1.040 − 1 = 0.040
100
= 1250.00
𝑟 = 0.040 × 100 = 4
The principal = Rs.1250.00
Rate of compound Interest = 4% p.a.

1
7. Find the compound interest on Rs. 2400 for 2
2
5. Find the difference between compound interest
years at 5% per annum interest being compounded
and simple interest on Rs.6000 for 5 years at 10%?
annual.
Solution:
Solution:
P = 6000, n = 5, R = 10 𝑛
𝑟
𝐴 = 𝑝 (1 + )
𝑃𝑁𝑅 6000 × 5 × 10 100
𝐼= = = 3000
100 100 5 5/2
= 2400 (1 + )
∴ 𝑆. 𝐼. = ₹3000 100

Here P = 6000, n = 5, R = 10 = 2400(1.05)5/2

10 5 Taking log on both sides

𝐴 = 6000 (1 + )
100
5
log 𝐴 = log 2400 − log 1.05
i.e., 𝐴 = 6000(1.01)5 2
Taking log on both sides 5
= 3.3802 + (0.0212)
2
log 𝐴 = log 6000 + 5log 1.1
= 3.3802 + 5 × 9.0106
= 3.7782 + 5(0.0414)
= 3.3802 + 0.0530
= 3.7782 + 0.2070
= 3.4332
= 3.9852
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔3.4332
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔3.9852
= 2711.00
= 9665.00

64
𝐶. 𝐼 = ₹2711.00 − ₹2400 = ₹311 1,00,000 × 0.12
=
[(1 + 0.12)15 − 1]

Annuities 1,00,000 × 0.12

=
[(1.12)15 − 1]

“An annuity is a fixed sum paid at a regular interval 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = (1.12)15

under certain stated conditions”, the period may be one
𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑥 = 15𝑙𝑜𝑔1.12
year or half year or one month.
= 15 × 0.0492 = 0.7380
Example: Interest, House rent, salaries, pension etc.
𝑥 = 𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔0.73802 = 5.470
Types of Annuity
1,00,000 × 0.12
1. Annuity Certain: An annuity payable for a fixed ∴𝐴=
5.470 − 1
number of years is called Annuity Certain.
2. Annuity Inmidiate: Annuity payments are made at 1,00,000 × 0.12
=
the end of each period. Then the annuity is called 4.470
Annuity Inmidiate. 12,000
3. Annuity Contigent: An annuity payment or =
4.470
duration of annuity payments or happening of any
𝐴 = ₹2,684.5/−
event is known as Annuity Contigent.
4. Perpetuity: Annuity which is for ever (i.e., for an
infinite period) is called perpetuity.
2. Find the future value of Rs.1,000 deposited
5. Deferred Annuity: When the Annuity payment
annually for 12 years gathering compound interest
starts after lapse of a certain specific period, the
16%p.a.
annuity is called Deferred Annuity.
6. Annuity Due: If the annuity payments are made Solution:
in advance at the beginning of each stipulated
A=1,000, n=12years, r=16%=0.16, F=?
time then it is called Annuity due.
𝐴[(1 + 𝑟)𝑛 − 1]
Formulae 𝐹=
𝑟
𝐴[(1+𝑟)𝑛 −1]
1. Future value of Annuity 𝐹 =
𝑟
1,000[(1 + 0.16)12 − 1]
=
A=Annuity, r=Interest rate, n=number of years, 0.16
F=Future value of Annuity 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = (1.16)12
𝐴[(1+𝑟)𝑛 −1]
2. Present Value of Annuity (PVA)=
𝑟(1+𝑟)𝑛 𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑥 = 12𝑙𝑜𝑔1.16
𝐴[(1+𝑟)𝑛 −1]
3. Future Value of Annuity due F= (1 +
𝑟 = 12 × 0.0645 = 0.7740
𝑟)
𝐴[(1+𝑟)𝑛 −1] 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔0.7740 = 5.9343
4. Present value of Annuity due P= (1 +
𝑟(1+𝑟)𝑛
1,000(5.943 − 1)
𝑟) ∴𝐹=
𝐴 0.16
5. Perpetuity 𝑃∞ =
𝑟
1,00,000 × 4.943
=
0.16
Worked Examples 4943
=
0.16
𝐹 = 30,893.75/−
1. A father wants to send his child for higher studies
after 15 years. He expects the cost of higher studies
then to be Rs.1,00,000. How much should he save 3. You will deposit 1,000 into your recurring deposit
annually to have Rs.1,00,000 after 15 years if the account with a bank. At the end of each month for
interest rate is 12% p.a.? the next 24 months. The bank allows interest of 12%
Solution: p.a. How much will you receive at the end of 24
months?
𝐹 = 1,00,000, 𝑟 = 12%𝑝. 𝑎 = 0.12, 𝑛 = 15𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠, 𝐴 =?
Solution:
𝐹𝑟
𝐴= 0.12
[(1 + 𝑟)𝑛 − 1] A=1000, n=24months, r= = 0.01, F=?
12

65
 𝐴[(1 + 𝑟)𝑛 − 1] 5. A company wants to create a Sinking Fund to
𝐹=
𝑟 replace a Machine after 8 years which then is
expected to cost Rs.50,00,000. That present machine
1,000[(1 + 0.01)24 − 1]
= will not have any scrap value. How much
0.01
depreciation should be provided annually to be
1,000[(1.01)24 − 1] invested at 15% p.a. so as to raise enough funds for
=
0.01 replacement?
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = (1.01)124 Solution:
𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑥 = 24𝑙𝑜𝑔1.01 F=50,00,000, r=15%=0.15, n=8years, A=?
= 24 × 0.0043 = 0.269 𝐹𝑟
𝐴=
[(1 + 𝑟)𝑛 − 1]
𝑥 = 𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔0.269 = 1.269
5000000 × 0.15
1,000(1.269 − 1) =
∴𝐹= [(1 + 0.15)8 − 1]
0.01
1,000 × 0.269 75000
= = = 307935
0.01 2.059
269 𝐴 = ₹3,07,935/−
=
0.01
𝐹 = ₹26,900/−
6. Calculate the present value of an annuity of
₹3,000 in 6years at 14% p.a.

4. Four equal quarterly payments of Rs.2,000 are Solution:

made into a deposit account that pays 10% interest
A = 3,000 / −, n = 6 years, r = 14% = 0.14, P =?
p.a. What is the future value of this annuity after 4
deposits? 𝐴[(1 + 𝑟)𝑛 − 1]
𝐹=
𝑟(1 + 𝑟)𝑛
Solution:
3,000[(1 + 0.14)6 − 1]
Given the nominal rate R = 10% = 0.10 =
0.14(1 + 0.14)6
𝑅 𝑞
𝑟 = [1 + ] − 1 3,000[(1.14)6 − 1]
𝑞 =
0.14(1.14)6
0.10 4
= [1 + ] −1 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = (1.14)6
𝑟
𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑥 = 6𝑙𝑜𝑔1.14
= [1 + 0.024]4 − 1
= 6 × 0.0569 = 0.3414
= [1.024]4 − 1
𝑥 = 𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔0.3414 = 2.195
𝑟 = 0.1038 × 100
3000(2.195 − 1)
𝑟 = 10.38% = 0.1038 ∴𝑃=
0.14(2.195)
𝐴[(1 + 𝑟)𝑛 − 1]
𝐹= 3585
𝑟 =
0.3073
2,000[(1 + 0.1038)4 − 1]
= ∴ 𝑃 = 11,666/−
0.1038
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = (1.1038)4
7. A person wants to provide for his daughter’s
𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑥 = 4𝑙𝑜𝑔1.1038
college studies which will require Rs.10,000 p.a. for
= 4 × 0.425 = 0.170 5 years the money will be needed one year from
now. How much should he deposit in his bank
𝑥 = 𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔 0.170 = 1.4844
account now in such a way that the account will be
2,000[1.4844 − 1] close at the end of 5 years? Bank allows compound
=
0.1038 interest at the rate of 12% p.a.?
= 2000(1.4844 − 1) Solution:
𝐹 = Rs. 9,334/− A=10000, n=5years, r=12%=0.12, p=?

66
 𝐴[(1 + 𝑟)𝑛 − 1] 1 10
𝑃=
𝑟(1 + 𝑟)𝑛 𝑦 1 (1.04)
[ ] = 40000
1.04 1 − 1
10000[(1 + 0.12)5 − 1] 1.04
=
0.12(1 + 0.12)5
𝑦 1 10
= [1 − ( ) ] = 40000
10000[(1.12)5 − 1] 1.04 1.04
=
0.12(1.12)5
=> 𝑦 = Rs. 4932
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = (1.12)5

𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑥 = 5𝑙𝑜𝑔1.12 Summary

= 5 × 0.0492 = 0.2460
The required share capital necessary is divided into a
𝑥 = 𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔0.2460 = 1.762
number of equal parts each having the same face value.
10000(1.762 − 1) Each part so divided is called a share. These shares are
∴𝑃=
0.12(1.762) issued by the company to the people. One who
purchases the shares is called a shareholder of the
1.762
= company. Example: If the required share capital of a
0.2144
company is 10 crores, it will be divided into equal shares
∴ 𝑃 = ₹36,038.6/− of face value of 10 each, so that the company can issue
shares of Rs.1 crore.
Any company registered under the Indian Companies
8. In what time will a sum of money double itself at
Act can issue only the two types of shares viz. :(i)
10% p.a. Compounded interest payable half yearly.
Preference Shares and (ii) Equity Shares. To become a
Given log 2 0.3010, log1.05 0.0212?
shareholder, one has to pay the face value of the share.
Solution: After completely collecting the face values of all the
shares, a company can convert its fully paid up shares
Let the sum be ₹. Let the sum will be doubled in n years.
into stocks. The total annual profit of a company is
𝑟 2𝑛 distributed among the shareholders in proportion of the
𝐴 = 𝑝 [1 + ]
100 shares that the shareholders possess, is called the
5 2𝑛 Dividend. Brokerage is the commission that a broker
∴ 𝑃 [1 + ] = 2𝑃 => (1 + 0.05)𝑛 = 2
100 charges for the purchases and sale of stocks and
Taking logs shares. Brokerage is calculated at the given percent on
the cash value. Yield is defined to be the ratio of actual
2𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑔(1.05) = log 2 interest or dividend received to the actual amount
log 2 0.3010 invested in the stock or share.
2𝑛 = = = 14.198
𝑙𝑜𝑔(1.05) 0.0212 The simple interest on the principal p for the number of
14.198 years N at the rate of interest R is calculated as
∴𝑛= = 7.09
2 𝑃𝑁𝑅
𝐼=
The sum will double itself in approximate 7 years 100
Formula for compound interest is
𝑟 𝑛
9. A man borrows Rs.40,000 at 4% compound 𝐴 = 𝑃 (1 + )
100
interest and agrees to pay both the principal and
interest in 10 equal instalments at the end of each Future Value of Annuity
year. Find the amount of these instalments.
𝐴[(1 + 𝑟)𝑛 − 1]
𝐹=
Solution: 𝑟
Let Rs. y be amount of each instalment. Present Value of Annuity
𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 𝐴[(1 + 𝑟)𝑛 − 1]
+ +⋯+ = 40,000 𝑃𝑉 =
1.04 (1.04)2 (1.04)10 𝑟(1 + 𝑟)𝑛
𝑦 1 1 Perpetuity (𝑃∞ ) =
𝐴
[1 + + ⋯+ 9 ] = 40,000 𝑟
1.04 1.04 (1.04)

67
Unit 9
Differential Calculus
Learning Objectives Note: 𝑦 = √𝑥 is not a function of a real variable
because, for negative 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑥, 𝑦 is not a real
number and also for positive real value of x there will be
After completion of this unit, the students will be aware
two values of y.
of the following topics:
For example
• Introduction
• Recapitulation of Functions and Limit of a Function 𝑥 = 4, y=√4 = ±2
• Types of Function
• Differentiation If 𝑦 = √𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓
• Function of a Function (or Composite Function)
• Implicit Functions 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛

𝑦 = √𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
Introduction
Type of Function
Given a function, we are often interested to know how
the change in one variable corresponds to changes in
1. Constant Function: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 is a constant
the other. The questions relating to rates of changes
is called a constant function.
require the introduction to the concept of derivatives.
2. Identity Function : 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 is called identity
In this unit, we study various methods of differentiation
function.
and its application. It deals with the study of change
3. Polynomial or algebraic function: : 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎0 +
𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0 is called a
Recapitulation of Functions and Limit of a polynomial or algebraic function.
Function
E.g. 1. 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 ≠ 0

Constant: A quantity whose value remains the same is 2. 3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 7

called a constant.
4. Modulus function: 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| is called a modulus
1 function and is defined by |𝑥|
𝐸. 𝑔. , 5, 0, 1, 𝑒𝑡𝑐.
2
𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 0(𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 + 𝑣𝑒)
Variable: A quantity whose value changes is called a
variable. and |𝑥| = 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 0

The variables are denoted 𝑏𝑦 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑒𝑡𝑐. −𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0(𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 − 𝑣𝑒)

𝑓(𝑋)
Function of a real variable: If x is a real variable, any 5. Rational function: A function of the form is
𝑔(𝑥)
expression in x is called a function of x. called a rational fraction.
Definition: To each value of a real 2𝑥+5
e.g., 𝑓(𝑥) =
variable 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜ciated by 3𝑥 2 −𝑥+1

means of a rule 𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑦 is called a function of a real 6. Exponential function: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 is called an
variable x. The set of all values of x is called the domain exponential function. 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 where a is a constant is
and the set of all values of y is called the range. also an exponential function.
A function is denoted by 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥). X is called the 7. Logarithms function: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 is called a
independent variable, y is called dependent variable. logarithmic function.
Hence if 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is a function then corresponding to a Functional Value
value of x the value of y is unique.
The value of a function at a given value of x is called the
e.g., 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 is a function. functional value. The functional value of f(x) at x=a is
given by f(a).
𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 3 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

68
 2𝑥−5 2(1)−5 −3
e.g. if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓(1) = = Differentiation
𝑥−7 1+7 8

A function f(x) is said to be differentiable at x = a if

Limit of a Function
𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑎)
[ ] exits. This limit is denoted by 𝑓′(𝑎) and ∴
The limit of a function f(x) as x tends to a is said to be 𝑥−𝑎
equal to 𝑙 if the difference between 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙 becomes 𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑎)
smaller and smaller whenever the difference between 𝑓′(𝑎)= [ ]
𝑥−𝑎
𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 becomes smaller and smaller.
𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑎)
We write 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙 Note: 𝑓′(𝑎) exits if the [ ] exits as 𝑥 → 𝑎 through
𝑥−𝑎

Properties of Limits 𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑎)

𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 < 𝑎 (left hand limit) and [ ] through
𝑥−𝑎
1. 𝑘 =𝑙
𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 > 𝑎 (right hand limit) exit and further they are
2. 𝑘 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘𝑓(𝑥)
equal.

3. [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)

Derivative of a Function – Method of First Principles

4. [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)

If y = f (x ) is a function then as x changes y also
changes.
5. [𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓(𝑥) . 𝑔(𝑥)
A change in x is called the increment in x and is denoted
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥) by Δx.
6. [ ] = provided 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)
Corresponding change in y is called increment in y and
is denoted by Δy .as x changes to x + Δx , y changes to y
7. [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 = [𝑓(𝑥) 𝑛 ]
+ Δy .

