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Name & Code : Discrete Mathematics, MA3354 AY:2022-23

UNIT – IV ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES

PART – A

1. Define Algebraic system.

Answer:

A system consisting of a set and one or more n-ary operations on the set will be called an
algebraic system or simply algebra.

Example (Z, +) is an algebraic system.

2. Define Semi Group. (Nov/Dec – 2016)

Answer:

Let S be non empty set, * be a binary operation on S. The algebraic system (S, *) is called a
semi group, if the operation is associative.

In other words (S,*) is a semi group if for any x, y, z  S, x* (y * z) = (x* y )* z.

3. In a group (G,*) show that (a * b)1  b1 * a 1a , b  G (May/June2021)

Answer:

(a * b)1  b1 * a 1a , b  G

Let a , b  G and a 1 , b 1  G

a * a 1  a 1 * a  e or
b * b1  b1 * b  e

Now (a * b)*(b1 * a 1 )  a *(b * b1 )* a 1  a * e* a 1  a * a 1  e

Similarly we can prove (b1 * a 1 )*(a * b)  e

Therefore (a * b)1  b1 * a 1

4. Give an example of semi group but not a Monoid.

Answer:

The set of all positive integers over addition form a semi-group but it is not a Monoid.

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5. Define Group.

Answer:

An algebraic system (G,*) is called a group if it satisfies the following properties:

(i) * is associative.
(ii) Identity element exists.
(iii) Inverse element exists.
6. State any two properties of a group.

Answer: (i) The identity element of a group is unique.

(ii) The inverse of each element is unique.

7. Prove that identity element in a group is unique. (Nov/Dec – 2015,Nov - 2019)

Answer:

Let (G,*) be a group.

Let ‘e1’ and ‘e2’ be the identity elements in G

Suppose e1 is the identity, then

e1* e2 = e2 * e1 = e2

Suppose e2 is the identity, then

e1* e2 = e2 * e1 = e1

Therefore e1= e2.

Hence identity element is unique.

8 Show that every element of a group G is self inverse then G is abelian (May/June2021)

Answer:

Let (G,*) be a group.

For a , b  G we have a * b  G

Given a  a 1 and b  b 1

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( a * b )  ( a * b ) 1
 b 1 * a 1
 b*a
a*b  b*a

G ia abelian

9. Prove that in any group, identity element is the only idempotent element. (Nov/Dec – 2018)

Answer:

Let a be an idempotent element of G, then a * a  a.........(1)

1
Now a  G  a  G

pre multiply a 1 on both sides of (1)

a 1 *(a * a )  a 1 * a      (2)
a 1

*a *a  a *a  e 1

e*a  e
a  e

10. Let Z be the group of integers with the binary operation * defined by a * b  a  b  2 for all
a , b  Z . Find the identity element of the group Z ,* (May/June 2016)

Answer:

a = a*e = a+e-2

a = a+e-2

e-2 = 0

e=2

11. Show that every cyclic group is abelian. (May/June 2016)

Answer:

Let (G,*) be a cyclic with ‘a’ as generator

 x, y  G  x  a m , y  a n  x * y  a m * a n  a mn  a nm  y * x
x* y  y*x

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Therefore G ia abelian

12. Prove that the semigroup homomorphism preserves idempotency.

Answer:

Let a  S be an idempotent element.

 a*a  a
g (a * a)  g (a )
g (a ) g (a )  g (a )

This shows that g ( a ) is an idempotent element in T.

Therefore the property of idempotency is preserved under semigroup homomorphism.

13. Prove that group homomorphism preserves identity. (May – 2019 )

Answer:

Let f : (G,*)  (G , )

Identity property is a*e = e * a = a,  aG

Consider a * e = a

f( a * e ) = f(a)

f(a)  f(e) = f(e)

f(e) is identity element of G

(i.e) f(e) = e

Let f : (G,*)  (G , ) be a group homomorphism. Then prove that  f (a)  f (a ), a  G.

14. ' 1 1

(Nov/Dec – 2018)

Answer:

Let f : (G,*)  (G , ) be a group homomorphism. Let a  G  a 1  G

'

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W .K .T a * a 1  a 1 * a  e
a * a 1  e  f (a * a 1 )  f (e)
f (a )f (a 1 )  e '    (1)

Similarly f (a 1 )f (a)  e '    (2)

From (1) and (2)

 f (a 1 ) is the inverse of f (a )
Hence  f (a)  f (a 1 )
1

15. Find the left cosets of [0],[3] in the group  Z6 ,  6  (April/May 2015)

Answer:

Let Z6 0,1,2,3,4,5

H  0,3

0+ H  0,3  H

1+ H  1, 4

2+ H  2,5

3+ H  0,3  H

4  H  4,1  1,4  1  H

5  H  5,2  2,5  2  H

0+H, 1+H and 2+H are three distinct left coset of H.

16. State Lagrange’s theorem. (Nov/Dec 2015)

Answer:

The order of the subgroup of a finite group G divides the order of the group.

17. Define Ring. (May/June - 2014)

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Answer:

An algebraic system (R, +, *) is called a ring if the binary operations + and R satisfies the
following.

