MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF NATURAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF PLANT SCIENCES, MICROBIOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY

A REPORT OF THE FIELD ATTACHMENT UNDERTAKEN AT

FROM 04/06/2024 TO 26/07/2024

BY
ASILAZA EMMANUEL TAMALE
REG. NO: 22/U/5820

SUPERVISOR:
__________________________________

A FIELD ATTACHMENT REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF PLANT

SCIENCES, MICROBIOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY, COLLEGE OF NATURAL
SCIENCES, IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN BIOTECHNOLOGY OF
MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

i
AUGUST, 2024

ii
 DECLARATION

I ASILAZA EMMANUEL TAMALE, declare that this is my original work and it has not been
submitted for any award in any institution of higher learning.

Signature........................................................................Date.............................................................

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 FIELD SUPERVISOR’S APPROVAL

This field attachment report has been submitted for examination with the approval of the
following supervisors.

Signed:……………………………………………………….

Name:……………………………………………………...

Date:…………………………………………………………….

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 ACADEMIC SUPERVISOR’S APPROVAL

This is to certify that this field attachment report was approved for submission to the Department
of plant sciences, microbiology and biotechnology and it contains the students own work to the
best of my knowledge.

Signed: ……………………………………………………………

Name: ……………………………………………………………..

Date: ……………………………………………………………….

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 DEDICATION
"Dedicated to my field supervisor, Mr. Kwesiga Fred and Dr. Abubakar Mustafa Sadik whose
guidance and support made this possible. With deepest gratitude."

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to acknowledge the contributions of my supervisors, Dr. Mustafa Abubakar Sadik
(Lecturer MUK) and Mr. Kwesiga Fred (Government analyst) for their guidance and support; my
fellow internee, Katende Prize, for his valuable feedback and the staff members at DGAL more
especially at CMB, for their unwavering support. I appreciate their contributions, which have
made it possible for me to learn and gain all the knowledge available the division could offer.
I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my parents and my friends for making this
opportunity possible for me, for providing me with the mental, emotional and financial support
and always believing in me. This accomplishment wouldn’t have been possible without their
encouragement.
I am also thankful to the DGAL management and staff for their warm welcome and giving us a
pleasant environment in which to learn.
Above all I thank the Almighty God for the gift of life and protection enabling me to successfully
and safely accomplish my internship.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents
DECLARATION ………………………………………………………………………………iii
FIELD SUPERVISOR’S APPROVAL.......................................................................................iv
ACADEMIC SUPERVISOR’S APPROVAL..................................................................................v
DEDICATION................................................................................................................................vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.............................................................................................................vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS.............................................................................................................viii
DECLARATION ………………………………………………………………………………iii............viii
LIST OF TABLES..........................................................................................................................ix
LIST OF FIGURES.........................................................................................................................x
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS........................................................................xi
CHAPTER ONE..............................................................................................................................1
1.0 Introduction..........................................................................................................................1
This report serves as evidence for my participation in the Industrial Training for Academic
Year 2023/24 (June-July) at the Directorate of Government Analytical Laboratory-Ministry of
Internal Affairs, Plot No.2 Lourdel Road Wandegeya..................................................................1
1.1 Relevance of the field attachment program..................................................................2
1.2 Description of the Directorate of Government Analytical Laboratory......................2
Location.......................................................................................................................................2
Historical background of DGAL...............................................................................................2
Vision...........................................................................................................................................3
Mission.........................................................................................................................................3
Mandate.......................................................................................................................................3
i. The forensic function..........................................................................................................3
ii. The general scientific functions.........................................................................................3
FUNCTIONS OF DGAL...........................................................................................................4
1.3 Organizational structure of the Directorate of Government Analytical Lab and the major
activities of the specific units..........................................................................................................6
The Departments and their Divisions...........................................................................................6
Criminalistics and Laboratory services....................................................................................6
Toxicology....................................................................................................................................6
Ballistics.......................................................................................................................................7
Questioned Documents...............................................................................................................7
National DNA services...............................................................................................................7
Laboratory services....................................................................................................................8
Quality and Chemical Verification...........................................................................................8
Water and Environment............................................................................................................8
Microbiology and Bioterrorism.................................................................................................8
Food and Drugs..........................................................................................................................9
Pesticides Residue.......................................................................................................................9
CHAPTER TWO.............................................................................................................................9
2.0 Experiences...........................................................................................................................9

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 2.1 Activities..............................................................................................................................10
2.2 New knowledge, skills and benefits gained from the Field attachment Program................26
2.3 Opportunities identified........................................................................................................26
CHAPTER THREE.......................................................................................................................28
3.0 Conclusion, challenges and recommendations.....................................................................28
3.1 Conclusion...........................................................................................................................28
3.2 Challenges...........................................................................................................................28
3.3.1 Recommendations to the host institution.......................................................................28
3.3.2 Recommendation to the academic institution/Department............................................28
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................29
APPENDICES...............................................................................................................................30

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Result for the analysis of water samples A, B & C……………………………17
Table 2: Result for the analysis of pharmaceutical products A1, A3 & A4……………20
Table 3: Result for the analysis of pharmaceutical products B1, B3 & B2……………23
Table 3: Result for the analysis of pharmaceutical products A1, A3 & A4……………24

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 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: XXXXXX........................................................................................................................2

x
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

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 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction
This report serves as evidence for my participation in the Industrial Training for Academic Year
2023/24 (June-July) at the Directorate of Government Analytical Laboratory-Ministry of Internal
Affairs, Plot No.2 Lourdel Road Wandegeya.
Figure 1

This training was carried out from the Directorate of Government Analytical Laboratory (DGAL)
for a period of 8 weeks.
DGAL provides a full range of scientific analysis, forensic and advisory services that facilitate
effective legal proceedings to dispense fair justice, safeguard people’s lives, promote
environmental health and safety.
I was attached to the Microbiology and bioterrorism Division under the Quality and Chemical
Verification Department. This report describes a brief background of the Directorate, its vision,
mission, the organizational structure and functions of the divisions at DGAL. In addition, it
outlines the instruments used in the Microbiology and bioterrorism division, techniques and the
activities carried out during my training.