8. [𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 ] First Principles

Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) … … … … … . (1)

= 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛
∴ 𝑦 + ∆𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) … … … . (2)
+𝑎1 𝑎 + 𝑎2 𝑎2 + ⋯ 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛
Subtracting (1) from (2) , we get
𝑥 𝑛 −𝑎𝑛
9. [ ]= 𝑛𝑎𝑛−1 ∆𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥−𝑎

Divide both sides by ∆𝑥

1
10. [1 + ] = 𝑒
𝑛
∆𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)
=
1 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
11. [1 + 𝑥] = 𝑒 𝑥
Taking limits as ∆𝑥 → 0, 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡

12. [
(1+𝑥)
]=1 ∆𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

𝑒 𝑥−1
If this limit exits then it is called the derivative of y w.r.t. x
13. [ ]=1 𝑑𝑦
𝑥 and is denoted by
𝑑𝑥

𝑎𝑥−1 ∆𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)

14. [ ] = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 > 0 = = 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑥 ∆𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥
𝑑𝑦
is also called the differential coefficient of y w.r.t., x.
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
Note: should not be read as the product of 𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦
𝑑𝑥
divided by the product of 𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥.

69
 𝑑 Only Statements are given because they have to be
In fact, is the symbol for the
𝑑𝑥
used in the problems.
𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡. 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡. 𝑥. Derivatives of Standard Functions
𝑑
General Theorems on Derivatives: (without Proof) 1. (𝑥 𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥

𝑑(𝑘) 𝑑
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚 1: = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡. 2. (𝑥) = 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑 1 1
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚 2 : [𝑘𝑓(𝑥)] = 3. ( )=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥2
𝑑
𝑘 [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑥)𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑥. 𝑑 1
𝑑𝑥 4. (√𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 2√𝑥
Or 𝑑
5. (𝑒 𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑑 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
[𝑘𝑢] = 𝑘
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑
6. (𝑎 𝑥 ) = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 ≠ 1
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑𝑥
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚 3 : [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)] = [𝑓(𝑥)] + [𝑔(𝑥)]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑 1
7. (𝑥 ) = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥 > 0
𝑑 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
Or [𝑢 + 𝑣] = +
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑 1
8. (𝑥 ) =
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝑥𝑎
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚 4 : [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)] = [𝑓(𝑥)] − [𝑔(𝑥)]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑
9. (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛 = 𝑛𝑎(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛−1
𝑑 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥
Or [𝑢 − 𝑣] = −
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑 1 1 1
10. = .
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 (𝑎𝑥+𝑏) 𝑎 (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)2
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚 5 : [𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓(𝑥) [𝑔(𝑥)] +
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
𝑑
[𝑓(𝑥)] This is called the product rule 11. (𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 ) = 𝑎𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1
Or
𝑑
[𝑢. 𝑣] = 𝑢
𝑑𝑣
+𝑣
𝑑𝑢
This can be 12. (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) = 𝑎.
𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑥+𝑏
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
remembered as
𝑑
[𝐼 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝐼𝐼 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛]
Worked Examples
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
= (𝐼 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) × (𝐼𝐼 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) I. Differentiate the following w.r.t. x
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1. 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎
+ (𝐼𝐼 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) × (𝐼 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 100
𝑑 𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢 = (𝑥 ) = 100𝑥100−1 = 100𝑥 99
Note: [𝑢. 𝑣. 𝑤] = 𝑢𝑣 + 𝑢𝑤 + 𝑣𝑤 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
𝑑 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) [𝑓(𝑥)]−𝑓(𝑥) [𝑔(𝑥)]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚 6 : [ ]= [𝑔(𝑥)]2 𝟐
𝑑𝑥 𝑔(𝑥)
2. 𝒙𝟑
This is called the Quotient Rule.
𝑑 2 2 2 2 2−3 2 1
= (𝑥 3 ) = 𝑥 3−1 = 𝑥 3 = 𝑥 −3
Or 𝑑𝑥 3 3 3
𝑑 𝑑
𝑑 𝑢 𝑣 [𝑢] − 𝑢 [𝑣]
[ ] = 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 𝟒
𝑑𝑥 𝑣 [𝑣] 3. 𝒙− 𝟓
This can be remembered as 𝑑 −4 4 4 4 −4−5 4 −9
= 𝑥 5 = − 𝑥 − 5−1 = − 𝑥 5 = − 𝑥 5
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 5 5 5
𝑑 𝑁𝑟 𝐷𝑟 [𝑁𝑟] − 𝑁𝑟 [𝐷𝑟]
[ ]= 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝐷𝑟 [𝐷𝑟]2
4. (𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑)𝟐
Where Nr=Numerator, Dr=Denominator
𝑑
Note: While doing problems on differentiation, the above = (2𝑥 + 3)2 = (4𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 + 9)
𝑑𝑥
theorems should be strictly followed.
𝑑 2 𝑑 𝑑
The above theorems can be proved using the method of =4 (𝑥 ) + 12 𝑥 + 9
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
first principles. Since there is no mention of proofs of the
theorems in the syllabus, the proofs are not given here. = 4(2𝑥) + 12(1) + 0 = 8𝑥 + 12

70
5. (𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃)𝟐 11. 𝒙𝒆𝒙
𝑑 𝑑 2 2 𝑑
= (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)2 = (𝑎 𝑥 + 2𝑎𝑏𝑥 + 𝑏 2 ) = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 2 𝑑 𝑑 2
= 𝑎2 (𝑥 ) + 2𝑎𝑏 𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑑 𝑥 𝑑
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =𝑥 𝑒 + 𝑒𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑎2 (2𝑥) + 2𝑎𝑏(1) + 0 = 2𝑎2 𝑥 + 2𝑎𝑏
= 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 (1) = (𝑥 + 1)𝑒 𝑥

6. (𝒙 + 𝟏)𝟑
12. 𝒙𝟐 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒙
𝑑 𝑑 3
= (𝑥 + 1)3 = (𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1) 𝑑 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 3 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
= (𝑥 ) + 3 𝑥 2 + 3 (𝑥) + 1 𝑑 𝑑 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 log 𝑥 +𝑙𝑜𝑔 log 𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
= 𝑥 2 . +𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 (2𝑥) = (𝑥 + 2𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 )
= 3𝑥 3−1 + 3(2𝑥) + 3(1) + 0 = 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 3 𝑥

𝒙+𝟏
𝒙𝟐 −𝟓𝒙+𝟏 13. ( )
7. 𝒙−𝟏
√𝒙
𝑑 𝑑
𝑑 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 1 𝑑 𝑥 2 5𝑥 1 𝑑 𝑥+1 (𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 + 1) − (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 − 1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ( )= ( − + ) [ ]=
𝑑𝑥 √𝑥 𝑑𝑥 √𝑥 √𝑥 √𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 − 1 (𝑥 − 1)2
𝑑 1 1 1 (𝑥 − 1)(1 + 0) − (𝑥 + 1)(1 − 0))
= (𝑥 2−2 − 5𝑥1−2 + 𝑥 −2 ) =
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 − 1)2
𝑑 3 1 1
(𝑥 − 1) − 𝑥 − 1 −2
= (𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 2 + 𝑥 −2 ) = =
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑥 − 1)2
𝑑 3 𝑑 1 𝑑 −1
= 𝑥2 − 5 𝑥2 + 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝟐𝒙+𝟑
3 3−1 5 1−1 1 1 14. ( )
= 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2 + (− ) 𝑥 −2−1 𝒙−𝟕
2 2 2
𝑑 𝑑
𝑑 2𝑥 + 3 (𝑥 − 7) (2𝑥 + 3) − (2𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 − 7)
3 1 5 −1 1 −3 [ ]= 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥2 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑥− 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 − 7 (𝑥 − 7)2
2 2 2
(𝑥 − 7)(2 + 0) − (2𝑥 + 3)(1 − 0)
=
(𝑥 − 7)2
8. 𝒆𝟑𝒙
2𝑥 − 14 − 2𝑥 − 3 17
𝑑 3𝑥 = =
= 𝑒 = 3𝑒 3𝑥 (𝑥 − 7)2 (𝑥 − 7)2
𝑑𝑥

(𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑) 15. 𝟑𝒙
9.
𝑑 𝑥
𝑑 1 2 = 3 = 3 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔3
= (2𝑥 + 3) = 2. = 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2𝑥 + 3 2𝑥 + 3

16. (𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝒆𝒙 − 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒙)

10. 𝒙
𝑑
𝑑 = (3𝑥 2 + 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥)
= 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 𝑑 2 𝑑 𝑥 𝑑
= ( ) (𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑠) = (3 𝑥 + 𝑒 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑 1 1 1 1
= . 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 = . =𝑥 = 3(2𝑥) + 𝑒 𝑥 −
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑑𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑥

71
 1 𝒆𝒙 +𝟏
= 6𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 − 21.
𝒆𝒙 −𝟏
𝑥

17. (𝟐𝒙𝒆 + 𝒆𝒙 + 𝒆𝒆 ) 𝑑 𝑒𝑥 + 1
( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − 1
𝑑
= (2𝑥 𝑒 + 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑒 ) 𝑑 𝑥 𝑑
𝑑𝑥 (𝑒 𝑥 − 1) (𝑒 + 1) − (𝑒 𝑥 + 1) (𝑒 𝑥 − 1)
= 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑒 𝑑 𝑥 𝑑 𝑒 (𝑒 𝑥 − 1)2
= (2 𝑥 + 𝑒 + 𝑒 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(𝑒 𝑥 − 1)(𝑒 𝑥 ) − (𝑒 𝑥 + 1)(𝑒 𝑥 )
= 2. 𝑒𝑥 𝑒−1
+𝑒 −0 𝑥 =
(𝑒 𝑥 − 1)2
= 2. 𝑒𝑥 𝑒−1 + 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 2𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥
=
(𝑒 𝑥 − 1)2
−2𝑒 𝑥
18. [(𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 )𝒆𝒙 ] =
(𝑒 𝑥 − 1)2
𝑑
[(1 + 𝑥 2 )𝑒 𝑥 ]
𝑑𝑥
𝒆𝒙
𝑑 𝑥 𝑑 22.
= (1 + 𝑥 2) 𝑒 + 𝑒𝑥 (1 + 𝑥 2 ) 𝟏−𝒙𝟐
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
= (1 + 𝑥 2 )𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 2𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 (1 + 2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑 𝑒𝑥 (1 − 𝑥 2 ) (𝑒 𝑥 ) − (𝑒 𝑥 ) (1 − 𝑥 2 )
( )= 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 1 − 𝑥 2 (1 − 𝑥 2 )2

(1 − 𝑥 2 )(𝑒 𝑥 ) − (𝑒 𝑥 )(−2𝑥)
19. [(𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 − 𝟏) 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒙 ] =
(1 − 𝑥 2 )2
𝑑
[(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1) 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 ] 𝑒 𝑥 (1 − 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 =
(𝑒 𝑥 − 1)2
𝑑 𝑑 2
= (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1) 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 +𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 (𝑥 + 𝑥 − 1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝟏
1 23.
= (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1) +𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 (2𝑥 + 1) 𝒙𝟑
𝑥
𝑑 1 𝑑 −3
1 ( 3) = (𝑥 )
= 𝑥 + 1 − + (2𝑥 + 1) 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
= (−3)𝑥 −3−1 = −3𝑥 −4
1 −3
𝑥 2 +𝑥+1 = (−3) =
20. ( ) 𝑥4 𝑥4
𝑥 2 −𝑥+1

𝑑 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1
( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 𝟏
24. 𝒂𝟓
𝑑 𝑑
(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1) − (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1)
= 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑 1
(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1)2 = 𝑎5
𝑑𝑥
1
= 0 𝑎5 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 + 1) − (𝑥 2
+ 𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 − 1)
=
(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1)2
2𝑥3 − 2𝑥2 + 2𝑥 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥 + 1 − 2𝑥3 − 2𝑥2 − 2𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1 25. 𝒆𝟐𝒙−𝟓
=
(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1)2 𝑑 2𝑥−5
= 𝑒
−2𝑥 2 + 2 𝑑𝑥
=
(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1)2 = 2𝑒 2𝑥−5

2(−𝑥 2 + 1)
=
(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1)2
26. 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝐥𝐨𝐠(𝟒𝒙 + 𝟓)
𝑑
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 log(4𝑥 + 5)
𝑑𝑥

72
 4
= 𝟐𝒙+𝟏
4𝑥 + 5 1. 𝒚=
𝟏−𝒙𝟐

2𝑥 + 1
𝑦=
27. [(x2 + 1)(x2 − 1)] 1 − 𝑥2
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
= [(x2 + 1)(x2 − 1)] (1 − 𝑥 2 ) (2𝑥 + 1) − (2𝑥 + 1) (1 − 𝑥 2 )
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(1 − 𝑥 2 )2
𝑑 4
= (𝑥 − 1)( 𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝑑𝑥 (1 − 𝑥 2 )2 − (2𝑥 + 1)(−2𝑥)
=
𝑑 4 𝑑 (1 − 𝑥 2 )2
= 𝑥 − 1 = 4𝑥 3 − 0 = 4𝑥 3
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 2 + 2𝑥
=
(1 − 𝑥 2 )2

28. [(x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3)] 2 + 2𝑥 + 2𝑥 2

=
(1 − 𝑥 2 )2
𝑑 3
= [𝑥 + 6𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 + 6]
𝑑𝑥
𝒙𝟑 −𝟐𝒙
2. 𝒚=
𝒙+𝟐
= [3𝑥 2 + 6(2𝑥) + 11(1) + 0] = 3𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 + 11
𝑑 3 3 𝑑
𝑑𝑦 (𝑥 + 2) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 − 2𝑥) − (𝑥 − 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 + 2)
29. e x
(x − 5) log x 𝑑𝑥
=
(𝑥 + 2)2
𝑑 𝑥 (𝑥 + 2)(3𝑥 2 − 2) − (𝑥 3 − 2𝑥)(1 + 0)
𝑒 (𝑥 − 5) 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 + 2)2
𝑑 𝑑 3𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 4 − 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥
= 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥 − 5) 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 (𝑥 − 5)
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 + 2)2
𝑑
+ (𝑥 − 5) 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 − 4
=
1 (𝑥 + 2)2
= 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥 − 5) + 𝑒 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 (1) + (𝑥 − 5) 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥(𝑒 𝑥 )
𝑥
5 (𝒙+𝟏)(𝒙+𝟐)
= 𝑒 𝑥 (1 − +𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 − 5𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 ) 3. 𝒚=
𝑥 (𝒙+𝟑)

5 𝑑 𝑑
= 𝑒 𝑥 (1 − − 4 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥) 𝑑𝑦 (𝑥 + 3) 𝑑𝑥 ((𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2)) − ((𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2)) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 + 3)
𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 + 3)2

𝑑 𝑑
(𝑥 + 3) ((𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 2) + (𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 + 1)) − (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2)(1)
𝒆𝒙 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒙 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
30. =
𝟏+𝒙𝟐 (𝑥 + 3)2

(𝑥 + 3)((𝑥 + 1)(1) + (𝑥 + 2)(1)) − (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2)

=
(𝑥 + 3)2
𝑑 𝑒𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑥2 (𝑥 + 3)(2𝑥 + 3) − (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2)
=
𝑑 𝑥 𝑑
(𝑥 + 3)2
(1 + 𝑥 2 ) (𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 ) − (𝑒 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 ) (1 + 𝑥 2 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
=
(1 + 𝑥 2 )2 2𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 + 9 − 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2
=
(𝑥 + 3)2
𝑑 𝑑 𝑥
(1 + 𝑥 2 ) (𝑒 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 +𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 𝑒 ) − (𝑒 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 )(0 + 2𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
=
(1 + 𝑥 2 )2 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 7
=
(𝑥 + 3)2
1
(1 + 𝑥 2 ) (𝑒 𝑥 +𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 ) − (𝑒 𝑥 )(𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 )(0 + 2𝑥)
= 𝑥
(1 + 𝑥 2 )2
(𝒙−𝟏)
1 4. 𝒚=
𝑒 𝑥 ( + 𝑥 + (1 + 𝑥 2 ) 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 ) (𝒙+𝟏)
= 𝑥
(1 + 𝑥 2 )2 𝑑 𝑑
𝑑𝑦 (𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 − 1) − (𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 + 1)
=
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 + 1)2
𝒅𝒚
II. Find if
𝒅𝒙

