As, Unit 1: Mechanics and materials Note 11: Materials

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SOLID MATERIALS

Students will be assessed on their ability to... hhhhhhh

Investigate elastic and plastic deformation of a material and distinguish between them
Investigate and use Hooke’s law, F = kΔx, and know that it applies only to some materials
Obtain and draw force–extension, force–compression, and tensile/compressive stress-strain
graphs. Identify the limit of proportionality, elastic limit and yield point. (Obtain graphs for,
example, copper wire, nylon and rubber.)
Explain the meaning and use of, and calculate tensile/compressive stress,
tensile/compressive strain, strength, breaking stress, stiffness and Young Modulus. (Obtain
the Young modulus for a material (Investigations could include, for example, copper and
rubber)
Calculate the elastic strain energy Eel in a deformed material sample, using the expression
Eel = ½ Fx, and from the area under its force/extension graph.

Elastic and Plastic deformation

The particles of a solid may be atoms, or molecules, or ions. They are held closely together by electric forces
of attraction. When external forces are applied to a solid, its shape changes: ie, deformation occurs. This
alters the relative positions of its particles.
The amount of deformation will depend on a number of things:
(a) the size of the specimen
(b) the size of the force
(c) the material of which the specimen is made

Now there are many important cases where the deformation is important such as bridge design, buildings, a
belly flop on water and the use of oil in the hydraulics of car brakes, even the tension in your belt to hold up
your skirt or trousers!

There are two types of deformation.

Elastic deformation
If the deformation is elastic, then the material returns to its original shape when the forces on it are
removed. (Atoms return to their original position)

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As, Unit 1: Mechanics and materials Note 11: Materials
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Plastic deformation
If the deformation is plastic, then the material does not return to its original shape when the forces on it are
removed. (Shape of the material changes, atoms are permanently displaced from their positions)
For example, Plasticine takes on a new shape when stretched.

Hooke’s Law
Hooke’s law states that applied force is directly proportional to its extension within the proportional limit.

𝑭 = 𝒌∆𝒙
Where
Δx => change in length (extension/compression)
k => spring constant, with units N m–1. It represents the stiffness of
the spring.

(The force exerted by the spring is in the opposite direction the

extension.)

The graph shows force against extension for a spring.

 Hooke’s law can only be applied to materials up to a certain limit. Up to this limit the substance regains
its original shape.

 P is the limit of proportionality. Beyond this point force is no longer proportional to extension. (The
force extension graph is no longer straight after this point.)

 For springs and many materials, there is a short further region where the behavior is still elastic, which
means they return to their original length when the force is removed. This ends at the elastic limit.
 Q is the elastic limit. After elastic limit, springs permanently deformed. (The spring will no longer
return to its original shape.)

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As, Unit 1: Mechanics and materials Note 11: Materials
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Try this…………
1. A spring has an extension of 20cm when the applied force is 14N.
a) Find the spring constant.
b) Calculate the force to achieve an extension of 27cm. State the assumption you make.

 The spring constant (k) is equal to the gradient of a force extension graph.
 The work done to stretch/compress the spring is equal to the area under the graph.
1 1
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐹 ∆𝑥 or 𝑊 = 𝑘𝛥𝑥 2 ( since 𝐹 = 𝑘∆𝑥)
2 2

 This work will be stored in the form of elastic potential energy or elastic strain energy.
𝟏
𝐞𝐥𝐚𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲, 𝑬𝒆𝒍 = 𝟐
𝑭 ∆𝒙 . These much energy required to fracture the material.

Most materials behave like springs to some degree as the bond between atoms and molecules are stretched
when they are loaded.

By studying the force – extension graphs of materials we can see if the material obeys Hooke’s law.

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As, Unit 1: Mechanics and materials Note 11: Materials
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Force extension graph for a copper wire.

 Metals often require very large forces to produce measurable extensions, and so different
arrangements or specialized equipment are needed.
 Metals obey Hooke’s law while they are within the elastic deformation region and up to the
proportional limit.

 The first portion, OP, of the graph is a straight line showing that the extension is proportional to the
load (it obeys Hooke’s law).
Over this range the wire is perfectly elastic, i.e., it will recover its original length when the load is
removed. This is the elastic region, in which load-unload are reversible. (In the case of an elastically
stretched wire the molecules are pulled slightly apart so the atomic separation increases, and the atoms
returns to its original positions when the deforming force is removed.)

 Point P is called the limit of proportionality of the material. For loads beyond this, the graph bends
slightly; Hooke’s law ceases to apply.

 Point E is called the elastic limit and beyond elastic limit when it is unloaded the wire will not
return to its original length (starts to behave as plastic)

 Point Y is called the yield point, and beyond this point the wire is plastic (cease to be elastic) and
be pulled like modeling clay until it breaks. (Materials behavior changes from elastic to plastic) and when
unloaded the material acquired a permanent set which is measured by the distance OS along the extension
axis.
(Internal slipping is now taking place between the layers of atoms in the metal crystals. This is described as
plastic deformation.)