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1.1 Relevance of the field attachment program
i. To acquire skills in micro-biology.
ii. To relate and appreciate theoretical microbiology with the Practical.
iii. To be introduced to working in relation to skills of my study program.
iv. Proof for participation in the field of training

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1.2 Description of the Directorate of Government Analytical Laboratory
Location
The Directorate of Government Analytical Laboratory (DGAL) is located at plot 2 Lourdel Road
Wandegeya, Kampala Uganda. It’s about 200 meters from Wandegeya traffic lights along
Wandegeya- Mulago road opposite Ministry of Public Service.
Historical background of DGAL
Government Analytical Laboratory is a directorate under Ministry of Internal Affairs. It’s
believed to have been established in the 1930’s in the office of Government Pathologist under the
then Ministry of Defense. After independence in 1962, it was transferred to the Ministry of
Internal Affairs and renamed Government Chemist and Analytical Laboratory as a section within
the Uganda police.
In 1967, the Government Chemist and Analytical Laboratory became a fully-fledged department
under Ministry of Internal Affairs headed by the Chief Government Chemist and later the
Commissioner.
In 2009, GAL was elevated as a directorate in the ministry of internal affairs comprising of the
Office of the Director and the department of;
Criminalistics made up of the division of Toxicology, Ballistics, Questioned Documents and
DNA Laboratories.
Quality and Chemical Verification. Under which the Water and Environment, Microbiology
and Bioterrorism, Food and Drugs and the pesticide residual divisions are established.
Each division in the department is headed by principal/senior government analyst.
Vision, Mission, Mandate and Functions of DGAL
Vision
To provide full range of analytical services to support enforcement and regulation of public
health and safety.
Mission
To safeguard the lives of people and the environment through the provision of forensic and

general scientific services.

Mandate

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To carryout highly specialized and sophisticated forensic and general scientific analytical and
testing services.
DGAL derives its mandate from that of Ministry of Internal Affairs, the Magistrates Court Act,
and Acts of other statutory bodies such as Uganda National Bureau of Standards, National
Environmental Management Authority, National Drug Authority and National Agricultural
Chemical Board. It provides forensic and general chemical and biological analyses, tests and
consultancy to the public and Government in scientific matters.
Government Analytical Laboratory implements its mandate through two main functions;
i. The forensic function
To assist in criminal civil and commercial investigations and their trials through examination,
analysis and comparison of exhibits and samples through application of relevant branches of
science. Different divisions undertake diverse examination and analysis of physical evidence
materials leading to provision of reliable and irrefutable scientific evidence and hence providing
and strengthening the links in the chain of evidence to detect and incriminate the guilty or excuse
the innocent.
ii. The general scientific functions

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To provide a full range of analytical services to support enforcement and regulation of public
health and safety, environment protection, protection of Government revenue and consumer
protection.
DGAL is guided by the following pieces of legislation;
i. Control of Agricultural Chemicals Act
ii. The Firearms Act, CAP 299
iii. The Food and Drugs Act, CAP 278

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 iv. The Evidence Act, CAP 6
v. The National Drug Policy and Authority Act, CAP 206
vi. The Magistrate Act, CAP 16
vii. The Standard and Quality Policy analytical, forensic and advisory services
viii. The National Bureau of Standards Act, CAP 327
ix. The Habitual Criminals (Preventive Detention) Act, CAP 119
x. The Explosives Act, CAP 298
xi. The Court of Justice Act, CAP 13
xii. Adulteration of Produce Act, CAP 27
FUNCTIONS OF DGAL
a) Detect trafficking of persons and illicit drugs
b) Facilitating solving crimes like murders, rapes, defilements, burglary, motor vehicle hit
and run, etc.
c) Detection of natural poisons in food products such as flours, packaged honey, wines,
juices, etc.to enhance development of products, safety and ensure their fit for human
consumption.
d) Product quality and safety verification such as fish, chicken, meats and dairy products for
local and export markets (pesticide residues)
e) Document examination to detect forgeries, counterfeits, fraud, suicide, etc.

6
f) Ensure safety of herbal medicines for use locally and internationally.
g) Providing parenthood and other biological relationships for general knowledge and cases
of human trafficking, immigration, adoption, estate administration and compensation for
government projects such as roads
h) Consultancy in a wide range of services such as products formulation and development
(waters, juices, packed foods, body creams and vaselines)
i) Training student scientists, law enforcement officers and other stakeholders.

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 1.3 Organizational structure of the Directorate of Government Analytical Lab and the
major activities of the specific units
The Departments and their Divisions
Criminalistics and Laboratory services
This is made up of the Divisions of Toxicology, Ballistics, Questioned Documents and DNA as
well as the Laboratory services’ section.
Core functions of Criminalistics
To provide DNA profiling services in crime investigations in case of murder, rape, defilement,
disputed parentage, identification of mass disaster victims, human identification and other related
cases.
i. To develop a national DNA databank
ii. Toxicological analysis and investigation.
iii. To carry out examination and analysis of questioned documents to bolster crime
investigations.
iv. Provide computer forensic services as a tool in non-cyber based fraud investigations.
v. To carry out cyber-based crime investigations.
vi. To examine fire arms and ammunitions used in crime
vii. To carry out identification of tool marks and erased serial numbers.
viii. To carry out analysis and identification of explosives
ix. To undertake arson investigations.
Toxicology
This Section performs the following functions;
a. Carry out toxicological analysis in body fluids, post mortem material and other samples for
detection, identification and quantification of poisons.
b. Carry out clinical toxicological analysis such as drug abuse or misuse, drug overdose and
therapeutic drug monitoring.
c. Toxic substance screening in suspected foodstuff.
d. Drugs of abuse identification in biological fluids (blood and urine).
e. Decontamination of hazardous substances.