73
 (𝑥 + 1)(1 − 0) − (𝑥 − 1)(1 + 0) 𝑒𝑥
= (𝑒 𝑥 (1 −𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 ) − 2𝑥(1 −𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 )) + ( 𝑥 − 𝑥)
(𝑥 + 1)2 =
(1 −𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 )2
𝑥+1−𝑥+1
=
(𝑥 + 1)2
1
2 𝑒 𝑥 (1 −𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 + ) + 𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥
= = 𝑥
(𝑥 + 3)2 (1 −𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 )2

5. 𝒚 = (𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏)(𝒆𝒙 ) 𝒙𝟓 −𝟒𝒙𝟐 +𝟏

9. 𝒚=
𝒙𝟑 −𝟏
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑 2
= (𝑥 2 + 1) 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) 3 𝑑 5 2 5 2 𝑑 3
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 (𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 1) − (𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 − 1)
=
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 3 − 1)2
= (𝑥 2 + 1)(𝑒 𝑥 ) + 𝑒 𝑥 (2𝑥)
(𝑥 3 − 1)(5𝑥 4 − 8𝑥) − (𝑥 5 − 4𝑥 2 + 1)(3𝑥 2 )
= 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥 2 + 1 + 2𝑥) =
(𝑥 3 − 1)2
= 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥 + 1)2
5𝑥 7 − 5𝑥 4 − 8𝑥 4 + 8𝑥 − 3𝑥 7 + 12𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 2
=
(𝑥 3 − 1)2
(𝒙−𝟏)(𝒙−𝟐) 𝒙𝟐 −𝟑𝒙+𝟐 2𝑥 7 − 𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 4 + 8𝑥
6. 𝒚= = =
(𝒙−𝟑(𝒙−𝟒) 𝒙𝟐 −𝟕𝒙+𝟏𝟐
(𝑥 3 − 1)2
2 𝑑 2 2 𝑑 2
𝑑𝑦 (𝑥 − 7𝑥 + 12) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 2) − (𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 2) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 − 7𝑥 + 12)
= 2 2
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 − 7𝑥 + 12)
(𝒙𝟐 −𝟏)𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒙
(𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 12)(2𝑥 − 3) − (𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2)(2𝑥 − 7) 10. 𝒚 =
= 𝒙𝟐 𝒆𝒙
(𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 12)2
2 𝑥 𝑑 2 2 𝑑 2 𝑥
2𝑥 3 − 14𝑥 2 + 24𝑥 − 3𝑥 2 + 21𝑥 − 36 − 2𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 7𝑥 2 − 21𝑥 + 14 𝑑𝑦 (𝑥 𝑒 ) 𝑑𝑥 ((𝑥 − 1) 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 ) − ((𝑥 − 1) 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 𝑒 )
= =
(𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 12)2 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 )2

1
(𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 ) ((𝑥 2 − 1) +𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 (2𝑥)) − ((𝑥 2 − 1) 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 )(𝑥 2𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 2𝑥)
𝑥
=
−2𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 7𝑥 2 − 21𝑥 + 14 (𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 )2
=
(𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 12)2 1
(𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 ) (𝑥 − ) + 2𝑥 3 𝑒 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 (𝑥 2 − 1)𝑒 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 (2𝑥 3 − 2𝑥)
= 𝑥
−4𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 − 22 (𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 )2
=
(𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 12)2 −𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑒 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 − 𝑥(𝑥 2 − 1)𝑒 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥
=
(𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 )2

7. 𝒚 = (𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏)(𝒆𝒙 ) 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒙

Function of a Function (or Composite
Function)
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑 𝑥
= (𝑥 2 + 1)𝑒 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 + (𝑥 2 + 1) 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 𝑒
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 If a function is made up of more than one function then it
𝑑 2
+ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) is called a composite function. A composite function is
𝑑𝑥 denoted by the symbol, f(g(x)), f (g(h(x))) etc.
1
= (𝑥 2 + 1)𝑒 𝑥 + (𝑥 2 + 1) 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥. 2𝑥 Chain Rule
𝑥
1 To find the derivative of f(g(x)), we use a rule called
= 𝑒 𝑥 [𝑥 − + (𝑥 2 + 1) 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 + 2𝑥.𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 chain rule.
𝑥
𝒆𝒙 −𝒙𝟐 Let
8. 𝒚=
𝟏−𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒙
Y = f (g(x )) , u = g(x)
y f (u) and u g(x)
𝑑 𝑥 2 𝑥 2 𝑑
𝑑𝑦 (1 −𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑒 − 𝑥 ) − (𝑒 − 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 (1 −𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑦
= By differentiating y w.r.t. u, we get and by
𝑑𝑥 (1 −𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 )2 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢
1
differentiating u w.r.t. x we get
𝑑𝑥
(1 −𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 )(𝑒 𝑥 − 2𝑥) − (𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) (0 − )
= 𝑥
(1 −𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 )2 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
∴ = .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥

74
This is called the chain rule. = 𝑒 2𝑥+3 . (2)

Similarly, let 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑔(ℎ(𝑥))) , 𝑢 = 𝑔(ℎ(𝑥)), 𝑣 = ℎ(𝑥) = 2𝑒 2𝑥+3

∴ 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑢), 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑣), 𝑣 = ℎ(𝑥)

𝑑𝑦 4. 𝒍𝒐𝒈( 𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟕)
By differentiating y w.r.t. u, we get , by differentiating u
𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢 Solution:
w.r.t. v, we get and by differentiating v w.r.t. x we
𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑣 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔( 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 7)
get
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑
∴
𝑑𝑦
=
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
. . which is chain rule ∴ = . (2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 7)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 7 𝑑𝑥

General Rules 1
= . (4𝑥 − 5)
2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 7
𝑑 𝑑
1. [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 = 𝑛[𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛−1 . 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

+1 𝟏
5. (𝒙 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒙)𝟓
𝑑 𝑑
2. [𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) ] = 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) . 𝑓(𝑥) Solution:
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 1 𝑑 1
3. [𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑓(𝑥) ] = . 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑒𝑡𝑐.
𝑑𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = (𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥) )5
𝑑𝑦 1 1 𝑑
∴ = (𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥) )5−1 . (𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥)
Worked Examples 𝑑𝑥 5 𝑑𝑥
1 −4 1
= (𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥) ) 5 . (𝑥 +𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥. 1)
Differentiate the following functions w.r.t. x: 5 𝑥
1 −4
1. √𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏 = (𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥) ) 5 . (1 +𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥)
5
Solution:

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = √𝑥 2 + 1 6. (𝒙𝟐 𝒆𝒙 )−𝟐

𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑 Solution:
∴ = . (𝑥 2 + 1)
𝑑𝑥 2√𝑥 2 + 1 𝑑𝑥
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = (𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 )−2
1
= .2𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑
2√𝑥 2 + 1 ∴ = −2(𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 )−2−1 . (𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
= = −2(𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 )−3 . (𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 2𝑥)
√𝑥 2 +1
= −2𝑥 −6 𝑒 −3𝑥 . 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥)

2. (𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄)𝟓 = −2𝑒 −2𝑥 (𝑥 −4 + 2𝑥 −5 )

Solution: 𝒙𝟐 +𝟏
7. √
𝒙𝟐 −𝟏
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)5
𝑑𝑦 𝑑
∴ = 5(𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)5−1 . (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 Solution:
= 5(𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)4 . (2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)
𝑥2 + 1
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = √ 2
𝑥 −1
3. 𝒆𝟐𝒙+𝟑 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑 𝑥2 + 1
∴ = .
( 2 )
Solution: 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 2 + 1 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 − 1
√
2 2
𝑥 −1
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑥+3
𝑑 2 𝑑
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 1 𝑥2 − 1 [𝑥 + 1] − 𝑥 2 + 1 [𝑥 2 − 1]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∴ = 𝑒 2𝑥+3 . (2𝑥 + 3) = .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥2 + 1 [𝑥 2 − 1]2
2√ 2
𝑥 −1

75
 −2
1 𝑥 2 − 1(2𝑥) − 𝑥 2 + 1(2𝑥)
= . = 3(2 + 3𝑥) 3 . 3
𝑥2 + 1 [𝑥 2 − 1]2
2√ 2 1
𝑥 −1 = 3
√(2 + 3𝑥)2

√𝑥 2 − 1(−4𝑥)
= Implicit Functions
2√𝑥 2 + 1√𝑥 2 − 1√𝑥 2 − 1(𝑥 2 − 1)
(−2𝑥) If a function is in the form 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) the the function is
=
√𝑥 2 + 1√𝑥 2 − 1(𝑥 2 − 1) said to be in the explicit form. Instead of this, if the
variables x and y are related by means of an equation,
(−2𝑥)
= then the function is said to be in the implicit form. In
√(𝑥 2 + 1)(𝑥 2 − 1)(𝑥 2 − 1) general, an implicit function is given by
(−2𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑐 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
=
√(𝑥 4 − 1)(𝑥 2 − 1)
𝑥 2 𝑦2
𝑒. 𝑔. , 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 , +
𝑎2 𝑏2
𝟐+𝟑𝒙
8. 𝒍𝒐𝒈 ( )
𝟐−𝟑𝒙

Solution: To find the Derivative of the Implicit Function f (x, y)

=c
2 + 3𝑥
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( ) Differentiate f(x, y) = c using the rules of differentiation.
2 − 3𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Collect all the terms containing on the left-hand side
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑 2 + 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∴ = . ( ) and the remaining terms on the right-hand side. Take
𝑑𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 − 3𝑥
2 − 3𝑥 𝑑𝑦
the common factor on the left-hand side. Divide both
𝑑𝑥
1 (2 − 3𝑥)(3) − (2 + 3𝑥)(−3) 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
= . sides by the coefficient of to get .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 + 3𝑥 [2 − 3𝑥]2
2 − 3𝑥
2 − 3𝑥 12 Worked Examples
= .
2 + 3𝑥 [2 − 3𝑥]2
12 Find
𝒅𝒚
, 𝒊𝒇
= 𝒅𝒙
(2 + 3𝑥)(2 − 3𝑥)
1. 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟒𝒂𝒙
12
=
4 − 9𝑥 2

Solution:
9. 𝒍𝒐𝒈(𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒙) Differentiate both side w.r.t. x
Solution: 𝑑𝑦
2𝑦 = 4𝑎(1)
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 4𝑎 𝑑𝑦 2𝑎
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑 ∴ = 𝑖. 𝑒. , =
∴ = . (𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 2𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 1 1
= . =
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 2. 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟐𝒙𝒚

Solution:
𝟑
10. √𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙 Differentiate both side w.r.t. x
Solution: 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 2(𝑥 + 𝑦)
3 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = √2 + 3𝑥
𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 2 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 , 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡
1
𝑦 = (2 + 3𝑥)3 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑥+𝑦 = (𝑥 + 𝑦)
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∴ = 3(2 + 3𝑥)3−1 . (2 + 3𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

76
 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
≫𝑦 −𝑥 =𝑦−𝑥 𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑒 𝑥+𝑦 (1 + ) = 𝑒𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑒𝑥 1
≫ (𝑦 − 𝑥) =𝑦−𝑥 (1 + ) = 𝑥+𝑦 = 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑒 𝑒
𝑑𝑦 𝑦−𝑥 𝑑𝑦 (1 − 𝑒 𝑦 )
≫ = ≫ =
𝑑𝑥 (𝑦 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝑒𝑦
𝑑𝑦
≫ =1
𝑑𝑥 2 2 2
6. 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 = 𝑎3

Solution:
3. 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐
Differentiate both side w.r.t. x
Solution:
2 2−1 2 2−1 𝑑𝑦
Differentiate both side w.r.t. x 𝑥 3 + 𝑦3 = 0
3 3 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 Dividing throughout by 2/3, we get
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑥
1 1 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑥 −3 + 𝑦 −3 = 0
≫ 2𝑦 = −2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
1 1
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 −2𝑥 𝑦−13∴ 𝑦 −3 = −𝑥 −3
𝑑𝑥
≫ =
𝑑𝑥 2𝑦 1 1
𝑑𝑦 −𝑥 −3 𝑦 3
𝑑𝑦 −𝑥 = 1 = ( )
≫ = 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑦 𝑦 −3

Summary
4. 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟒𝒚 + 𝟔 = 𝟎

Solution: If x is a real variable, any expression in x is called a

Differentiate both side w.r.t. x function of x. A function is denoted by y = f (x), Where x
is independent variable and y is dependent variable.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 +2−4 =0 The functional value of f (x) at x = a is given by f (a).
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 2 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 , 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 If f (x) gets arbitrarily close to b (a finite number) for x
sufficiently close to a, we say that f (x) approaches the
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑥+𝑦 +1−2 =0 limit b as x approaches a, and write𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)
≫ (𝑦 − 2) = −𝑥 − 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑑𝑦 (𝑥 + 1) A function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be differentiable at a point
≫ =−
𝑑𝑥 𝑦−2 𝑥 = 𝑎 in its domain
𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠.
5. 𝑒 𝑥+𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 ℎ
Derivative of a constant is zero
Solution:
𝑑𝑦
Differentiate both side w.r.t. x 𝑖𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = 𝑒𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
𝑒 𝑥+𝑦 (𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎
𝑑𝑥

77
Unit 10
Parametric Function and Application of
Derivatives
Learning Objectives Taking logarithms, we get

𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎

At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
Differentiate w.r.t x
• Discuss logarithmic differentiation 1 𝑑𝑦
• Describe concept of parametric functions . =𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎 . 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
𝑦 𝑑𝑥
• Explain successive differentiation
• Know increasing and decreasing functions 𝑑𝑦
= 𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎 . 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = [𝑎]𝑓(𝑥) [𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎 . 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)]
• Discuss maxima and minima 𝑑𝑥

Introduction Worked Examples

I. Differentiate the following w.r.t x:

In this unit, we will discuss Logarithmic Differentiation.
i. 𝒙𝒙
We will also focus on parametric functions. Further we
will discuss the concept of parametric Equation. We will Solution:
also focus on successive differentiation, Increasing and
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑥
Decreasing Functions and Maxima and Minima
concepts. We will consider many worked out examples Taking logs, we get
to make the concept clearer.
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥

Differentiate w.r.t. x
Logarithmic Differentiation
1 𝑑𝑦 1
= 𝑥. + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 .1
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
To differentiate a function of the form [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑔(𝑥)
𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) ,
we use a method called Logarithmic Differentiation. 𝑑𝑦
= 𝑦(1 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
To find the derivative of the functions
[𝑓(𝑥)]𝑔(𝑥) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) , 𝑑𝑦
= 𝑥 𝑥 (1 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
Let 𝑦 = [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑔(𝑥)