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As, Unit 1: Mechanics and materials Note 11: Materials
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Force Extension graph for Steel wires

 Steel is produce by mixing iron with small quantities of carbon.

The graph below shows force extension for mild steel and high carbon steel wire of similar length and
diameter as the copper wire.

 The graph for mild steel shows a similar trend to that for
copper wire but the yield point is at a lower fractional than for
copper.

 Considerable extension is seen after the mild steel yields

but the break occurs at a much lower percentage increase than
for copper.

Force Extension graph for rubber - Hysteresis

 Elastic or Rubber band is an example of a material that does not obey Hooke's Law.
The force extension graph looks like this:
 The graph is not straight.
 The slop of the line is quite steep at the
start and end of the graph (or flat if axis are
switched).
 If it is kept stretching the band it will
break, obviously.
 Provided that the band is not stretched
beyond its breaking point it remains elastic and
returns to its original length when the stretching
force is removed.

 The area under the loading curve gives the work done on the rubber band as it stretches.
 The area under the unloading curve gives the work done by the rubber band as it relaxes.
 The difference in work is known as hysteresis and shaded area called hysteresis loop.
 Area within the Hysteresis loop represents the internal energy or energy lost in the form of heat
during the loading unloading cycle.

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As, Unit 1: Mechanics and materials Note 11: Materials
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Stress and Strain

 The extension of a material depends on the stiffness (the ability of a material to resist a tensile force)
and the applied force.
 But it is also the case that for a given force a longer sample will experience a greater extension, and
a thicker sample will extend less. If different materials are to be compared fairly, the effect of the sample’s
thickness and length must be taken into account.
In order to do this, graphs of force against extension are replaced with graphs of stress against strain.

𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝐹
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜎 =
𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝐴
Two types:

𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

 Stress has units N m–2 or Pa (Pascal is also the unit of pressure, since pressure is also force/area).
 A stress causes a strain.
 Strain is the ratio of change in length of a body relative to its original length when subjected to a
load.
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
∆𝑥
𝑖𝑒, Ԑ =
𝑥

Two types: 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

 Strain has no units, as it is the ratio of two lengths. Tensile strain is when a material is being stretched
and compressive strain is when a material is being compressed.

 A stress big enough to break the material is called the breaking stress.
 The maximum stress the material can withstand is called the ultimate tensile stress.

Example: A wire of diameter 0.86mm and length 1.5m has a force of 160N applied, extended it by 5.2 mm.
Calculate the ensile stress and tensile strain in the wire. (Ans: 2.8 x 108 Pa ,3.5 x 10-3)

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As, Unit 1: Mechanics and materials Note 11: Materials
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Young Modulus (Elastic modulus), E

 Young modulus is the ratio of stress to strain within the proportional limit.
 It is a measure of the stiffness of a material.
 The gradient of a stress/strain graph is known as the Young modulus (E) of the material. It is used by
engineers to make sure materials can withstand forces.

𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬, 𝛔 𝐚𝐩𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐞𝐝 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 / 𝐜𝐫𝐨𝐬𝐬 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚

𝐘𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐠 𝐦𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐬, 𝐄 = =
𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧, 𝐀 𝐞𝐱𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧 / 𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡

𝐚𝐩𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐞𝐝 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 𝐗 𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡

𝐘𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐠 𝐦𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐬 =
𝐜𝐫𝐨𝐬𝐬 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐗 𝐞𝐱𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧

𝑭𝒙
𝑬=
𝑨∆𝒙

The unit of young modulus is Nm-2 or Pa.

Stress/strain graphs
The behaviour of materials which are subject to stress is often represented by means of stress – strain curves.
The diagram shows a typical graph for a metal wire.

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As, Unit 1: Mechanics and materials Note 11: Materials
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 P is the limit of proportionality. The line is straight up to this point because stress is proportional to
strain. After P the line is no longer straight, but the material is still behaving elastically and will return to its
original length.

 L is the elastic limit. Here the wire stops behaving elastically and starts to behave plastically. When
the stress is removed the material does not return to its original length.

 Y is the yield point. From here the material shows a large increase in strain for a small increase in
stress. Material transfer from elastic to plastic.

After the yield strength, the material enters the plastic deformation region, which means that the stretch of
the wire is permanent. (For example, if the wire is stressed to point Y on the graph and the stress is slowly
decreased, the stress-strain curve follows the dotted line instead of the original curve to point B and there
is a permanent extension when all stress is removed.)

At the facture point/breaking point the wire reaches its breaks.

 A material’s stress-strain curve also indicates the overall toughness of the material.
 The area under the curve is a measure of a material’s toughness.
 The greater the area, the tougher the material, and the greater the amount of energy required to
break it. (stored energy)
 When Hooke’s law is obeyed the stress-strain graph will have a straight line so you can calculate the
energy per unit volume.

Energy density = 𝟏/𝟐 X strain X stress

Summary of Stress, strain and Young modulus

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