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 f. Application of forensic toxicology in verification of substances such as chemical wastes and
questioned products.
 Arson investigation
Ballistics
This Section performs the following functions;
i. Examination of firearms and ammunitions used in crimes or otherwise as may be required.
ii. Identification of tool marks and erased numbers.
iii. Identification of explosive
Questioned Documents
This Section performs the following functions;
I. Examination of handwriting and signature.
II. Examination of typed, written, photocopied and printed materials.
III. Examination of forged passports and currency notes.
IV. Examination of rubber stamps and signatures.
V. Examination of altered documents.
VI. Examination of paper and ink.
VII. Investigation of cybercrime.
National DNA services
This Section performs the following functions;
a) Grouping of blood, semen and other body fluids for ABO system, Rh system, MN system
and isoenzymes.
b) Species identification of semen, blood and tissues.
c) Disputed parentage cases
d) Criminal investigation
e) Identification of mass disaster victims
f) Determining whether a biological material is of human origin.
g) Studying the genetic ancestry of human population
h) Plant and animal research
i) Human identification.

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Laboratory services
The Laboratory services’ section provides a supportive role to all the other Divisions of the
Directorate.

Quality and Chemical Verification

This comprises of the Water and Environment, Microbiology and Bioterrorism, Food and Drugs,
as well as the Pesticides Residue
Water and Environment
The Water and Environment (W&E) laboratory is an integral Division/section of Directorate of
Government Analytical Laboratory (DGAL) under the Quality and Chemical Verification
Department.
The Division is currently manned by a Government Analyst (Ag. Head of Division) who is the
overall supervisor and head of technical work and reports to the Head of Department-QCV.
The main role of the W&E laboratory is to provide general and forensic analysis in chemical and
biological laboratory services in water and environmental samples.
The Division offers services to the public, Government departments, parastatals and the private
sector.

This Division performs the following functions;

a) Analysis of water for suitability for human consumption and other purposes like industrial,
irrigation, and cattle dips, etc.
b) Analysis of effluent for environmental pollution purposes.
c) Trace metal analysis.
Microbiology and Bioterrorism
The Micro biology and Bio terrorism (CMB) laboratory is an integral Division/Section of
Directorate of Government Analytical Laboratory (DGAL) under the Quality and Chemical
Verification Department.
The Division is currently managed by a senior Government Analyst (Head of Division) who is
the overall supervisor and head of technical work and reports to the Head of Department-QCV.

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 The main role of the CMB laboratory is to provide general and forensic analysis in chemical and
biological laboratory services in water, food, beverages and other environmental samples.
The Division offers services to the public, Government departments, parastatals and the private
sector.
This Division performs the following functions;
I. Analysis of microorganisms in food and water as well as other environmental samples.
II. Identification of biological warfare
Food and Drugs
This Section performs the following functions;
a. Analysis of human and animal food to verify its suitability for consumption.
b. Analysis of human and animal drugs for safety verification.
c. Identifies and quantifies drugs of abuse (Narcotic & Psychotropic) such as;
i. Opiates (Heroin, morphine, opium, codeine, etc.).
ii. Cannabinoids
iii. Cocaine, Methadone
d. Precursor chemicals of Drugs of abuse
Pesticides Residue
This Section performs the following functions;
a. The division carries out pesticide residue analysis in food, water, soil, effluents, etc. for
human toxicity and environment.
b. Identification and Quantification of Chemical weapon agents.
c. Advisory services to the public on safe handling of pesticides and toxic chemicals.
d. Verification of chemicals.

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Experiences
Interning in a microbiology lab that analyses water, environmental samples, food, drugs, and
pharmaceutical products provided me with a wide range of valuable experiences. Here are some
key areas where I gained hands-on experience:

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1. Water and Environmental Microbiology
i. Sample storage and Preparation: I learnt how to store and prepare water and
environmental samples for microbiological analysis.
ii. Microbial Enumeration: I performed tests to count total coliforms, E. coli, and other
indicator organisms using membrane filtration and chromogenic media.
iii. Water Quality Testing: I conducted tests to assess the microbial quality of portable water
and wastewater.
2. Food Microbiology
i. Food Safety Testing: I analysed food samples for microbial contamination.
3. Pharmaceutical Microbiology
i. Sterility Testing: I conducted tests on drug and pharmaceutical products to ensure they
are free from microbial contamination.
4. General Laboratory Skills
i. Media Preparation: I prepared various culture media used for growing and identifying
microorganisms.
ii. Sterilization Techniques: I learnt and applied sterilization methods such as autoclaving
and using hot air ovens.
5. Quality Control and Assurance
i. Good Laboratory Practices (GLP): I was able to Understand and follow GLP to ensure
the accuracy and reliability of test results.
ii. Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs): I learnt to follow SOPs for various
microbiological tests and procedures.
iii. Regulatory Compliance: I gained knowledge about regulatory requirements and standards
for microbiological testing in different industries.
6. Teamwork and Communication
i. Collaboration: I effectively worked with a team of microbiologists, lab technicians, and
other scientists.
ii. Communication Skills: I developed skills in communicating scientific findings to
colleagues, supervisors, and stakeholders.

2.1 Activities
Introduction to Sterilization Methods
Sterilization is a critical process in medical, laboratory, and pharmaceutical settings to ensure
that equipment and materials are free from all forms of microbial life, including bacteria, viruses,
fungi, and spores. Two common methods of sterilization used in the CMB microbiology lab
are autoclaving and hot air oven sterilization. Each method has its specific applications based
on the nature of the materials being sterilized.
Autoclave Sterilization
Working Principle
The vertical pressure steam sterilizer autoclave uses moist heat in the form of high-pressure
steam to kill microorganisms. The principle is based on the fact that steam under pressure in a
closed system can reach higher temperatures than boiling water, effectively killing even heat-
resistant spores.
Procedure
i. The autoclave was opened from the top lever door.
ii. The sterilization trays were taken out and the water level and quality