Taking logarithms, we get

ii. 𝒙𝒙 𝒙
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 [𝑓(𝑥)]
Solution:
Differentiate w.r.t x
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
1 𝑑𝑦 1
. = 𝑔(𝑥). . 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) +𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 [𝑓(𝑥)]. 𝑔′(𝑥)
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) Taking logs, we get
𝑑𝑦 𝑔(𝑥) ′ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥
∴ = 𝑦[ . 𝑓 (𝑥) + 𝑔′ (𝑥).𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑓(𝑥) ) ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)
Taking logs again, we get
𝑑𝑦 𝑔(𝑥) ′
𝑖. 𝑒. , = [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑔(𝑥) [ . 𝑓 (𝑥) + 𝑔′ (𝑥).𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑓(𝑥) ) ] 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦) = 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑦 Differentiate w.r.t. x
This method of finding is called Logarithmic
𝑑𝑥
1 1 𝑑𝑦 1 1 1
differentiation. = 𝑥. + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 .1 +
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 𝑥
Let 𝑦 = [𝑎]𝑓(𝑥)

78
 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦 1 − 𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 𝑦
= 𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦 [1 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 + ] =( )=
𝑑𝑥 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑦 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦 𝑦2
= 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦 [1 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 + ] =( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥(1 − 𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥)

iii. (𝒙𝒙 )𝒙 𝒅𝒚
II. Find , 𝒊𝒇
𝒅𝒙
Solution: 𝒚 𝒙
i. 𝒆 =𝒚
𝑥2
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑥 Solution:

Taking logs, we get 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑦 𝑥

𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 Taking logs, we get

Differentiate w.r.t. x 𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑒 = 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦

1 𝑑𝑦 1 Differentiate w.r.t. x
= 𝑥 2 . + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 .2𝑥
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦
= 𝑥. + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦 .1
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑦(𝑥 + 2𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 − = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦
= (𝑥 𝑥 )𝑥 (𝑥 + 2𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑥
(1 − ) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑦

iv. 𝟑𝒙 𝑑𝑦 𝑦 − 𝑥
( ) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑦
Solution:
𝑑𝑦 𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = 3 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑦 − 𝑥
Taking logs, we get

𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 3
ii. 𝒂𝒙+𝒚 . 𝒚𝒙
Differentiate w.r.t. x
Solution:
1 𝑑𝑦
= (𝑙𝑜𝑔3). 1 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = . 𝑎 𝑥+𝑦 . 𝑦 𝑥
𝑦 𝑑𝑥
Taking logs, we get
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑦(𝑙𝑜𝑔)
𝑑𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎 + 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦
𝑑𝑦 Differentiate w.r.t. x
= 3 𝑥 (𝑙𝑜𝑔3)
𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥. (1 + ) + 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦 .1
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
..𝒕𝒐 ∞ 1 𝑥 𝑑𝑦
v. 𝒙𝒙 𝒙 ( − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 − ) . = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦
𝑦 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
Solution: 𝑑𝑦 𝑦(𝑜𝑔𝑎 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦)
.=
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 (1 − 𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 − 𝑥)

Taking logs, we get

𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦 = 𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 iii. 𝒙𝒚 = 𝒚𝒙

Differentiate w.r.t. x Solution:
1 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑦 𝑥
= 𝑦. + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 .
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Taking logs, we get
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑦
= ( − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥) = 𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑦 𝑥
Differentiate w.r.t. x

79
 1 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦 −1
𝑦 ( ) + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 = 𝑥. + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦 .1 𝑑𝑦 3
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 1
= 𝑑𝑡 = 2𝑡 = −
2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑡
𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑦
(𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 − ) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 − 𝑑𝑡 2√𝑡
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 − 𝑦
( ) =
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 3. 𝒙 = 𝟐𝒆𝒕 , 𝒚 = 𝟑𝒆−𝒕

𝑑𝑦 𝑦(𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 − 𝑦) Differentiating both the equations w.r.t t, we get

=
𝑑𝑥 𝑥(𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑒 𝑡 , = 3𝑒 −𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Concept of Parametric Functions 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 −3𝑒 −𝑡 −3
= 𝑑𝑡 = = 2𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2𝑒 2𝑡 2𝑒
If the variables 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 are given in terms of a new 𝑑𝑡
𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 the function is said to be in the
parametric form 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ‘𝑡’ 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 the parameter.
4. 𝒙 = 𝒆𝒕 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒕 , 𝒚 = 𝒆−𝒕 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒕
In general, the parametric function is given by
Differentiating both the equations w.r.t t, we get
𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡), 𝑦
= 𝑔(𝑡) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓(𝑡)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑡) 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡. 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑡 1 + log 𝑡. 𝑒 𝑡 , = 𝑒 𝑡 (1 + log 𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡) are called the parametric equations
𝑑𝑦 1 1
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑡 + log 𝑡(− 𝑒 −𝑡 ), = 𝑒 −𝑡 ( − log 𝑡)
To find when the parametric Equations are given 𝑑𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1
Let 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡) be the parametric equations 𝑑𝑦 𝑒 −𝑡 ( − log 𝑡) (1 − tlog 𝑡)
= 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡 = 2𝑡
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑒 (1 + tlog 𝑡)
Differentiate 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑒𝑡 ( + log 𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑡
𝑑𝑦
Differentiate 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡) 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑒𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝟑𝒂𝒕 𝟑𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝑑𝑦 5. 𝒙= , 𝒚=
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝟏+𝒕𝟑 𝟏+𝒕𝟑
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡 Differentiating both the equations w.r.t t, we get
This method of differentiation is called parametric 𝑑𝑥 (1 + 𝑡 3 )3𝑎 − 3𝑎𝑡(3𝑡 2 ) 3𝑎(1 + 𝑡 3 )
Differentiation. = =
𝑑𝑡 (1 + 𝑡 3 )2 (1 + 𝑡 3 )2
3𝑎(1 − 2𝑡 3 )
= ,
Worked Examples (1 + 𝑡 3 )2

𝑑𝑦 (1 + 𝑡 3 )6𝑎𝑡 − 3𝑎𝑡 2 (3𝑡 2 ) 3𝑎𝑡(2 − 𝑡 3 )

= = ,
Find,
𝒅𝒚
𝒊𝒇 𝑑𝑡 (1 + 𝑡 3 )2 (1 + 𝑡 3 )2
𝒅𝒙
𝑑𝑦
1. 𝒙 = 𝒂𝒕𝟐 , 𝒚 = 𝟐𝒂𝒕 𝑑𝑦 3𝑎𝑡(2 − 𝑡 3 ) 𝑡(2 − 𝑡 3 )
= 𝑑𝑡 = =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 3𝑎(1 − 2𝑡 3 ) (1 − 2𝑡 3 )
Differentiating both the equations w.r.t t, we get 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑎𝑡, = 2𝑎
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
6. 𝒙 = 𝑳𝒐𝒈(𝒕 + √𝒕𝟐 + 𝟏 ) 𝒚 = √𝒕𝟐 + 𝟏
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 2𝑎
= 𝑑𝑡 = = 1𝑡 Differentiating both the equations w.r.t t, we get
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2𝑎𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 1 √𝑡 2 + 1 + 𝑡 1
= . =
𝑑𝑡 𝑡 + √𝑡 2 + 1 2
√𝑡 + 1 2
√𝑡 + 1

2. 𝒙 = √𝒕, 𝒚 =
𝟏 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑡
√𝒕 = . (2𝑡) = ,
𝑑𝑡 2√𝑡 2 + 1 √𝑡 2 + 1
Differentiating both the equations w.r.t t, we get 𝑡
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑦 −1 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 √𝑡 2+1
= , = 3 = = =𝑡
𝑑𝑡 2√𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 1
2𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 √𝑡 2 + 1

80
Successive Differentiation
2. 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄
If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is a differentiable function then by
Solution:
differentiating it w.r.t. x we get
Let 𝒚 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
∴ = −2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 + 0
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝐼𝑓 = 𝑓′(𝑥) is a differentiable function then by
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2 𝑦
differentiating it w.r.t. x we get ∴ = 2𝑎 + 0 = 2𝑎
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2 𝑦
= 𝑓′′(𝑥) 𝑑3 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2 ∴ =0
𝑑𝑥 3
Similarly, by differentiating it w.r.t x we get
𝑑4 𝑦
∴ =0
𝑑3 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 4
= 𝑓′′′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 3
Again, by differentiating it w.r.t. x, we get 𝒂𝒙+𝒃
3.
𝑑4𝑦 𝒄𝒙+𝒅
= 𝑓 𝐼𝑉 (𝑥) and so on.
𝑑𝑥 4
Solution:
This process of finding higher ordered derivatives is
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
called successive differentiation. 𝑦=
𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
is called first derivative 𝑑𝑦 (𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑)𝑎 − (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑥 + 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑎𝑐𝑥 − 𝑏𝑐
∴ = =
𝑑2𝑦
𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 ,
𝑑3𝑦 𝑑𝑥 (𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑)2 (𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑)2
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 3 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐
=
𝑑 4𝑦 (𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑)2
is called the third derivatives and is called fourth
𝑑𝑥 4
derivative and so on. 𝑑2 𝑦 (𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏𝑐)(−2𝑐) 2𝑐(𝑏𝑐 − 𝑎𝑑)
∴ = =
𝑑𝑛𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2 (𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑)3 (𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑)2
In general, is called the nth derivative, which is
𝑑𝑥 𝑛
𝑑 𝑛−1𝑦
𝑑3 𝑦 −6𝑐 2 (𝑏𝑐 − 𝑎𝑑)
obtained by differentiating 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 𝑥. ∴ =
𝑑𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥 3 (𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑)4
The nth derivative of y=f(x) is denoted by the symbols 𝑑4 𝑦 24𝑐 3 (𝑏𝑐 − 𝑎𝑑)
𝑑𝑛𝑦 𝑑𝑛 ∴ =
𝑦𝑛 . 𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑥), 𝑛 , 𝑛 [𝑓(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥 4 (𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑)5
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Worked Examples 4. 𝒙𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒙

Solution:
I. Find the second, third, fourth derivatives of the
following functions: 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥
𝟏
1. 𝒙𝟒 − 𝟓𝒙𝟑 + 𝟕𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙 + 𝑑𝑦 1
𝒙 ∴ = 𝑥. + log 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
Solution:
𝑑2 𝑦 1 1
1 ∴ =0+ =
Let 𝑦 = 𝑥4 − 5𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥 𝑥
𝑥
𝑑3 𝑦 1
𝑑𝑦 1 ∴ =− 2
∴ = 4𝑥3 − 15𝑥2 + 14𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 2 𝑑𝑥 3 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑4 𝑦 2
2 ∴ =
𝑑 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 4 𝑥 3
∴ = 12𝑥2 − 30𝑥 + 14 +
𝑑𝑥2 𝑥3 5. 𝒙𝒆𝒙

𝑑3 𝑦 6 Solution:
∴ = 24𝑥 − 30 −
𝑑𝑥3 𝑥4 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥

𝑑4 𝑦 24 𝑑𝑦
∴ = 24 + ∴ = 𝑥. 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 . 1
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥4 𝑥5

81
 𝑑2 𝑦 2𝑏(𝑏 2 − 𝑎2 )
∴ = (𝑥 + 1)𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 . 1 = (𝑥 + 2)𝑒 𝑥 = 2(𝑏 2 − 𝑎2 )(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑎)−3 (𝑏) =
𝑑𝑥 2 (𝑏𝑥 + 𝑎)3
𝑑4 𝑦
∴ = (𝑥 + 3)𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 . 1 = (𝑥 + 4)𝑒 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 4
𝒅𝟐 𝒚
8. 3. Find 𝒊𝒇 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙
𝒅𝒙𝟐

𝒅𝟐 𝒚 Solution:
6. 𝑰𝒇 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙𝒚 + 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟎 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 = 𝟎.
𝒅𝒙𝟐
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥
Solution:
𝑑𝑦
𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = 0 ∴ = 𝑎 𝑥 log 𝑎
𝑑𝑥
Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get 𝑑2 𝑦
= 𝑎 𝑥 (log 𝑎)2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 2
2𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝒎
(𝑥 + 2𝑦) = −(2𝑥 + 𝑦) 9. 4. If 𝒚 = (𝒙 + √𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏) , 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 (𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏)𝒚𝟐 +
𝑑𝑥
𝒙𝒚𝟏 − 𝒎𝟐 𝒚 = 𝟎
𝑑𝑦 −(2𝑥 + 𝑦)
∴ =
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 + 2𝑦)
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 Solution:
𝑑2 𝑦 (𝑥 + 2𝑦) (2 + ) − (2𝑥 + 𝑦)(1 + 2 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑚
∴ 2=[ ] 𝑦 = (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1)
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 + 2𝑦)2
𝑚−1 𝑑
∴ 𝑦1 = 𝑚 (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1) (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1)
(2𝑥 + 𝑦) (2𝑥 + 𝑦) 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 + 2𝑦) (2 − ) − (2𝑥 + 𝑦) [1 − 2 ]
(𝑥 + 2𝑦) (𝑥 + 2𝑦)
=[ ] 𝑚−1 1
(𝑥 + 2𝑦)2 = 𝑚 (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1) [1 + (2𝑥)]
2√𝑥 2 + 1

(𝑥 + 2𝑦)3𝑦 − (2𝑥 + 𝑦)(−3𝑥) 𝑚−1 (√𝑥 2 + 1 + 𝑥)

=[ ] = 𝑚 (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1) [ ]
(𝑥 + 2𝑦)3 √𝑥 2 + 1
𝑚
3𝑥𝑦 + 6𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑦 𝑚(𝑥+√𝑥 2 +1)
= −[ ] i.e., 𝑦1 =
√𝑥 2 +1
(𝑥 + 2𝑦)3

6𝑥 2 + 6𝑦 2 + 6𝑥𝑦 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑥𝑦 ∴ √𝑥 2 + 1 𝑦1 = 𝑚𝑦
= −[ ] = −6 [ ]
(𝑥 + 2𝑦)3 (𝑥 + 2𝑦)3 Differentiating again w.r.t. x we get
0
= −6 [ ]=0 1
(𝑥 + 2𝑦)3 √𝑥 2 + 1 𝑦2 + 𝑦1 (2𝑥) = 𝑚𝑦1
2√𝑥 2 + 1
𝑑2 𝑦
∴ =0 Multiplying throughout by √𝑥 2 + 1, 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡
𝑑𝑥 2
(𝑥 2 + 1)𝑦2 + 𝑥𝑦1 = 𝑚𝑦1 √𝑥 2 + 1
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒂𝒙+𝒃 ∴ (𝑥 2 + 1)𝑦2 + 𝑥𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑚𝑦)(𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 (1))
7. 2. Find 𝒊𝒇 𝒚 =
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒃𝒙+𝒂
(𝑥 2 + 1)𝑦2 + 𝑥𝑦1 = 𝑚2 𝑦
Solution:
𝑎𝑥+𝑏 (𝑥 2 + 1)𝑦2 + 𝑥𝑦1 − 𝑚2 𝑦 = 0
𝑦=
𝑏𝑥+𝑎
Aliter: Squaring equation (1)
𝑑𝑦 (𝑏𝑥 + 𝑎)𝑎 − (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑏
∴ = We get (𝑥 2 + 1)𝑦1 2 = 𝑚2 𝑦 2
𝑑𝑥 (𝑏𝑥 + 𝑎)2
Differentiating w.r.t . x,
𝑎𝑏𝑥 + 𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏𝑥 − 𝑏 2
=
(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑎)2 (𝑥 2 + 1)2𝑦1 𝑦2 + (2𝑥)𝑦1 2 = 𝑚2 2𝑦𝑦1 (𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 2𝑦1 )
𝑎2 − 𝑏2 (𝑥 2 + 1)𝑦2 + 𝑥𝑦1 = 𝑚2 𝑦
=
(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑎)2
(𝑥 2 + 1)𝑦2 + 𝑥𝑦1 − 𝑚2 𝑦 = 0
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑
∴ 2 == (𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 )(−2)(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑎)−2−1 (𝑏𝑥 + 𝑎)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