12
 checked.
iii. The materials to be sterilized (media i.e PCA, PDA, etc, glass wares,
filtration funnels. Etc) were wrapped in sterile aluminium foil and
marked with autoclaving tape and the properly packed in sterilization
trays.
iv. The trays were put back into the unit and the cover gently closed and the
bolts were properly tightened.
v. The power was turned on from the mains and then on the equipment
and the timer knob adjusted to 15mins of sterilization.
vi. The exhaust valve was opened at the start of heating until steam started
getting out and it was the tightly closed for effective sterilization.
vii. When the cycle ended, alarm was made and the power switches on the
mains and the equipment were turned off and exhaust valve was gently
opened when the pressure gauge was at zero to release the built pressure
inside as it cools.
viii. After 30mins, the unit cover was opened and the sterilization trays with
the sterilized materials were taken out of the unit using the tongs
provided.
NB. The sterilization occurred at 121°C, pressure of 15psi for 15mins.
Materials Sterilized
i. Laboratory glassware
ii. Culture media
iii. Used plates (decontamination)
iv. Filtration funnels
Hot Air Oven Sterilization
Working Principle
The Nabertherm TR120 oven uses dry heat to sterilize materials. The principle involves heating
the air inside the oven, which then transfers heat to the items, killing microorganisms through
oxidation and denaturation of proteins.
Procedure
i. The oven door was carefully opened by turning the handle clockwise
direction and the trays were appropriately adjusted to suit the volumes of
the materials the sterilized.
ii. The materials wrapped in aluminium foils and put in metallic containers
were stacked onto the trays ensuring they were firm.
iii. The oven door was the closed by turning in anti cock wise direction and
the power was switched from the mains and the oven was also switched
on.
iv. The heater was turned on for heating and the exhaust air valve was
closed by adjusting the butterfly knob valve.
v. The desired temperature for sterilization of 120°C for 1hour was set and
the material were exposed to the desired heating time taking note of the
start and stop time.
vi. After the cycle, the oven was turned off and the power from the main
also switched off, the air valve opened and the details of the cycle
(starting time, stopping time and the temperature for sterilization) were

13
 recorded in the oven usage log book.
vii. After cooling the oven was opened using heat resistant gloves to avoid
damage.
Materials Sterilized
i. Glassware (e.g., Petri dishes, flasks, pippetes etc)
ii. Metal instruments (filtration funnels)
NB. Both methods are essential for maintaining sterile conditions in various settings, ensuring
the safety and efficacy of laboratory procedures.

INTRODUCTION TO SAFETY MEASURES IN THE MICROBIOLOGY LAB.

Introduction
Working in a microbiology laboratory involves handling potentially hazardous microorganisms
and chemicals. To ensure safety, several measures were followed.
1. General Laboratory Safety Practices
I. Access Control. Limiting of access to authorized personnel only.
II. Handwashing. Washing of hands thoroughly with liquid soap before exiting the
lab and after handling infectious materials or disinfecting with 70% ethanol.
III. No Eating or Drinking. Eating and drinking were prohibited in the lab.
IV. Disinfection. Disinfecting of working areas and weighing balance before and after
working with samples and culture media.
2. Microbiology-Specific Safety Practices
i. Proper Handling of Cultures. Use of gloves when working with cultures and
disposing of them in biohazard containers after use.
ii. Sharp Objects. Handling sharp objects with extreme care to avoid accidental
injuries.
iii. Aerosol Precautions. Taking of keen precautions when working with procedures
that may create infectious aerosols.
Uses of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) in the Lab
PPE is essential for protecting laboratory personnel from exposure to hazardous substances and
microorganisms and samples from contamination with external substances from the personnel.
Common PPE used in microbiology labs includes;
1. Gloves.
Purpose. Protecting of hands from exposure to infectious agents and harmful
chemicals.
Usage. Wearing of gloves when handling cultures, chemicals, and contaminated
equipment. Dispose of gloves properly after use.
2. Lab Coats
Purpose. Protect skin and personal clothing from spills and splashes.
Usage. Wear lab coats at all times in the lab. Store them in a designated area when not
in use.
3. Head Covers.
Purpose. Protect the hair and scalp from contamination.
Usage. Worn when there is a risk of exposure to airborne particles. They help
prevent the spread of contaminants from the hair to the environment and vice versa.
4. Shoe Covers.
Purpose. Provide a barrier against contaminants on the floor.

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 Usage. Worn to prevent the spread of contaminants from the shoes to the laboratory
environment and to protect the shoes from contamination.
NB. By using head covers and shoe covers, laboratory personnel can maintain a cleaner
and safer working environment, reducing the risk of contamination and infection. If you
have any more questions or need further details, feel free to ask
5. Face masks.
Purpose. Provide protection for the face from aerosols.
Usage. Use face masks when performing high-risk procedures.
By adhering to these safety measures and properly using PPE, you can minimize the risk of
accidents and infections in the microbiology laboratory.
Figure 2.

INTRODUCTION TO THE WORKING PRINCIPLES OF THE DIFFERENT

MACHINES USED IN THE MICROBIOLOGY LAB.
Introduction
Microbiology laboratories use a variety of machines to conduct experiments, analyse samples,
and ensure safety. Here are some of the key machines and their working principles.

Cooler Box
A cooler box, also known as an icebox, operates on a simple yet effective principle of insulation
to keep its contents cool. Here’s how it works.
Insulation.
Principle. The walls of a cooler box are made from materials that minimize heat
transfer. Common insulating materials include foam or plastic with air pockets, which
are poor conductors of heat.
Function. This insulation slows down the flow of heat from the outside environment
into the cooler, helping to maintain a low temperature inside.

15
 Cooling Agents.
Principle. Ice packs or ice cubes are used as cooling agents. These agents absorb heat
from the contents of the cooler as they melt.
Function. The ice remains at a constant temperature (0°C or 32°F) while melting,
which helps keep the contents of the cooler at a similar temperature.
Heat Absorption.
Principle. Ice absorbs heat energy as it changes from solid to liquid. This process,
known as the latent heat of fusion, helps maintain a cool environment inside the
cooler.
Function. As long as there is ice present, the temperature inside the cooler remains
low, keeping food and drinks cold.
Minimizing Air Exchange.
Principle. Keeping the cooler closed as much as possible prevents warm air from
entering and cold air from escaping.
Function. This helps maintain the internal temperature for a longer period.
Colony counter.
A colony counter is a device used to count colonies of microorganisms growing on an agar plate.
There are two main types; manual and automatic. Here’s how each works.
Manual Colony Counter
Principle.
Pressure Registration. A Petri plate is placed on an electronic pressure pad with light
illumination. Each colony is marked by touching the plate with a felt-tip pen. The
pressure of the touch registers a count in the digital display.
Adjustable Sensitivity. The pressure sensitivity can be adjusted to ensure accurate
counting without missing or double-counting colonies.
Components.
1. Light Source. Illuminates the agar plate to make colonies visible.
2. Magnifying Lens. Helps in clearly seeing the colonies.
3. Counting Grid. Assists in accurately counting the colonies.
Automatic Colony Counter
Principle.
Image Processing. Uses a camera and image analysis software to detect and count
colonies automatically. The software applies algorithms such as grey scaling,
thresholding, and filtering to identify colonies.
Digital Display. The counted colonies are displayed on a digital screen, reducing
human error and increasing efficiency.
Components.
i. Camera. Captures high-resolution images of the agar plate.
ii. Software. Analyses the images to count colonies based on size, shape, and colour.
iii. Display Screen. Shows the count and other relevant data.