82
10. 𝑰𝒇 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝒏+𝟏 + 𝒃𝒙−𝒏 , 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒏(𝒏 + Differentiate 𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡. 𝑥
𝟏)𝒚 = 𝟎
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑦 =0
Solution: 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛+1 + 𝑏𝑥 −𝑛 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2𝑥 + 𝑦
∴ (𝑥 + 2𝑦) = −(2𝑥 + 𝑦), ∴ = −[ ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 + 2𝑦
∴ 𝑦1 = (𝑛 + 1)𝑎𝑥 𝑛+1−1 + 𝑏(−𝑛)𝑥 −𝑛−1
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑑2 𝑦 (𝑥 + 2𝑦) (2 + ) − (2𝑥 + 𝑦) (1 + 2 )
= (𝑛 + 1)𝑎𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑏𝑛𝑥 −𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= −[ ]
𝑑𝑥 2 (𝑥 + 2𝑦)2
𝑦2 = (𝑛 + 1)𝑛𝑎𝑥 𝑛−1 − 𝑏𝑛(−𝑛 − 1)𝑥 −𝑛−1−1

𝑦2 = (𝑛 + 1)𝑛𝑎𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑏𝑛(𝑛 + 1)𝑥 −𝑛−2 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦

2𝑥 + 4𝑦 + (𝑥 + 2𝑦) − 2𝑥 − 𝑦 − (4𝑥 + 2𝑦)
= −[ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ]
𝑥 2 𝑦2 = (𝑛 + 1)𝑛𝑎𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑛(𝑛 + 1)𝑥 −𝑛−2 𝑥 2 (𝑥 + 2𝑦)2
𝑥 2 𝑦2 = (𝑛 + 1)𝑛𝑎𝑥 𝑛+1 + 𝑏𝑛(𝑛 + 1)𝑥 −𝑛
𝑑𝑦
3𝑦 + (𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 4𝑥 − 2𝑦)
= 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)[𝑎𝑥 𝑛+1 + 𝑏𝑥 −𝑛 ] = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)𝑦 = −[ 𝑑𝑥 ]
(𝑥 + 2𝑦)2
∴ 𝑥 2 𝑦2 − 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)𝑦 = 0
2𝑥 + 𝑦
3𝑦 + 3𝑥 ( )
𝑥 + 2𝑦
= −[ ]
II. Find
𝒅𝟐 𝒚
, if (𝑥 + 2𝑦)2
𝒅𝒙𝟐

𝑦(𝑥 + 2𝑦) + 𝑥(2𝑥 + 𝑦)

1. 𝒙 = 𝒂𝒕𝟐 , 𝟐𝒚 = 𝟐𝒂𝒕 = −3 [ ]
(𝑥 + 2𝑦)3
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑎𝑡 = 2𝑎 𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = −3 [ ]
(𝑥 + 2𝑦)3
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 2𝑎 1
= 𝑑𝑡 = = 2𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = −[ ]
𝑑𝑡 (𝑥 + 2𝑦)3

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑 1 𝑑 1 𝑑𝑡 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦
= ( )= ( ) = −3(2) [ ]
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑡 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 + 2𝑦)3
1 1 𝑑𝑥 −6𝑎2
=− . (𝐵𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 = 2𝑎𝑡) =[ ]
𝑡 2 2𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑡 (𝑥 + 2𝑦)3
1
=−
2𝑎𝑡 3
2. 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒂𝟓
𝒄 Solution:
2. 𝒙 = 𝒄𝒕, 𝒚 =
𝒕
Differentiate 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 = 𝑎5 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡. 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑐 𝑑𝑦
=− 2 =𝑐
𝑑𝑡 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦
𝑥 3 2𝑦 + 𝑦 2 3𝑥 2 = 0
𝑑𝑦 𝑐 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 − 2 1
= 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡 = − 2 ∴
𝑑𝑦
=
−3𝑦 2 𝑥 2 −3𝑦
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑐 𝑡 𝑑𝑥 2𝑥 3 𝑦 2𝑥
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑 1 𝑑 1 𝑑𝑡 𝑑2 𝑦 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑦 −3 −3𝑦
= (− 2 ) = (− 2 ) =− [ ] = 2 [𝑥 ( ) − 𝑦]
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 2 (𝑥)2 2𝑥 2𝑥
2 1
= . −3 −3 −3 −5 15𝑦
𝑡3 𝑐 = [ 𝑦 − 𝑦] = 2 [ 𝑦] = 2
2𝑥 2 2 2𝑥 2 𝑥
2
=
𝑐𝑡 3
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
III. Find , 𝒊𝒇 3. + =𝟏
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐

1. 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙𝒚 + 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 Solution:
Solution: 𝑥 2 𝑦2
+ =1
𝑎2 𝑏2

83
Differentiating w.r.t. x we get Condition for a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) to be decreasing
2𝑥 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 is that 𝑓 ′(𝑥) < 0∀𝑥 in the interval 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏.
+ =0
𝑎 2 𝑏 2 𝑑𝑥 Condition for a point on 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) to be critical is
𝑑𝑦 𝑏 𝑥 2 that 𝑓 ′(𝑥) = 0 at that point.
=− 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑎 𝑦
𝑑𝑦 Worked Examples
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑏 2 𝑦 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= − [ ]
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑎2 𝑦2
I. Find whether the following functions are
𝑏2𝑥 increasing or decreasing or neither decreasing
𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑥 𝑎2𝑦 nor increasing.
=−
𝑎2 𝑦2
[ ] 1. 𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟕 at 𝒙 = 𝟐
𝒙𝟐 +𝟐𝒙−𝟏
𝑏4 𝑎2𝑦 2 + 𝑏2 𝑥 2 2. at 𝒙 = 𝟎
𝒙−𝟓
=− 2 2[ ] 3. 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟔𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏 at any point.
𝑎 𝑦 𝑎2𝑏2 𝑦
4. 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟒𝒙𝟐 + 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟏 at 𝒙 = 𝟏
𝑏2 𝑎2𝑦 2 + 𝑏2 𝑥 2 5. 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟓
=− [ ]
𝑎2𝑦 2 𝑎2𝑦
Solution:
𝑏4 𝑥 2 𝑦2
= − 2 3 [ 2 + 2] 1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 7
𝑎 𝑦 𝑎 𝑏

𝑏4 𝑏4 ∴ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 4𝑥 + 3
= − 2 3 [1] = − 2 3
𝑎 𝑦 𝑎 𝑦 ∴ 𝑓 ′ (2) = 4(2) + 3 = 8 + 3 = 11 > 0

∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 7 is increasing at 𝑥 = 2
Increasing and Decreasing Functions 𝑥 2 +2𝑥−1
2. 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−5

We will discuss Increasing and Decreasing Using quotient rule,

functions. Further, we will discuss Maxima and
Minima. We will also focus on related application (𝑥 − 5)(2𝑥 + 2) − (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1)(1)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
problems. We will consider many worked out (𝑥 − 5)2
examples to make the concept clearer. 2𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 − 10 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1
=
A function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be increasing in an (𝑥 − 5)2
interval 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏 if the value of 𝑦 increases as 𝑥 𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 − 9
increases. =
(𝑥 − 5)2
∴Whenever 𝑥2 > 𝑥1 , 𝑓(𝑥2 ) > 𝑓(𝑥1 ) 0+0−9 −9 −9
∴ 𝑓 ′ (0) = = = <0
Definition: (0 − 5)2 (−5)2 25
𝑥 2 +2𝑥−1
A function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be decreasing in an ∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = is decreasing at 𝑥 = 0.
𝑥−5
interval 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏 if the value of 𝑦 decreases as 𝑥
increases. 3. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 − 1

∴Whenever 𝑥2 > 𝑥1 , 𝑓(𝑥2 ) < 𝑓(𝑥1 ) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 + 12

A function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be neither increasing = 3(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4)

nor decreasing if 𝑓(𝑥2 ) = 𝑓(𝑥1 ), whenever 𝑥2 > 𝑥1 .
𝑓 ′(𝑥) = 3(𝑥 − 2)2
Critical Points
Since (𝑥 − 2)2 > 0 and 3 > 0
A point on a curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be a critical
𝑑𝑦 3(𝑥 − 2)2 > 0 for all 𝑥.
point if the slope of the curve is 0 or ∞ i.e., =
𝑑𝑥
∴ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0 for all 𝑥.
0 or ∞ at that point.

Condition for Increasing and Decreasing Functions ∴ 𝑓(𝑥) is increasing at all points.

Condition for a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) to be increasing is 4. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 1

that 𝑓 ′(𝑥) > 0∀𝑥 in the interval 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏. 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 5

84
 ∴ 𝑓 ′ (1) = 3(1) − 8(1) + 5

=8−8=0

∴ 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 1 is neither increasing nor

decreasing at 𝑥 = 1.

5. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 6 = 2(𝑥 − 3)

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0  𝑥 − 3 > 0  𝑥 > 3

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) < 0  𝑥 − 3 < 0  𝑥 < 3 Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) be the equation of a curve. Draw the
graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and consider the portion of the
∴ 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5 is increasing ∀𝑥 > 3 and decreasing curve between the points 𝑥 = 𝑎 − 𝛿 and 𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝛿.
∀𝑥 < 3. In between these two points, if there is a point
whose ordinate is maximum, this maximum
ordinate is called a maximum of the function. This
II. Find the critical points of the following
is shown in figure below.
functions:
1. 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 7 Similarly, if there is a point whose ordinate is
minimum, this minimum ordinate is called a
2. 2𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 + 6
minimum of the given function. This is shown in
3. 𝑦 = 𝑒𝑥 figure below.
Solution:

1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 7

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 5

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 02𝑥 − 5 = 0
5
𝑥=
2
5
∴𝑥=
2
5
∴ is the critical point.
2

2. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 + 6

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 6𝑥 2 − 18𝑥 + 12

= 6(𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2)

= 6(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)

∴ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 6(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2) = 0

 𝑥 = 1, 𝑥 = 2

3. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥
In between two points there may be more than one
∴ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0  𝑒 𝑥 = 0 maxima or more than one minima. This is shown in
figure below.
But 𝑒 𝑥 can never be 0 for any value of 𝑥.
Increasing and Decreasing Functions
∴ 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 has no critical point.
A function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be increasing at a
point 𝑥 = 𝑎 if
Maxima and Minima
𝑑𝑦
| > 0.
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑎
A function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be decreasing at a
point 𝑥 = 𝑎 if

85
𝑑𝑦 Worked Examples
| < 0.
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑎
𝑑𝑦
If | = 0 then the function is neither increasing 1. Find the maximum and minimum values of
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑎
nor decreasing at 𝑥 = 𝑎. the following functions:

Maximum and Minimum of a Function 1. 𝟐𝒙𝟑 − 𝟐𝟏𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑𝟔𝒙 − 𝟐𝟎

2. 𝒙𝟒 − 𝟖𝒙𝟑 + 𝟐𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝟒𝒙 + 𝟓
A function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is said to have a maximum at 𝒙𝟐 −𝟕𝒙+𝟔
𝑥 = 𝑎 if there is an open interval (𝑎 − 𝛿, 𝑎 + 𝛿) 3.
𝒙−𝟏𝟎
such that 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑓(𝑎) for all 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎 − 𝛿, 𝑎 + 𝛿) and
Solution:
𝑓(𝑎) is the maximum value of the given function.
1. 𝑦=2𝑥 3 − 21𝑥 2 + 36𝑥 − 20
A function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is said to have a minimum at
𝑥 = 𝑎 if there is an open interval (𝑎 − 𝛿, 𝑎 + 𝛿) such 𝑑𝑦
∴ = 6𝑥 2 − 42𝑥 + 36
that 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑓(𝑎) for all 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎 − 𝛿, 𝑎 + 𝛿) and 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑑𝑥
is the minimum value of the given function. Maxima 𝑑𝑦
and minima of 𝑓(𝑎) are called extreme values or ∴ = 0  6𝑥 2 − 42𝑥 + 36 = 0
𝑑𝑥
extrema.
 𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 6 = 0
Necessary Condition for a Function to Attain
i.e., (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 6) = 0 ∴ 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = 6
Extreme Values
𝑑2 𝑦
Theorem: A necessary condition for a function 𝑓(𝑥) to = 12𝑥 − 42
have extreme values at 𝑥 = 𝑎 is that 𝑓′(𝑎) = 0. 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2 𝑦
Proof: Let 𝑓(𝑥) have a maximum at 𝑥 = 𝑎. [ ] = 12 − 42 = −30 < 0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥=1
∴ as we move towards the maximum point on the
𝑑𝑦 ∴ 𝑦 has a maximum at 𝑥 = 1 and
curve, the curve is increasing and hence > 0 and
𝑑𝑥
from the maximum point the curve starts the maximum value
𝑑𝑦
decreasing and hence < 0. = 2(1)3 − 21(12 ) + 36(1) − 20 = −3
𝑑𝑥

Hence as we cross the maximum point the value of 𝑑2 𝑦

𝑑𝑦 [ ] = 12(6) − 42 = 72 − 42
changes sign from positive to negative. 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥=6
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 = 30 > 0
∴ at the maximum point, = 0.
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
∴ 𝑦 has a maximum at 𝑥 = 6 and
Similarly, at the minimum point, − 0.
𝑑𝑥
the minimum value
𝑑𝑦
Hence for extreme values, = 0. = 2(63 ) − 21(62 ) + 36(6) − 20 = −128
𝑑𝑥

Working method for finding maxima or minima:

Second derivative test:
2. Let 𝒚=𝒙𝟒 − 𝟖𝒙𝟑 + 𝟐𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝟒𝒙 + 𝟓
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Step (1): Find and solve the equation = 0. Let 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 = 𝑎, 𝑥 = 𝑏 etc., be the values of 𝑥. ∴ = 4𝑥 3 − 24𝑥 2 + 44𝑥 − 24
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Step(2): Find , if | is negative, then 𝑦 has = 0𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 − 6 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥=𝑎
𝑑2 𝑦
𝑑𝑥
a maximum at 𝑥 = 𝑎 and if | is positive, then
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥=𝑎 Since the sum of the coefficients is zero, (𝑥 − 1) is a
𝑦 has a minimum value at 𝑥 = 𝑎. The maximum or
factor. Dividing by, (𝑥 − 1) we get 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6.
minimum value is 𝑓(𝑎).
∴ (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6) = 0
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Note: If = 0 and = 0 at 𝑥 = 𝑎 for which = 0,
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 i.e., (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3) = 0
then 𝑥 = 𝑎 is said to be a point of inflection and in
this case further investigation is necessary to find ∴ 𝑥 = 1, 2, 3
maxima or minima, which is beyond the scope of
𝑑2 𝑦
this book since we have to calculate higher = 12𝑥 2 − 48𝑥 + 44
𝑑3 𝑦 𝑑4 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2
derivatives , etc.
𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 4 = 4(3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 11)

86
 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 72 1
Substitute 𝑥 = 1, = 4(3 − 12 + 11) [ ] = =− <0
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥=4 −216 3
=8>0
Therefore 𝑦 has a maximum value at 𝑥 = 4 and the
Therefore 𝑥 = 1 is a minimum point. 42 −7.4+6 −6
maximum value is 𝑓(4) = = =1
4−10 −6
𝑑2 𝑦
Substitute 𝑥 = 2, = 4(12 − 24 + 11)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑2 𝑦 72 1
[ ] = = >0
= −4 < 0 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥=16 216 3

Therefore 𝑥 = 2 is a maximum point. Therefore 𝑦 has a maximum value at 𝑥 = 16 and

162 −7.16+6 150
𝑑2 𝑦 the maximum value is 𝑓(16) = = = 25
Substitute 𝑥 = 3, = 4(27 − 36 + 11) 16−10 6
𝑑𝑥 2

=8>0
4. Show that the function 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 3
Therefore 𝑥 = 3 is a minimum point.
possesses neither a maximum nor a minimum.
Hence the maximum value of 𝑦 is at 𝑥 = 2.
Solution:
4 3 2
∴ 𝑓(2) = 2 − 8. 2 + 22. 2 − 24.2 + 5
𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 3
= −3
𝑑𝑦
∴ = 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 6
The minimum values are at 𝑥 = 1, 𝑑𝑥

𝑦 = 1 − 8 + 22 − 24 + 5 = −4 and at 𝑥 = 3, 𝑑𝑦
∴ =0
𝑑𝑥
𝑦 = 81 − 216 + 198 − 72 + 5 = −4
 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 6 = 0

i. e. , 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 2 = 0
∴ Maximum value = −3 attained at 𝑥 = 2 and minimum
2±√4−8 2±2𝑖
value = −4 attained at 𝑥 = 1 and 3. ∴𝑥= = = 1 ± 𝑖 which are imaginary.
2 2

Since the values of 𝑥 are imaginary, there does not exist

𝒙𝟐 −𝟕𝒙+𝟔 any point on the curve at which the function has the
3.
𝒙−𝟏𝟎 extreme values. Therefore, the given function has
𝑑𝑦 [𝑥 − 10][2𝑥 − 7] − [𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 6] neither a maximum nor a minimum.
∴ =
𝑑𝑥 [𝑥 − 10]2

2𝑥 2 − 27𝑥 + 70 − 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 6 5. Express 15⁄4 as the sum of two numbers such

=
[𝑥 − 10]2 that their product is maximum.
𝑥 2 − 20𝑥 + 64 Solution:
=
[𝑥 − 10]2 15
Let 𝑥 and − 𝑥 be the numbers. The product
4
𝑑𝑦 𝑥2 − 20𝑥 + 64 15
= 0 =0 𝑥( − 𝑥) should be maximum.
𝑑𝑥 [𝑥 − 10]2 4

15
∴ 𝑥 2 − 20𝑥 + 64 = 0 Let 𝑦 = 𝑥 ( − 𝑥). The condition for 𝑦 to be
4

i.e., (𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 16) = 0 maximum is that

∴ 𝑥 = 4, 𝑥 = 16 𝑑𝑦
=0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2 𝑦
= 15
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑦= 𝑥 − 𝑥2
4
(𝑥 − 10)2 (2𝑥 − 20) − ( 𝑥 2 − 20𝑥 + 64)2(𝑥 − 10)
𝑑𝑦 15
[(𝑥 − 10)2 ]2 ∴ = − 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 4
2(𝑥 − 10)[(𝑥 − 10)2 − ( 𝑥 2 − 20𝑥 + 64)] 𝑑𝑦 15
=
(𝑥 − 10)2 = 0 − 2𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑥 4
72 i.e., −2𝑥 = −
15
or 𝑥 =
15
= 4 8
(𝑥 − 10)3

87
𝑑2 𝑦 15 ∴ the largest size rectangle will have the sides
= −2 which is < 0 for 𝑥 = . Hence 𝑦 is
𝑑𝑥 2 8 1
15 equal to √2 and .
maximum at 𝑥 = . √2
8

∴ the other number is

7. Show that the largest rectangle with a given
15 15 15 15
−𝑥 = ( )−( )= perimeter is a square.
4 4 8 8
15 15 225 15 15 15 Solution:
∴ . = is a maximum and + = .
8 8 64 8 8 4
Let 𝑥 and 𝑦 be the sides of the rectangle.

∴ perimeter = 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 𝑘 (given) ...(1)

6. What is the largest size rectangle that can be
inscribed in a semicircle of radius 1 so that two Area of the rectangle = 𝐴 = 𝑥𝑦 ...(2)
vertices lie on the diameter. 𝑘−2𝑥
From (1), 𝑦 =
2
Solution:
𝑘 − 2𝑥
Let the sides of the rectangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 be 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶𝐷 = 2𝑥 ∴ 𝐴 = 𝑥[ ]
2
and 𝐴𝐷 = 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑦.
𝑑𝐴 1 1
∴ = [𝑥(−2) + (𝑘 − 2𝑥)] = [𝑘 − 4𝑥]
∴ Area of the rectangle is 𝐴 = 𝐴𝐵. 𝐴𝐷 = 2𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥 2 2
∴ 𝐴 = 2𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝐴 𝑘
∴ = 0𝑘 − 4𝑥 = 0𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 4
𝑘
𝑘 − 2[ ] 𝑘
∴𝑦= 4 =
2 4
𝑑2 𝐴 1
= (−4) = −2 = −𝑣𝑒
𝑑𝑥 2 2
𝑘
∴ 𝐴 is maximum at 𝑥 = .
4

𝑘 𝑘
Since 𝑥 = and 𝑦 = the sides are equal and hence
4 4
the rectangle is a square.
Now the equation of the circle is 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 =1

∴ 𝑦 = √1 − 𝑥 2
Summary

𝑑𝑦 1 −𝑥
∴ =2 (−2𝑥) = If the variables x and y are given in terms of a new
𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑥 2 variable t, then the function is said to be in the
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑦 −𝑥 parametric form and ‘t’ is called the parameter.
∴ = 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 2𝑥 [ ] + 2√1 − 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2 In general, the parametric function is given by 𝑥 =
𝑑𝐴 𝑓 (𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡 ) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 (𝑡 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑡) are functions of
∴ = 0
𝑑𝑥 the parameter t. Also, 𝑥 = 𝑓 (𝑡 ), 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡 ) are called
the parametric equations. The process of finding higher
−𝑥 2
∴ 2[ + √1 − 𝑥 2 ] = 0 ordered derivatives is called successive differentiation.
√1 − 𝑥 2
Conditions for maxima are:
−𝑥 2 +1−𝑥 2
i.e., =0
√1−𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦
=0
𝑖. 𝑒. , 2𝑥 2 = 1, ∴ 𝑥2 =
1 𝑑𝑥
2
𝑑2 𝑦
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑥 =
1 <0
√2 𝑑𝑥 2
1 Conditions for Minima
∴ 2𝑥 = 2 [ ] = √2
√2 𝑑𝑦
=0
𝑑𝑥
1 1
∴ 𝑦 = √1 − = 𝑑2 𝑦
2 √2 <0
𝑑𝑥 2

88
Unit 11
Integral Calculus
Learning Objectives Hence Integration is the reverse process of
differentiation. 𝑓(𝑥) is called integrand.

After completion of this unit, the students will be Examples:

aware of the following topics: 𝑑
1. 𝑥10 = 10𝑥 9 ,  ∫10𝑥 9 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥10 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥
• Basic Rules of Integration.
• Three Methods of Integration, i.e. Integration by 𝑑 1 1
2. (log 𝑒 𝑥) = ,∫ 𝑑𝑥 = log 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶 etc.
Substitution, Integration by Parts and Integration by 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

Partial Fractions.
Definite Integrals
Introduction
If the integral of 𝑓(𝑥) is evaluated between two values a
Integration is considered as a reverse process of and b then it is called the definite integral and is denoted
𝑏
differentiation or inverse of differentiation. While by ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
differentiation deals with instantaneous change,
integration deals with total changes. If ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶 then
𝑏
On differentiating 𝑓(𝑥) we get 𝑓′(𝑥). We say that no 𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = [𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶] = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)
integrating 𝑓(𝑥). We get 𝑓(𝑥). Hence 𝑓(𝑥) is called the 𝑎 𝑎
antiderivative of 𝑓(𝑥). In terms of notations, we write this
a is called the lower limit and b is called the upper limit.
integral as ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑐, where the symbol ∫
on LHS is an integral sign and c is an arbitrary constant, Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus
often termed as the constant of integration. (Statement only, without Proof)
Solution:
Integration: Indefinite Integrals Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a function of x defined on an interval
[𝑎, 𝑏]. Let [𝑎, 𝑏] be divided into n equal parts of length h
Integration is the Reverse process of differentiation. units each.
𝑑 Hence 𝑛ℎ = 𝑏 − 𝑎. then the fundamental theorem of
Let 𝐹(𝑥) be a differentiable function of x. 𝐹(𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 integral calculus states that
𝑓(𝑥). Then 𝐹(𝑥) is called the antiderivative or integral of
𝑏
𝑓(𝑥) w.r.t. x. In symbol, we write it as ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = lim [𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) + 𝑓(𝑎 + 2ℎ) + ⋯
𝑎 ℎ→0
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑(𝑥) = 𝐹(𝑥). + 𝑓(𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)ℎ)]
𝑑
 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) => ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑(𝑥) = 𝐹(𝑥). Where ℎ =
𝑏−𝑎
𝑑𝑥
𝑛
𝑑
𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥), we also have an arbitrary constant C. = lim ∑n−1
4=0 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑟ℎ)
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 Note: In all indefinite integral problems, after the

[𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶] = 𝐹(𝑥) + (𝐶) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 0 = 𝑓(𝑥) integration is over, we add an arbitrary constant C called
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
the constant of integration.
For this reason, we write
For evaluating the indefinite integrals, we require the
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑(𝑥) = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶 . following formulae called standard formulae.
Where C is an arbitrary constant.

This is called the Indefinite Integral of 𝑓(𝑥) w.r.t. x and List of Standard Formulae for Integrals
C is called the constant of Integration.
𝑑 1. ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝐶
 [𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶] = 𝑓(𝑥) => ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑(𝑥) = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥
2. ∫ 𝑘𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐶 where k is constant.

89
 𝑥 𝑛+1 𝟏 𝟑
3. ∫ ₓⁿ 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝐶 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 ≠ −1. 6. (𝒙 − )
𝑛+1 𝒙

1 1 7. 𝒆𝒙 + 𝒙𝒆 − 𝟏
Particular case: if n= - ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 2√𝑥 + 𝐶 8. (𝟐𝒙 − 𝟓)𝟐
2 √𝑥

1
4. ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = log 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶 Solution:

1. ∫(5𝑥4 − 8𝑥3 + 7𝑥2 − 6𝑥 + 5) 𝑑𝑥

(This is the case of ∫ ₓⁿ 𝑑𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = −1) = 5∫ 𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥 − 8∫ 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 + 7∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 − 6∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 + 5∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 4+1 𝑥 3+1 𝑥 2+1 𝑥1+1
5. ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶 =5
4+1
−8
3+1
+7
2+1
−6
1+1
+ 5𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑥5 𝑥4 𝑥3 𝑥2
𝑎𝑥 = 5 − 8 + 7 − 6 + 5𝑥 + 𝐶
6. ∫ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = log + 𝐶 where a > 0 and ≠ 1. 5 4 3 2
𝑒𝑎
5 4
𝑥3 2
= 𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 7 − 3𝑥 + 5𝑥 + 𝐶
1
3
7. ∫ √𝑥2 +1 𝑑𝑥 = log(𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1) + 𝐶 2. 2 1
∫ [𝑥 + + 1] 𝑑𝑥
𝑥

1
8.
1
∫ √𝑥2 +𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = log(𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 ) + 𝐶 =∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 1𝑑𝑥
𝑥
1
9. ∫ √𝑥2 −1 𝑑𝑥 = log(𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1) + 𝐶 𝑥 2+1
= + log 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑥
2+1
1 1 1+𝑥
10. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = log ( ) + 𝐶 𝑥3
1−𝑥 2 2 1−𝑥 = + log 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝐶
1 1 𝑎+𝑥 3
11. ∫ 2 2 𝑑𝑥 = log +𝐶 3.
1
∫ √𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 −1⁄2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 −𝑥 2𝑎 𝑎−𝑥
1 1 𝑥−1
12. ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = log ( ) + 𝐶 𝑥 −1⁄2+1 𝑥 1⁄2
𝑥 −1 2 𝑥+1 = −1 = 1 = 2√𝑥 + 𝐶
1 1 𝑥−𝑎 ( )+1
13. ∫ 2 2 𝑑𝑥 = log +𝐶 2 2
𝑥 −𝑎 2𝑎 𝑥+𝑎 3𝑥 2 +7𝑥−5
4. ∫ 3 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥

3𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 5
Rules for integration =∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 1⁄3
1. ∫[𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 3𝑥 2 7𝑥
= ∫[ + − 5𝑥 −1⁄3 ] 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 1⁄3 𝑥 1⁄3
2. ∫ 𝑘𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 where k is a constant.
3. ∫[𝑘1 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑘2 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘1 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ± = 3∫ 𝑥 5⁄3 𝑑𝑥 + 7 ∫ 𝑥 2⁄3 𝑑𝑥 − 5 ∫ 𝑥 −1⁄3 𝑑𝑥
𝑘2 ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥.
𝑥 (5⁄3)+1 𝑥 (2⁄3)+1 𝑥 (−1⁄3)+1
=3 +7 − 5 (−1⁄
(5⁄3)+1 (2⁄3)+1 3)+1
Methods of Integration
𝑥 8⁄3 𝑥 5⁄3 𝑥 2⁄3
=3 8 +7 5 −5 2 +𝐶
( ) ( ) ( )
There are several methods of integration. In this section, 3 3 3

we study these methods one by one. 9 21 15

= 𝑥 8⁄3 + 𝑥 5⁄3 − 𝑥 2⁄3 + 𝐶
8 5 2
Integration by Using Standard Formulae
1 2
We shall illustrate this in the following examples: 5. ∫ (𝑥 + 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Note: No problem on integration can be solved without 1

= ∫ (𝑥 2 + + 2) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2
using one or the other standard formula.
1
= ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + 2∫ 1𝑑𝑥
𝑥2

Worked Examples 𝑥 2+1 𝑥 −2+1

= + + 2𝑥
2+1 −2+1

𝑥3 1
Integrate w.r.t. x: = − + 2𝑥 + 𝐶
3 𝑥
1. 𝟓𝒙𝟒 − 𝟖𝒙𝟑 + 𝟕𝒙𝟐 − 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟓 1 3
𝟏 6. ∫ (𝑥 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2. 𝒙𝟐 + +𝟏
𝒙
𝟏 1 1 1
3. =∫ [𝑥 3 − − 3. 𝑥. (𝑥 − )] 𝑑𝑥
√𝒙 𝑥3 𝑥 𝑥
𝟑𝒙𝟐 +𝟕𝒙−𝟓
4. 1 1
𝟑
√𝒙 =∫ 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥 − 3 ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 + 3 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥3 𝑥
𝟏 𝟐
5. (𝒙 + ) 𝑥 3+1 𝑥 −3+1 𝑥 1+1
𝒙
= + −3 + 3 log 𝑥
3+1 −3+1 1+1

90
 =
𝑥4
−
𝑥 −2
−3
𝑥2
+ 3 log 𝑥 + 𝐶 This is very important integral. When the Nr is
4 −2 2
the derivative of the Dr, the integral is logarithm
𝑥4 1 𝑥2
=
4
+
2𝑥 2
−3
2
+ 3 log 𝑥 + 𝐶 of the Dr.
4. Integrals of the form ∫𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥.
7. ∫(𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑒 − 1) 𝑑𝑥
Put 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑡
= ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑥 𝑒 − ∫ 1𝑑𝑥  𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑥 𝑒+1 ∫ 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝐶, etc.
= 𝑒𝑥 + −𝑥+𝐶
𝑒+1