Hot Air Oven

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A hot air oven is a crucial piece of equipment in microbiology labs, used primarily for
sterilization. It operates on the principle of dry heat sterilization through convection, conduction,
and radiation. Here’s a detailed look at how it works.
Convection.
Principle. The heating elements inside the oven heat the air, which is then circulated
evenly throughout the chamber by fans. This ensures uniform temperature
distribution.
Function. The hot air transfers heat to the surfaces of the items inside the oven,
ensuring even heating.
Conduction.
Principle. Heat is absorbed by the exterior surface of an item and then passed inward
to the next layer.
Function. This process ensures that the entire item, including its core, reaches the
required sterilization temperature.
Radiation.
Principle. The heating elements emit infrared radiation, which directly heats the items
inside the oven.
Function. This helps in achieving the desired temperature more efficiently.
Sterilization Process
 Temperature and Time. The most commonly used settings are 170°C for 60 minutes. The
exact settings depend on the type of material being sterilized and the microorganisms
targeted.
 Mechanism of Action. The dry heat causes oxidative damage to cellular constituents,
denaturation of proteins, and the toxic effect of elevated levels of electrolytes, ultimately
leading to the death of microorganisms.
Applications
Hot air ovens are used to sterilize:
 Glassware
 Metal instruments
 Other heat-resistant materials
Refrigerator
A laboratory refrigerator operates on the principle of the refrigeration cycle, which involves
removing heat from the interior to maintain a low temperature. Here’s a detailed look at how it
works.
Refrigeration Cycle:
Principle: The refrigeration cycle involves the compression, condensation, expansion,
and evaporation of a refrigerant.
Function: The refrigerant absorbs heat from the interior of the refrigerator and
releases it outside, thereby cooling the inside.
Components.
i. Compressor. Compresses the refrigerant gas, raising its temperature and pressure.
ii. Condenser Coils. The hot, high-pressure refrigerant gas passes through the
condenser coils, where it releases heat to the surroundings and condenses into a
liquid.

17
 iii. Expansion Valve. The liquid refrigerant passes through an expansion valve, where
it expands and evaporates, causing a drop in temperature.
iv. Evaporator Coils. The cold refrigerant absorbs heat from the interior of the
refrigerator as it passes through the evaporator coils, cooling the inside.
Temperature Control.
Thermostat. Monitors the internal temperature and controls the compressor to
maintain the desired temperature.
Fan. Circulates air inside the refrigerator to ensure even cooling

Water Bath
A water bath is a common laboratory equipment used to maintain a stable temperature for
samples over a prolonged period. Here’s how it works.
Heat Transfer.
Principle. The water bath operates on the principle of heat transfer through water. A
heating element warms the water to a pre-set temperature.
Function. The thermal conductivity of water ensures even distribution of heat,
providing a uniform temperature throughout the bath.
Temperature Control:
Principle. The unit is fitted with a temperature sensor that converts the water
temperature into a resistance value. This value is amplified and compared by an
integrated amplifier, producing a control signal.
Function. This control signal efficiently regulates the average heating power of the
heating element, maintaining the water at a constant temperature.
Components.
a) Container. Made of insulated metal, usually stainless steel, to hold the water
and samples.
b) Lid. Helps prevent water evaporation and maintains temperature stability.
c) Heater. Located at the bottom, it heats the water.
d) Thermometer. Measures the water temperature, either integrated or added
separately.
Applications
Water baths are used in various laboratory applications, including;
i. Warming reagents. Ensuring reagents are at the correct temperature for reactions.
ii. Sample thawing. Gradually thawing frozen samples.
iii. Incubating media. Maintaining a stable environment for prepared media.

Incubators
Incubators are essential devices in microbiology labs, designed to create and maintain optimal
environmental conditions for the growth and development of microorganisms. Here’s how they
work.
Thermo-Electricity Principle.
Principle. Incubators operate on the principle of thermo-electricity. They use a

18
 thermostat to maintain a constant temperature by creating a thermal gradient. When a
conductor is exposed to a thermal gradient, it generates voltage, known as the
thermoelectric effect.
Function. The thermostat regulates the temperature inside the incubator, ensuring it
remains stable and within the desired range.
Temperature Control.
Principle. The incubator is heated to a predefined temperature (commonly 37°C for
microbiological cultures). The temperature sensor, controller, and contactor work
together to maintain this temperature.
Function. When the temperature reaches the set point, the thermostat sends a signal to
the contactor to turn off the heating elements. If the temperature drops, the contactor
reactivates the heaters to maintain the desired temperature.
Air Circulation.
Principle. Many incubators use fans to circulate hot air evenly throughout the
chamber.
Function. This ensures uniform temperature distribution, preventing hot or cold spots
and providing a consistent environment for all samples.
Components of an Incubator
i. Cabinet. The main body, double-walled and insulated to prevent heat loss.
ii. Door. Insulated and have a glass window for observing samples without disturbing the
internal environment.
iii. Control Panel. Contains switches and indicators to set and monitor temperature and other
parameters.
iv. Shelves. Removable shelves to hold samples and allow air circulation.
v. Thermostat: Regulates the temperature by controlling the heating elements.

WATER ANALYSIS
E. coli and total coliform
Introduction
Chromogenic Coliform Agar (CCA) is a selective and differential media used for the detection
and enumeration of Escherichia coli (E. coli) and other coliform bacteria in water, food, and
environmental samples. This media differentiates between coliform and non-coliform bacteria
based on their ability to produce specific enzymes that cleave chromogenic substrates, resulting
in distinct colony colors.
Preparation of the media (CCA)
1. 13.55g of CCA powder was weighed using Mettler Toledo weighing balance after
balance verification in 500ml glass bottle and 500ml of sterilized water was added and
mixed well.
2. The mixture was heated using microwave until the powder was completely dissolved.
3. The media was then cooled to 50°C in a Memmert water bath-WPE 45 for about
15minutes.
4. Under BSC, about 15ml of the media was poured into sterile Petri dishes and allowed to
solidify.

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 5. The plates were then labelled with the sample ID, name of the analyst, volume of the
sample used, date of analysis, media used and the incubation temperature.
Procedure for the analysis
Sample Filtration
i. The water samples were first brought from the fridge and placed on the
working area for thawing.
ii. The filtration unit was then sterilized using 70% alcohol and then flamed
with fire.
iii. Appropriate volumes of the water samples (100 mL for portable water,
100ml, 50ml and 25ml for waste water) were filtered on a sterilized
filtration bridge using membrane filters.
iv. The membrane filters were placed on the surfaces of the CCA plates,
ensuring no air was trapped underneath.
v. 100ml of the sterilized water used for dilution in 25ml of waste water was
also filtered using filtration membrane and the membrane filter placed on
the surface of CCA plate.
Figure 3

Incubation
The plates were then invertedly incubated at 37°C for 24 hours.
A plate with a blank membrane, membrane from filtration of water used for dilution and a media
blank plate were also incubated to act as quality control.
Examination
a. After incubation, the plates were analysed for the presence of typical coloured
colonies. The plates having membranes for the water samples had different types
and numbers of colonies.
b. The plate having membrane blank, media blank and membrane from filtration of
water used for dilution all had no growth.
i. The colour of colonies on the plates
ii. E. Coli. Dark blue colonies.
iii. Other coliforms. Pink colonies.
iv. Non-coliform bacteria. Cream colonies.
Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6

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 c. The plates were then enumerated using the colony counter and the results
tabulated below.

TABLE 1
Samples Volume used E. Coli Total coliform
A 100ml 20 60
B 50ml 11 37
B(duplicate) 50ml 07 24
B 25ml 04 15
C 100 01 00

Uses
Chromogenic Coliform Agar is widely used for the detection and enumeration of E. coli and
coliform bacteria in various samples, including drinking water, disinfected pool water, and
finished water from treatment plants. This media provides a fast and accurate method for
monitoring water quality and ensuring public health safety.

Faecal coliform
Introduction
HiCrome Coliform Agar is a selective and differential media designed for the simultaneous
detection and enumeration of Escherichia coli (E. coli) and other coliform bacteria, including
faecal coliforms, in water, food, and environmental samples. This media uses chromogenic
substrates to differentiate between coliforms and non-coliforms based on their enzymatic
activity, resulting in distinct colony colours.
Preparation of the Hicrome coliform agar medium.
1. 8.4g of the Hicrome coliform agar powder was weighed using Mettler Toledo weighing
balance after balance verification in 250ml glass bottle and 150ml of distilled water was
added and mixed well.
2. The media was then sterilized using vertical pressure steam sterilizer at 121°C, 15psi
pressure for 15mins.
3. The media was then cooled to 50°C in a Memmert water bath-WPE 45 for about
15minutes.
4. Under BSC, about 15ml of the media was poured into sterile Petri dishes and allowed to
solidify.
5. The plates were then labelled with the sample ID, name of the analyst, volume of the
sample used, date of analysis, media used and the incubation temperature.

21
Procedure for the analysis
Sample Filtration
1. The water samples were first brought from the fridge and placed on the
working area for thawing.
2. The filtration unit was then sterilized using 70% alcohol and then flamed
with fire.
3. 100ml of the water samples were filtered on a sterilized filtration bridge
using membrane filters.
4. The membrane filters were placed on the surfaces of the Hicrome coliform
agar plates, ensuring no air was trapped underneath.
5. Duplicates were done on some samples at random.

Incubation
1. The plates were then invertedly incubated at 44°C for 24 hours.
2. A plate with a blank membrane and a media blank plate were also incubated to act as
quality control.
3. Examination
a. After incubation, the plates were analysed for the presence of typical coloured
colonies. The plates having membranes for the water samples had different types
and numbers of colonies.
b. The plate having membrane blank and media blank had no growth.
The colour of colonies on the plates
i. E. Coli. Dark blue colonies.
ii. Other coliforms. Pink colonies.
iii. Non-coliform bacteria. Cream colonies.

Uses
HiCrome Coliform Agar is widely used for the detection and enumeration of E. coli and coliform
bacteria in various samples, including drinking water, food, and environmental samples. This
medium provides a fast and accurate method for monitoring water quality and ensuring public
health safety.

Total plate count

Introduction
Standard Methods Agar, also known as Plate Count Agar, is a widely used media for enumerating
the total number of viable aerobic bacteria in water, food, and other samples. This media
supports the growth of a broad range of bacteria, making it ideal for assessing the overall
microbial load in a sample.
Preparation of standard methods agar (PCA)
1. 3.76g of the PCA powder was weighed using Mettler Toledo weighing balance after
balance verification in 250ml glass bottle and 160ml of distilled water was added and
mixed well.
2. The media was then sterilized using vertical pressure steam sterilizer at 121°C, 15psi
pressure for 15mins.
3. The media was then cooled to 50°C in a Memmert water bath-WPE 45 for about

22
 15minutes.
Procedure for the analysis
i. The water samples were first brought from the fridge and placed on the working area for
thawing.
ii. 1 ml and 0.5ml of each water sample was pipetted and inoculated onto the surface of
sterile Petri dishes under BSC. Duplicates were done for the samples
iii. About 15ml of the prepared Standard Methods Agar was poured into each Petri dish
including empty petri dish for media blank as the control.
iv. The plates were gently swirled to mix the sample with the agar uniformly and left to
solidify.
v. The plates were labelled with the sample ID, name of the analyst, volume of the sample
used, date of analysis, medium used and the incubation temperature.
Incubation
1. The plates were then invertedly incubated at 37°C for 48 hours.
2. A plate with a media blank plate was also incubated to act as quality control.