8. ∫(2𝑥 − 5)2 𝑑𝑥
Worked Examples
= ∫(4𝑥 2 − 20𝑥 + 25)𝑑𝑥

= 4 ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 − 20 ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 + 25 ∫ 1𝑑𝑥 Integrate w.r.t. x:

𝑥 2+1 𝑥 1+1 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙
= 4. − 20. + 25𝑥 1.
2+1 1+1 𝒙
2. (𝒙𝟐 + 𝟕𝒙 + 𝟓)−𝟑 (𝟐𝒙 + 𝟕)
𝑥2 𝑥2
=4 − 20 + 25𝑥 𝟏
3 2
3.
𝒆𝒙 −𝒆−𝒙
𝑥2
=4 − 10𝑥 2 + 25𝑥 + 𝐶 𝟐𝒙−𝟓
3 4.
(𝒙𝟐 −𝟓𝒙+𝟗)𝟐
𝒆𝒙−𝟏 +𝒙𝒆−𝟏
Method of substitution 5. ∫ 𝒆𝒙 +𝒙𝒆
𝒙
6.
By using proper substitutions, we can reduce the given 𝟏+𝒙𝟐
𝟏
integrals to standard forms and integrate. 7.
𝒙 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙
1. If ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑥)𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 ∫ 𝑓(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑑𝑥 =
𝑔(𝑎𝑥+𝑏) Solution:
+ 𝐶 , where 𝑎 ≠ 0
𝑎 log 𝑥 1
Put ax + b = t. differentiating totally both sides, we 1. ∫ 𝑥
𝑑𝑥, 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡.
𝑥
get
Put log 𝑥 = 𝑡.
𝑑𝑡
𝑎𝑑𝑥 + 0 = 𝑑𝑡. ,  𝑑𝑥 = log 𝑥 𝑡2 (log 𝑥)2
𝑎 ∫ 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =
2
=
2
+𝐶
1 1 𝑔(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)
= ∫ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑔(𝑡) = +C.
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 −3
2
Using this method, we get the following integrals: 2. ∫(𝑥 + 7𝑥 + 5) (2𝑥 + 7)𝑑𝑥
1 (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)𝑛+1
(i) ∫(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑛+1
+ 𝐶, Put 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 5 = 𝑡
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 ≠ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 ≠ −1.
(2𝑥 + 7)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑒 (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)
(ii) ∫ 𝑒 (𝑎𝑥+𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
𝑎  ∫(𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 5)−3 (2𝑥 + 7)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑡 −3 𝑑𝑡
1 log(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)
(iii) ∫ 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎
+𝐶
𝑡 −3+1 𝑡2 −1
𝑑𝑥 = = = +𝐶
−3+1 −2 2(𝑥 2 +7𝑥+5)2
2. Integrals of the form
1 𝑑𝑥
∫[𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥, n≠ −1 3. ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 𝑥− 𝑥
Put 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑡 𝑒

𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡 𝑒𝑥
𝑛+1 = ∫ (𝑒 𝑥 )2 −1 𝑑𝑥
𝑡
 ∫[𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑡 𝑛 𝑑𝑡 =
𝑛+1
[𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛+1
Put 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑡.
= +𝐶
𝑛+1
𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡.
𝑓 ′(𝑥) 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡
3. Integrals of the form ∫ 𝑑𝑥  ∫ (𝑒 𝑥 )2−1 = ∫ 𝑡 2−1
𝑓(𝑥)
Put 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑡. = log (
𝑡−1
) = log (
𝑒 𝑥 −1
)+𝐶
𝑡+1 𝑒 𝑥 +1
𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑓′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ = log 𝑡 = log[𝑓(𝑥)] + 𝐶
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑡

91
 2𝑥−5 1
 𝐴 = − 2𝑎
4. ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥2 −5𝑥+9)
1 1 1 1
 𝑥2 −𝑎2 = 2𝑎 [𝑥−𝑎 − 𝑥+𝑎]
Put 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 9 = 𝑡.
1 1 1 1
(2𝑥 − 5)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡.  𝑥2 −𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑎 [∫ 𝑥−𝑎
𝑑𝑥 − ∫
𝑥+𝑎
𝑑𝑥]
2𝑥−5 𝑑𝑡 1
 ∫ (𝑥 2−5𝑥+9)2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑡2
= ∫ 𝑡 −2 𝑑𝑡 =
2𝑎
[log(𝑥 − 𝑎) − log(𝑥 + 𝑎)]

1 𝑥−𝑎
𝑡 −2+1 𝑡 −1 −1 −1 = log [ ] + 𝐶.
= = = = +𝐶 2𝑎 𝑥+𝑎
−2+1 −1 𝑡 𝑥 2 −5𝑥+9

𝑒𝑥−1+𝑥𝑒−1 ii. In the same way, we can get

5. ∫
𝑒𝑥 +𝑥𝑒
𝑑𝑥
1 1 𝑎+𝑥
∫ 𝑎2 −𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑎 log [𝑎−𝑥] + 𝐶
Put 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑒 = 𝑡
(𝑒𝑥 + 𝑒𝑥𝑒−1 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡 Note: These two integrals must be included into the list
of the standard formulae.
=> 𝑒(𝑒𝑥−1 + 𝑥𝑒−1 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
1
𝑑𝑡 Integrals of the form ∫ 𝑑𝑥 can be reduced to
𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐
=> (𝑒𝑥−1 + 𝑥𝑒−1 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 one of the integrals∫
1
𝑑𝑥, ∫
1
𝑑𝑥, ∫
1
𝑑𝑥 by
𝑥 2 +𝑎2 𝑥 2 −𝑎2 𝑎2 −𝑥 2
𝑑𝑡
𝐺𝐼 = ∫ 𝑒𝑡 completing the squares.

1 1 𝑥
=
𝑒
log 𝑡 = log(𝑒
𝑒
+ 𝑥𝑒 ) + 𝐶. Worked Examples
𝑥
6. ∫ 1+𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
Integrate w.r.t. x:
2
Put 1 + 𝑥 = 𝑡 2𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡, 1.
𝟏
𝒙𝟐 −𝟗
𝑑𝑡 𝟏
𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 2
2. 𝟑𝟔−𝒙𝟐
𝟏
𝑥 3.
∫
1+𝑥2
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡
2𝑡
= 12 log 𝑡 + 𝐶 𝒙𝟐 +𝟒𝒙−𝟏𝟐
𝟏
4. 𝟒𝒙𝟐 +𝟏𝟐𝒙−𝟏
1 2 5.
𝟏
= log(1 + 𝑥 ) + 𝐶 (𝒙𝟐 −𝟏)(𝒙𝟐 −𝟒)
2 𝟏
1
6. (𝟏+𝒆𝒙 )(𝟏−𝒆−𝒙 )
7. ∫ 𝑥 log 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝟏
7. (𝒙−𝟏)𝟐 (𝒙+𝟐)
1
Put log 𝑥 = 𝑡,  𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑥
Solution:
1 𝑑𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ = log 𝑡 = log(log 𝑥) + 𝐶 1 1
𝑥 log 𝑥 𝑡 1. ∫ 𝑑𝑥=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 −9 𝑥 2 −32
1 𝑥−3 1 𝑥−3
= log [ ] = log [ ]+𝐶
2(3) 𝑥+3 6 𝑥+3
Integration by Partial Fractions 2. ∫
1
𝑑𝑥 = ∫
1
𝑑𝑥
36−𝑥 2 62 −𝑥 2
1 6+𝑥
1 1 = log [ ]+𝐶
12 6−𝑥
Integrals of the form ∫ 𝑑𝑥 and ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 −𝑎2 𝑎2 −𝑥 2 1 1
3. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 +4𝑥−12 𝑥 2 +4𝑥+4−16
1 1 1 1 (𝑥+2−4)
i. ∫ 𝑥 2−𝑎2 𝑑𝑥, Resolve 𝑥 2 −𝑎2
into partial fractions = 𝑑𝑥 = log [ ]
(𝑥+2)2 −4 2 2(4) (𝑥+2+4)
1 𝑥−2
= log [ ]+𝐶
8 𝑥+6
1 1 𝐴 𝐵 1
= = + 4. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 2 4𝑥 2 +12𝑥−1
𝑥 −𝑎 (𝑥 + 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎) 𝑥 + 𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑎 1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
4𝑥 2 +12𝑥+9−10
1 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 𝑎) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 𝑎) 1
=∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
(2𝑥+3)2 −(√10)
Put x = a, 1=A(0) + B(0) 1 1 2𝑥+3−√10
= 2 log [ ]
1 √10 2 2𝑥+3+√10
𝐴 = − 2𝑎 1 2𝑥+3−√10
= 4 log [ ]+𝐶
√10 2𝑥+3+√10
Put x = -a, 1 = A (−2a) + B(0)

92
 1 1
5. ∫ (𝑥2 −1)(𝑥2 −4) 𝑑𝑥 1 = 𝐶(−2 − 1)2 , 𝐶 =
9

=∫
1
𝑑𝑥 Put x = 0,
(𝑥+1)(𝑥−1)(𝑥+2)(𝑥−2)
1
1 = 𝐴(−1)(2) + 𝐵(2) + 𝐶(−1)2
Let ∫ 2 1
(𝑥+1)(𝑥−1)(𝑥+2)(𝑥−2)  1 = −2𝐴 + 3 + 9
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷
= + + + 2
i.e. 2𝐴 = + − 1 =
1 6+1−9
(𝑥+1) (𝑥−1) (𝑥+2) (𝑥−2)
3 9 9
−2 −1
1 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 − 4) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 − 4) + = , 𝐴 =
9 9
𝐶(𝑥 2 − 1)(𝑥 − 2) + 𝐷(𝑥 2 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) 1
∫ (𝑥−1)2 (𝑥+2)
𝑑𝑥
Put x=1, 1 = A(0) + B(2)(1 − 4) + C(0) + D(0) −1 1 1 1 1 1
=
9
∫ 𝑥−1 𝑑𝑥 + 3 (𝑥−1)2 𝑑𝑥 + 9 ∫ 𝑥+2
𝑑𝑥
−1
 B= =
−1
log(𝑥 − 1) −
1 1
+ log(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐶
6
9 3(𝑥−1) 9
Put x=-1, 1 = A(−2)(1 − 4) + B(0) + C(0) + D(0)
1
 𝐴= Integration by Parts
6

Put x=2, 1 = A(0) + B(0) + C(0) + D(4 − 1)(2 + 2)

Whenever we have to integrate the product of two
1
 𝐷= functions we have to apply this method of integration by
12
parts.
Put x=-2, 1 = A(0) + B(0) + C(4 − 1)(−2 − 2) +
D(0) Theorem: ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑢, where u and v are any
two functions of x.
−1
 𝐶= 𝒅 𝒅𝒗 𝒅𝒖
12
Proof: we know that (𝒖𝒗) = 𝒖 +𝒗 . (Product rule)
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
1
 ∫ (𝑥2 −1)(𝑥2 −4) 𝑑𝑥
Integrating both sides w.r.t. x, we get,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 𝑑 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ − ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 (𝑢𝑣)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
6 𝑥+1 6 𝑥−1 12 𝑥+2 12 𝑥−2

1 1
= [log(𝑥 + 1) − log(𝑥 − 1)] − [log(𝑥 + 2) − i.e. 𝑢𝑣 = ∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 + ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢.
6 12
log(𝑥 − 2)]  ∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢
1 𝑥+1 1 𝑥+2
= log [ ]− log [ ]+𝐶 Hence the result.
6 𝑥−1 12 𝑥−2

1 This is the formula for integration by parts. We can

6. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
(1+𝑒 𝑥 )(1−𝑒 −𝑥 )
rewrite this formula as
1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (1+𝑒𝑒𝑥)(𝑒 ∫ 𝑢𝑣 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢 ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ [(∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ] 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢
(1+𝑒𝑥 )(1− 1𝑥 )
𝑥 −1)
𝑒

Put 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑡, 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡 i.e. ∫(𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) (𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)𝑑𝑥

𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) ∫(𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) 𝑑𝑥

 ∫ (1+𝑒 𝑥 )(𝑒 𝑥 −1)
𝑑
𝑑𝑡 − ∫ [(∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑥) (𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)] 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ (1+𝑡)(𝑡−1) 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑡 Note:
=∫
𝑡 2 −1
(i) While applying this formula, the first and the second
1 𝑡−1
= log +𝐶 functions must be chosen properly. The first
2 𝑡+1
function is for differentiation and the second is for
1 𝑒 𝑥 −1
= log [ ]+𝐶 integration. We have to choose the first and the
2 𝑒 𝑥 +1
second function in such a way that the integral on
1
7. ∫ (𝑥−1)2 (𝑥+2)
𝑑𝑥 the R.H.S. is simpler than the given integral itself.
1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 (ii) Take u = log, inverse, algebraic, trig, exponential
Let (𝑥−1)2 = + +
(𝑥+2) 𝑥−1 (𝑥−1)2 𝑥+2 functions in the order of priority (LIATE).
1 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐶(𝑥 − 1)2 (iii) In the case of repeated application of integration by
Put x = 1, parts formula, we can directly use the following
1 = 𝐵(1 + 2) formula
1
𝐵 = 3
Put x = −2, ∫ 𝑢𝑣 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣1 − 𝑢′ 𝑣2 + 𝑢′′𝑣3 − 𝑢′′′𝑣4 + ..

93
Where ‘’’ indicates derivative and suffixes indicate = 𝑥(log 𝑥)2 − 2 ∫ log 𝑥 1𝑑𝑥
integration. 1
= 𝑥(log 𝑥)2 − 2 [(log 𝑥)𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥]
𝑥
= 𝑥(log 𝑥)2 − 2[(log 𝑥)𝑥 − ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥]
Worked Examples = 𝑥(log 𝑥)2 − 2[𝑥(log 𝑥) − 𝑥] + 𝐶

Integrals of the form ∫ 𝒆𝒙 [𝒇(𝒙) + 𝒇′(𝒙)]𝒅𝒙

Integrate w.r.t. x:
Consider ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥. Integrating by parts, we get
1. 𝒙𝒆𝒙
2. 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙 ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑒 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
3. 𝒙𝒏 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙, (𝒏 ≠ −𝟏)  ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)
𝟐 −𝒙
4. 𝒙 𝒆
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙 i.e. ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓′(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝐶
5. 𝒙𝟐
6. [𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙]𝟐
Worked Examples
Solution:

1. ∫ 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − Integrate w.r.t. x:
𝑑
∫ [(∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥) 𝑥] 𝑑𝑥 𝟏
𝑑𝑥 1. 𝒆𝒙 [𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙 + ]
𝒙
𝒙−𝟏
= 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 1𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶 2. 𝒆𝒙 [ ]
𝒙𝟐

2. ∫ log 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ log 𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥 Solution:

𝑑
= log 𝑥 ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ [∫(1 𝑑𝑥) (log 𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥 1
𝑑𝑥 1. ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 [log 𝑥 + 𝑥] 𝑑𝑥
1
= (log 𝑥) − ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 log 𝑥 − ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥 Put log 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
1
𝑥 𝑥
= 𝑥 log 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝐶 1
 ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 [log 𝑥 + 𝑥] 𝑑𝑥
 ∫ log 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 log 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝐶
= ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓′(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥
3. ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 log1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑛 ≠ −1)
= 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 log 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑥 𝑛+1 𝑥 𝑛+1 1
= log 𝑥 −∫ 𝑑𝑥 𝑥−1 1 1
𝑛+1 𝑛+1 𝑥 2. ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 [ 𝑥2 ] 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 [𝑥 − 𝑥2 ] 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑛+1 1
= log 𝑥
𝑛+1
− 𝑛+1
∫ 𝑥𝑛 𝑑𝑥 Put
1
= 𝑓(𝑥)
−1
= 𝑓′(𝑥)
𝑥 𝑥2
𝑥 𝑛+1 1 𝑥 𝑛+1
= log 𝑥
𝑛+1
− 𝑛+1 𝑛+1 𝐺. 𝐼. = ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)]𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝑛+1 1
= [log 𝑥 −
1
]+𝐶 = 𝑒 ′ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑥
𝑛+1 𝑛+1
𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 −𝑥
4. ∫ 𝑥𝐼2 𝑒𝐼𝐼−𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 −1
−∫
−1
2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝑥 + 2 ∫ 𝑥𝐼 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝐼𝐼 𝑥 Summary
𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 −𝑥
= −𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝑥 + 2 [𝑥 −∫ 1 𝑑𝑥]
−1 −1
= −𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 + 2∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐 (where a and c are constants)
𝑎−𝑥
= −𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 + 2 𝑥 𝑛+1
−1 ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
𝑛+1
= −𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 − 2𝑒 −𝑥 +𝐶
log 𝑥
5. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ log 𝑥 . 𝑥 −2 𝑑𝑥 ∫ 𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2
𝑥 −2+1 𝑥 −2+1 1
= log 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥 Integration by substitution method is used when basic
−2+1 −2+1 𝑥
𝑥 −1 𝑥 −1 rules of integration are not directly applicable.
= log 𝑥 −∫ 𝑥 −1 𝑑𝑥
−1 −1
−1 According to integration by parts, the integral of the
= log 𝑥 [ ] + ∫ 𝑥 −2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 product of two functions = First function × Integral of
1 𝑥 −2+1 1 1
= − log 𝑥 + = − log 𝑥 − + 𝐶 second – Integral of [Differential coefficient of first ×
𝑥 −2+1 𝑥 𝑥
integral of second]
6. ∫(log 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(log 𝑥)2 1 𝑑𝑥
1
= (log 𝑥)2 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥. 2 log 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
= 𝑥(log 𝑥)2 − 2 ∫ log 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

94
Unit 12
Definite Integrals
𝑏
Learning Objectives ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 .

At the end of this unit, you will be able to: 3. Generally, while evaluating definite integrals, we
drop out the constant C from the beginning itself.
• Describe theory of Definite Integrals
• Definite Integrals using Substitution
• Definite Integrals using by Parts. Worked Examples

Introduction 𝟏
1. ∫𝟎 (𝒙𝟑 − 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 − 𝟓)𝒅𝒙

In this unit, we will discuss theory of definite Solution:

integrals. Further we will discuss definite integrals 1
1 𝑥4 3𝑥 3 𝑥2
using substitution. We will also focus on definite ∫0 (𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 5) 𝑑𝑥 = [ 4 − 3
+
2
− 5𝑥]
0
integrals using by parts. We will consider many
workedout examples to make the concept clearer. 1 1 −21
= [ − 1 + − 5] − (0) =
4 2 4
Theory of Definite Integrals

𝟐
Suppose 𝑓(𝑥) is a function of 𝑥 defined and 2. ∫𝟏 (𝟑𝒙 − 𝟏)𝟐 𝒅𝒙
continuous on a closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏](𝑖𝑒. , 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤
𝑏). Now, if ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝑐, then the “definite Solution:
integral of 𝑓(𝑥) from a to b” is defined by 2
2
𝑏 (3𝑥 − 1)3
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = [𝐹(𝑥) + 𝑐]𝑏𝑎 which denotes the difference ∫ (3𝑥 − 1)2 𝑑𝑥 = [ ]
1 3(3) 1
between the values of 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝑐 at 𝑥 = 𝑏 and 𝑥 = 𝑎
hence given by
(6 − 1)3 (3 − 1)3
𝑏 = −
9 9
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = [𝐹(𝑏) + 𝑐] − [𝐹(𝑎) + 𝑐]
𝑎 125 − 8 117
= = = 13
𝑏 9 9
i.e., ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = [𝐹(𝑏)] − [𝐹(𝑎)]

Since the value of a definite integral is a fixed

number independent of the arbitrary constant of 𝟑 𝟏
3. ∫𝟐 (√𝒙 + √𝒙) 𝒅𝒙
integration, it is called a “definite”integral.
Solution:
Note:

1. The end points of the interval [𝑎, 𝑏], namely a 3

1 𝑥 1⁄2+1
and b, are called respectively the lower limit and ∫ (√𝑥 + ) 𝑑𝑥 = [ ]
√𝑥 1
upper limit of the definite integral.
2 ( )+1
2
2. To evaluate the definite integral of 𝑓(𝑥)
2 3
between the limits a and b: = [ 𝑥 3⁄2 + 2√𝑥]
3 2

(i) The indefinite integral ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is determined as

2 3⁄2 2
a function of x; =[ (3 ) + 2√3] − [ (23⁄2 ) + 2√2]
3 3
(ii) The values of the indefinite integral at 𝑥 = 𝑎 and
𝑥 = 𝑏 are evaluated; and then 4√2 10√2
(iii) The difference between the values at 𝑥 = 𝑏 and = [2√3 + 2√3] − [ + 2√2] = 4√3 −
3 3
𝑥 = 𝑎 gives the value of definite integral

95
 By using proper substitutions and changing the limits
corresponding to the substitutions, we can evaluate the
𝟐𝟏
4. ∫𝟏 𝒅𝒙 definite integrals. We illustrate this method in the
𝒙
following examples.
Solution:

3
1 Worked Examples
∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥
Evaluate the following:
= [log 𝑥]12
𝟏 𝒙
1. ∫𝟎 dx
𝟏+𝒙𝟐
= log2 − log1
Solution:
= log2 − 0 = log2. 1 𝑥
∫0 dx
1+𝑥 2

Put 1+𝑥 2 =t when x =0, t= 1

𝟏
5. ∫𝟎 (𝒆𝒙 + 𝒆−𝒙 )𝒅𝒙 2x dx= dt when x =1, t= 2
𝑑𝑡
Solution: ∴ xdx =
2

1 2 𝑑𝑡
∴ G.I.= ∫1
∫ (𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 2𝑑𝑡
0 1
= [𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑡]12
2
= [𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 ]10 1
= (𝑙𝑜𝑔2 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔1)
2
= (𝑒1 − 𝑒1 ) − (𝑒 0 − 𝑒 0 ) 1
= log2
2
1
=𝑒 − − (1 − 1)
𝑒

1 𝟑 𝒆𝒙
=𝑒 − 2. 2. ∫𝟐 dx
𝑒 𝒆𝒙 +𝟏

Solution:
3 𝑒𝑥
−𝟏 𝟏+𝒙 ∫2 𝑒 𝑥 +1
dx
6. ∫𝟎 𝟏−𝒙 𝒅𝒙
Put 𝑒 𝑥 + 1=t when x=2 , t=𝑒 2 +1
Solution:
∴ 𝑒 𝑥 dx=dt when x=3 , t=𝑒 3 +1
−1
1+𝑥 𝑒 3 +1 𝑑𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝑥 ∴ G.I.=∫𝑒 2+1
0 1−𝑥 𝑡

𝑒 3 +1
−1 =[𝑙𝑜𝑔] 𝑒 2 +1
2−1+𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 1−𝑥 =log(𝑒 3 + 1)- log(𝑒 2 + 1)

−1 𝑒 3 +1
2 1−𝑥 =log( )
=∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑒 2 +1
0 1−𝑥 1−𝑥

−1 −1
1 𝟐
= 2∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥 3. ∫𝟎 (𝒙 + 𝟏)√𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑 dx
0 1−𝑥 0
Solution:
= 2[−log(1 − 𝑥)]−1 −1
0 − [𝑥]0
2
∫0 (𝑥 + 1)√𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3 dx
= 2[log(1 + 1) − log(1 − 0)] − [−1 − 0]
Put 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3= t
= −2 log 2 + 1 ∴ (2x+2) dx= dt
𝑑𝑡
i.e., 2(𝑥 + 1)dx=dt⇒ (𝑥 + 1)dx=
2
Definite Integrals by the Substitution
Incorporating Change of Limits when x=0 , t=3

96
when x=2 , t=11 9 3 9
5 5
= [𝑡 5 ] = [35 − 1]
9 1 9
11 𝑑𝑡
∴G.I.=∫3 √𝑡. 2
3 11
1 2 𝟓 𝟏
= ⋅ [𝑡 2 ] 7. ∫𝟑 dx
2 3 3 𝒙 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒙
3 3
1
= [112 − 32 ] Solution:
3
5 1
∫3 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥
dx
𝟑 𝟏
4. 4.∫𝟐 dx Put 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥=t when x=3 , t=log3
𝒙 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒙
1
Solution: ∴ dx=dt when x=5 , t=log5
𝑥

3 1 𝑙𝑜𝑔5 𝑑𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑔5
∫2 dx ∴ G.I.= ∫𝑙𝑜𝑔3 = [𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑡]𝑙𝑜𝑔3
𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 𝑡

Put 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥=t when x=2 , t=log2 = log(log5)- log(log3)

1 𝑙𝑜𝑔5
∴ dx=dt when x=3 , t=log3 = log( )
𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔3

𝑙𝑜𝑔3 1
∴ G.I.= ∫𝑙𝑜𝑔2 dt
𝑡
𝟐 𝟏
𝑙𝑜𝑔3 8. ∫𝟎 dx
=[𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑡]𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝟏+𝒆𝒙

Solution:
=log(log3)− log(log2)
2 1
𝑙𝑜𝑔3 ∫0 1+𝑒 𝑥
dx
=log( )
𝑙𝑜𝑔2
2 1
=∫0 1 dx
1+
𝑒−𝑥

𝟑 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒙 + 𝟏 2 𝑒𝑥
5. ∫𝟐 dx =∫0 dx
𝒙 𝑒 −𝑥 +1

Solution: Put 𝑒 −𝑥 +1=t

∫2
3 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 + 1
dx ∴ −𝑒 𝑥 dx= dt when x=0 , t=2
𝑥
∴ 𝑒 𝑥 dx=− dt when x=2 , t=𝑒 −2 + 1
Put 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 + 1=t when x=2 , t=log2+1
𝑒 −2 +1 −𝑑𝑡
1
∴𝑥dx=dt when x=3 , t=log3+1 ∴ G.I.= ∫2
𝑡

𝑒 −2 +1
𝑙𝑜𝑔3+1 =− [𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑡]2
∴ G.I.= ∫𝑙𝑜𝑔2+1 𝑡 dt
=− [𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( 𝑒 −2 + 1) − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 2]
𝑙𝑜𝑔3+1
𝑡2
=[ ]
2 𝑙𝑜𝑔2+1

𝟏
1
= [(𝑙𝑜𝑔3 + 1)2 − (𝑙𝑜𝑔2 + 1)2 ] 9. ∫𝟎 √𝒙𝟑 − 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏 (𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙) dx
2
Solution:
1
𝟏 ∫0 √𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 1 (3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥) dx
6. ∫𝟎 ( 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 + 𝟏)𝟒/𝟓 (𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏)dx
Put 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 1= t when x=0 , t=1
Solution:
1
∴ (3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥) dx=dt when x=1 , t=1
∫0 ( 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1)4/5 (2𝑥 + 1)dx
1
∴ G.I.=∫1 √𝑡 dt = 0 (∵ the upper and lower limits are equal)
Put 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1=t when x=0 , t=1

∴(2𝑥 + 1)dx=dt when x=1 , t=3

𝟑 𝟑𝒙
3 3 10. ∫−𝟐 dx
𝒙𝟐 −𝟏
∴ G.I.=∫1 𝑡 dt5

Solution:
4 3
𝑡 5+1 3 3𝑥
=[ 4 ] ∫−2 dx
+1 𝑥 2 −1
5 1

97
 𝑒
Put 𝑥 2 − 1 = t
∫ log 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
∴ 2𝑥dx=dt when x=−2 , t=3
𝑒
𝑑𝑡
∴ 𝑥dx= when x = 3 , t = 8 = ∫ log 𝑥 . 1 𝑑𝑥
2 1
8 3𝑑𝑡 𝑒
∴ G.I.= ∫3 2𝑡 1
= [log 𝑥. 𝑥]1𝑒 − ∫ 𝑥. 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥
3
= [𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑡]83 𝑒
2
3
= [𝑙𝑜𝑔8 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔3] = (𝑒 log 𝑒 − log 1) − ∫ 1𝑑𝑥
2
1
3 8
= log( )
2 3
= 𝑒 log 𝑒 − log 1 − [𝑥]1𝑒

= 𝑒(1) − 0 − [𝑒 − 1]
Definite Integrals using Integration by =𝑒−𝑒+1=1
Parts

We illustrate here some examples of definite 𝟐

4. ∫𝟏 𝒙 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
integrals where integration by parts will have to be
used to evaluate them. Solution:
2
∫ 𝑥 log 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Worked Examples 1

2
𝑥2 𝑥2 1
Evaluate the following: = [(log 𝑥) − ∫ . 𝑑𝑥]
2 2 𝑥 1
𝟏
1. ∫𝟎 𝒙𝒆𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝑥2 1
2
=[ log 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥]
2 2
Solution: 1

2
1 𝑥2 1 𝑥2
∫ 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =[ log 𝑥 − ]
0
2 2 2 1
1 4 4 1 1
= [𝑥𝑒 𝑥 ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 1𝑑𝑥] = ( log 2 − ) − ( log 1 − )
0
2 2 2 4
1 1
= [𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 ]10 = (𝑒 − 𝑒) − (0 − 1) = 1 = 2 log 2 − 1 − log 1 +
2 4
1 1
= 2 log 2 − 1 − (0) +
2 4
𝟏
2. ∫𝟎 𝒙𝒆−𝒙 𝒅𝒙 3
= 2 log 2 − .
4
Solution:
1
∫ 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝟏
0 5. ∫𝟎 𝒙𝟐 𝒆𝒙 𝒅𝒙
1
Solution:
= [𝑥(−𝑒 −𝑥 )]10 ∫ −𝑒 −𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥
1
0 ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
= [−𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥 ]10 = (−𝑒 −1 −𝑒 −1 ) − (0 − 1)
1
2 = [𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 . 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥]
=1− 0
𝑒
1
= [𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 − 2(𝑥𝑒 𝑥 ) − ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 . 1 𝑑𝑥]
0
𝒆
3. ∫𝟏 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = [𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 2𝑒 𝑥 ]10

Solution: = [(1)𝑒1 − 2(1)𝑒 1 + 2𝑒1 ] − [0 − 0 + 2𝑒 0 ]

98
= 𝑒 − 2𝑒 + 2𝑒 − 2 = 𝑒 − 2 = [(3 + 9) log 3 − (3 + 3)]
8 8
− [(2 + ) log 2 − (2 + )]
3 3

𝟑 14 28
6. ∫𝟐 (𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 ) 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 12 log 3 − log 2 −
3 9
Solution:

3
Summary
∫2 (1 + 𝑥 2 ) log 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑥3 𝑥3 1
3 In this unit, we have learnt that integration by
= [(log 𝑥) (𝑥 + ) − ∫ (𝑥 + ) 𝑑𝑥] substitution method is used when basic rules of
3 3 𝑥 2 integration are not directly applicable.
3
𝑥3 𝑥2 According to integration by parts, the integral of the
= [ (𝑥 + ) log 𝑥 − ∫ (1 + ) 𝑑𝑥]
3 3 2
product of two functions = First function × Integral of
second – Integral of [Differential coefficient of first ×
3
𝑥3 𝑥3 integral of second]
= [ (𝑥 + ) log 𝑥 − (1 + )]
3 9 2

99