Counting Colonies
I. After incubation, the plates were counted for colonies less than 250.
II. The total plate counts were the calculated by multiplying the number of colonies
by the dilution factor.
Figure 7

Uses
Standard Methods Agar is used for the enumeration of aerobic bacteria in water, wastewater,
food, and dairy products. It provides a reliable method for assessing the microbial quality of
these samples and ensuring compliance with public health standards.

ANALYSIS OF DRUGS AND PHARMACEUTICAL PRODUCTS.

Yeast and moulds

Introduction
Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) is a widely used media for the cultivation and enumeration of
yeasts and molds. It is particularly useful in the pharmaceutical industry for testing drugs and
pharmaceutical products (both solids and liquids) to ensure they are free from fungal
contamination. PDA supports the growth of a broad range of fungi, making it ideal for detecting
and enumerating yeasts and molds in various samples.
Preparation of PDA media and Peptone salt water.

23
 1. 9.75g of the PDA powder and 2.39g of Peptone salt crystal were weighed using Mettler
Toledo weighing balance after balance verification in 250ml glass bottles and 250ml of
distilled water was added and mixed well.
2. The media and the Peptone salt water were then sterilized using vertical pressure steam
sterilizer at 121°C, 15psi pressure for 15mins.
3. The media was then cooled to 50°C in a Memmert water bath-WPE 45 for about
15minutes as the Peptone salt water was put in the BSC to cool to room temperature.
4. Under BSC, about 15ml of the PDA media after adding nitric acid into it was poured into
sterile Petri dishes and allowed to solidify.
5. The plates were then labelled with the sample ID, name of the analyst, volume of the
sample used, date of analysis, medium used and the incubation temperature.
Procedure for the analysis of the samples
Sample Preparation
o For solid samples, A1 and A3, 10g of each sample was weighed in stomacher bag
using Mettler Toledo weighing balance and 90ml of the Peptone salt water added
and homogenized using the stomacher machine.
o For liquid samples, A4, equal volumes (about 5ml) from each sample containers
were mixed in the same glass bottle to get homogeneous sample.
Inoculation
o O.5 mL of the prepared samples and diluted samples from serial dilution using
the Peptone salt water up to 10*-4 were pipetted onto the surface of the PDA
plates.
o The samples were evenly spread using sterile glass spreaders starting from the
least diluted to most diluted to ensure uniform distribution.
Incubation
i. The plates were then incubated at 25°C for 5 days.
ii. A plate with a media blank and 0.5ml spread Peptone salt water were also incubated to
act as quality control.
Examination:
o After incubation, the plates were examined for the presence of yeast and mold
colonies.
o Quality control plates had no growth.
o The colonies were counted and the results reported as colony-forming units
(CFU) per gram and millilitre of the solid and liquid samples respectively.
Figure 9 Figure 10

24
 TABLE 2

Uses
PDA is used for the detection and enumeration of yeasts and molds in various samples, including
pharmaceutical products. It helps ensure the microbial quality and safety of these products by
detecting potential fungal contamination.

E. Coli
Introduction
HiCrome E. coli Agar is a selective and differential media designed for the detection and
enumeration of Escherichia coli (E. coli) in various samples, including drugs and
pharmaceutical products. This media uses chromogenic substrates to differentiate E. coli from
other bacteria based on their enzymatic activity, resulting in distinct colony colors.
Preparation of the media (Hicrome E. Coli agar)
1. 2.41g of the Hicrome E. Coli agar powder was weighed using Mettler Toledo weighing
balance after balance verification in 250ml glass bottles and 100ml of distilled water was
added and mixed well.
2. The media was then sterilized using vertical pressure steam sterilizer at 121°C, 15psi
pressure for 15mins.
3. The media was then cooled to 50°C in a Memmert water bath-WPE 45 for about
15minutes.
Procedure for the analysis of the samples
Sample Preparation
1. For solid samples, A1 and A3, 10g of each sample was weighed in stomacher bag
using Mettler Toledo weighing balance and 90ml of the Peptone salt water added
and homogenized using the stomacher machine.
2. For liquid samples, A4, equal volumes (about 5ml) from each sample containers
were mixed in the same glass bottle to get homogeneous sample.
Inoculation:
i. Pour plate method was used were 1ml of each sample was pipetted and inoculated on
the surface of clean glass petri dishes under BSC.
ii. About 20ml of the Hicrome E. Coli media was poured on to each petri dish and an
empty petri dish for quality control and the plates were swirled for homogenizing and
then left to solidify.
iii. The plates were labelled with the sample ID, name of the analyst, volume of the
sample used, date of analysis, medium used and the incubation temperature after
solidifying and taken for incubation.
Incubation
1. The plates were then invertedly incubated at 44°C for 24 hours.

25
 2. A plate with a media blank plate was also incubated to act as quality control.

3. Examination
o After incubation, the plates were examined for the presence of typical coloured
colonies.
Colour of colonies
 E. Coli. Dark blue colonies.
 Other bacteria. Colourless colonies.
Uses
HiCrome E. coli Agar is widely used for the detection and enumeration of E. coli in various
samples, including pharmaceutical products. This medium provides a fast and accurate method
for monitoring microbial contamination and ensuring the safety and quality of pharmaceutical
products.

Total coliform
Analysis of Total Coliform Using VRBL Agar
Introduction
Violet Red Bile Lactose (VRBL) Agar is a selective media used for the isolation, detection, and
enumeration of coliform bacteria in water, milk, dairy products, and other foodstuffs. Coliforms
are gram-negative, non-sporulating, oxidase-negative bacteria that can ferment lactose to
produce acid and gas within 24-48 hours at 35-37°C.
Preparation
1. 3.85g of the VRBL powder was weighed using Mettler Toledo weighing balance after
balance verification in 250ml glass bottle and 100ml of sterilized water was added and
mixed well.
2. The media was then homogenised using microwave until the solid dissolved.
3. The medium was then cooled to 50°C in a Memmert water bath-WPE 45 for about
15minutes.

Procedure for the analysis of the samples.

Sample Preparation
1. For solid samples, B1 and B3, 10g of each sample was weighed in stomacher bag
using Mettler Toledo weighing balance and 90ml of the Peptone salt water added
and homogenized using the stomacher machine.
2. For liquid samples, B2, equal volumes (about 5ml) from each sample containers
were mixed in the same glass bottle to get homogeneous sample.

Inoculation
1. 1 mL of the prepared and diluted samples were pipetted onto the surface of a
VRBL Agar plates.
2. About 20ml of the VRBL media was poured on to each plate including an empty
plate for quality control.
3. The plates were swirled and allowed to solidify and then labelled with the sample
ID, name of the analyst, volume of the sample used, date of analysis, medium
used and the incubation temperature.
Incubation

26
 a. The plates were then invertedly incubated at 44°C for 24 hours.
b. A plate with a media blank plate was also incubated to act as quality control.

Examination
i. After incubation, the plates were examined for the presence of typical coloured
colonies.
ii. Colour of colonies observed.
 Coliforms. Red colonies with a red-purple halo.
 Non-coliform bacteria. Colourless colonies.
TABLE 3

Analysis of Total Plate Count Using PCA

Introduction
Plate Count Agar (PCA), also known as Standard Methods Agar, is a general-purpose media used
for the enumeration of viable aerobic bacteria in water, food, and other samples. It is not
selective and supports the growth of a wide range of bacteria, making it ideal for determining the
total microbial load in a sample.
Preparation of the standard methods agar (PCA)
1. 9.51g of the PCA powder was weighed using Mettler Toledo weighing balance after
balance verification in 500ml glass bottle and 405ml of distilled water was added and
mixed well.
2. The medium was then sterilized using vertical pressure steam sterilizer at 121°C, 15psi
pressure for 15mins.
3. The medium was then cooled to 50°C in a Memmert water bath-WPE 45 for about
15minutes.

Procedure
Sample Preparation
i. For solid samples, A1 and A3, 10g of each sample was weighed in stomacher bag
using Mettler Toledo weighing balance and 90ml of the Peptone salt water added and
homogenized using the stomacher machine.
ii. For liquid samples, A4, equal volumes (about 5ml) from each sample containers were
mixed in the same glass bottle to get homogeneous sample.
Inoculation
1. 1 ml and 0.1ml of each prepared and diluted sample by serial dilution up to 10*-5 was
pipetted and inoculated onto the surface of sterile Petri dishes under BSC.
2. About 15ml of the prepared Standard Methods Agar was poured into each Petri dish

27
 including empty petri dish for media blank as the control.
3. The plates were gently swirled to mix the sample with the agar uniformly and left to
solidify.
4. The plates were labelled after solidifying with the sample ID, name of the analyst,
volume of the sample used, date of analysis, medium used and the incubation
temperature.

Incubation
c. The plates were then invertedly incubated at 30°C for 72 hours.
d. A plate with a media blank plate was also incubated to act as quality control.

Counting Colonies
After incubation, the colonies on plates that had less than 250 colonies were counted.
Quality control plates had no growth.
The colonies were counted and the results reported as colony-forming units (CFU)
per gram and millilitre of the solid and liquid samples respectively.

TABLE 4

2.2 New knowledge, skills and benefits gained from the Field attachment Program
2.3 Opportunities identified

Figure 1: XXXXXX

Table 1: XXXXXX

28
Table 2: XXXXXX

29
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Conclusion, challenges and recommendations

3.1 Conclusion
1. The experience and knowledge acquired during the internship were, working and
associating with different people from other courses and universities such as Kyambogo.
I was hence able to build my social skills, confidence and learnt the importance of
networking.
2. I was able to acquaint myself with the good laboratory practices and how vital they are.
These include: always wearing PPE such as lab coats, gloves, closed shoes, face masks,
head and shoes covers, sample handling such as labeling of all samples, proper storage
and registration in the reception book with the correct sample identification name,
working in a BSC, documentation, safety procedures, following the SOPs etc.
3. My internship program was successfully completed and had a fairly pleasant experience
and was able to enhance my knowledge and skills as I stride forward in my academic
journey.
4. I would thus encourage those pursuing any related course to aspire to do their internship
at DGAL because it’s well equipped with elite personnel and up to date with the latest
technology and provides high quality analytical services.

3.2 Challenges
1. We faced a challenge with the filtration unit in the laboratory as the pumping machine
sometimes could fail which caused discomforts during water analysis in the laboratory.
2. We weren’t able to conduct analysis on some parameters like detection of salmonella in
the samples.
3.3 Recommendations
For the successful training and for the benefit of the trainees during internship, I request the
following suggestions to be given consideration.
3.3.1 Recommendations to the host institution
The internees should get a blend of working in the different divisions and not fixated to one
division. This will enable them to be exposed to more analytical instruments and methods.
3.3.2 Recommendation to the academic institution/Department
The internees should be frequently supervised at least in the middle of the internship period and
towards the end. This will enable the students to work hard to concentrate right at the start of the
internship program in order to attain intriguing and formidable experiences.

30
REFERENCES

31
APPENDICES

32
GENERAL INSTRUCTION
i. Preliminary pages must be in roman numbers. Preliminary pages must have
DECLARATION, APPROVAL, TABLE OF CONTENTS, DEDICATION,
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT, LIST OF FIGURES, LIST OF TABLES AND LIST OF
ACRONYMS.
ii. All other pages must be numbered using numeral numbers.
iii. Font type: Times new Roman for the entire document
iv. Font size 12 for entire document including the cover page
v. Font colour is strictly black for the entire report.
vi. Each chapter must start on a new page
vii. Use the cover page I have provided.
viii. Line spacing for the entire document is 1.5
ix. Number your titles and sub titles and make them bold. Check proper flow of the report and
easy to follow numbering.
x. Mind all typing issues like comas, periods, spacings, italicize where required, spelling
checks, ecetera.
xi. Avoid bullets in the body texts. Instead use roman numbers or alphabetical letters. Do not
use numeral numbering for points, it confuses the flow of numbers in your report. Leave
numeral numbers for only titles and sub titles.
xii. Separate your paragraphs clearly.
xiii. Use the automatic insertion of “TABLE OF CONTENTS”, “LIST OF FIGURES” and
“LIST OF TABLES”. Avoid using “Table showing” or “Figure showing” when giving
Table and Figure titles. The Figures and the figure titles must be centered. Table and table
title must be left aligned.
xiv. Give list of citations and list of references if you used any published reports/journals.

33