(i) (R,+) is an abelian group

(ii) (R,*) is a semi group
(iii) The operation is distributive over +.
18. Find the idempotent elements of G  {1,1, i,i } under the binary operation multiplication.

(Nov/Dec 2016)

Answer:

Idempotent condition a*a=a

-1 . -1 = 1

i . i  i 2  1
 i.  i  i 2  1
But 1.1  1

The idempotent element is 1

19. Define field in an algebraic system. (April/May 2015)

Answer:

A commutative ring (F, +, *) which has more than one element such that every nonzero
element of F has a multiplicative inverse in F is called a field.

20. Give an example of integral Domain which is not a field ( Nov 2019 )

Answer:

The ring Z of all integers is an integral domain but not a field.

PART – B

 1 0   1 0 1 0    1 0  
Prove that G    , , ,   forms an abelian group under matrix
1(i)   0 1   0 1   0  1  0  1 
multiplication. (Nov/Dec 2015)

Answer:

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1 0   1 0 1 0   1 0 
Let I    , A   , B  and C   
0 1   0 1 0 1  0 1
The matrix multiplication table is,

 I A B C

I I A B C

A A I C B

B B C I A

C C B A I

Claim 1: Closure property

Since all the elements inside the table are the elements of G.
Hence G is closed under multiplication.
Claim 2: Associative property
We know that matrix multiplication is always associative
Claim 3: Identity property
From the above table we observe that the matrix I G is the Identity matrix.
Claim 4: Inverse property
From the above table we observe that all the matrices are inverse to each other.
Hence Inverse element exists.
Claim 5: Commutative property
From the table we have
A  B  C  B  A, A  C  B  C  A, B  C  A  C  B
Therefore commutative property exists.
Hence G forms an abelian group under matrix multiplication.

(ii) Show that a non-empty subset H of a group (G, *) is a subgroup G if and only if a * b 1  H for
all a , b  H (Nov - 2019)

Answer:
Necessary Condition:

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Let us assume that H is a subgroup of G. Since H itself a group, we have if a , b H

implies a *b H

Since b H then b1H which implies a *b1H

Sufficient Condition:
Let a *b1H , for a *b H
Claim 1: Identity property
If a  H , which implies a * a 1  e H
Hence the identity element e H .
Claim 2: Inverse property
Let a , e  H , then e * a 1  a 1H

Hence a 1 is the inverse of a .

Claim 3: Closure property

 
1
1
Let a , b1 H , then a * b  a *bH

Therefore H is closed.
Claim 4: Associative property
Clearly * is associative.
Hence H is a subgroup of G.

2(i) Prove that the group homomorphism preserves identity and inverse element. (May/June2021)

Answer:
Identity
Let a G
Let f :(G,*)  ( H , ) be a group homomorphism.
Clearly f  a  H
Now
f  a   eH  f  a 
f  a   eH  f  a * eG 
f  a   eH  f  a   f  eG 
 eH  f  eG 
Hence eH is the identity element.
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Hence group homomorphism preserves identity element.

Inverse
Let a G

Since G is a group, a 1 G
1
Since G is a group, a * a  eG
By homomorphism
eH  f  eG 


eH  f a * a 1 
eH  f  a   f  a 1 

Hence f  a 1  is the inverse of f  a .

Hence group homomorphism preserves inverse element.

2(ii) Prove that intersection of two subgroups of a group G is again a subgroup of G, but their
union need not be a subgroup of G. (Nov/Dec 2015)

Answer:
Claim 1: Intersection of two subgroups is again a subgroup.
Let A and B be two subgroups of a group G. we need to prove that A B is a subgroup.
(i.e.) It is enough to prove that A B   and a,b  A B  a* b1  A B .
Since A and B are subgroups of G, the identity element e  A and B .
 A B 
Let
a,b  A B  a,b  A and a,b  B
 a* b 1  A and a* b 1  B
 a* b1  A B
Hence A B is a subgroup of G.
Claim 2: Union of two subgroups need not be a subgroup
Consider the following example,
Consider the group  Z ,  ,where Z is the set of all integers and the operation + represents usual
addition.

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Let A  2Z  0, 2, 4, 6, ... and B  3Z  0, 3, 6, 9, ... .
Here  2Z ,  and  3Z ,  are both subgroups of  Z , 

Let H  2Z 3Z  0, 2, 3, 4, 6,...

Note that 2 , 3  H , but 2  3  5  H  5  2Z 3Z
(i.e.) 2Z 3Z is not closed under addition.
Therefore 2Z 3Z is not a group
Therefore (H, +) is not a subgroup of (Z, +).

3(i) Show that the kernel of group homomorphism is a normal subgroup of the Group.

(Nov/Dec 2019)

Proof:
Let K be the Kernel of the homomorphism g. That is K {x  G g ( x)  e} where e the identity
element of H.
Let x, y  K. Now
1 1
g ( x * y 1 )  g ( x)  g ( y 1)  g ( x)   g ( y )   e   e   e  e  e
x * y 1  K
Therefore K is a subgroup of G. Let
x  K , f G
1 1
g ( f * x * f 1 )  g ( f )* g ( x) * g ( f 1)  g ( f ) e  g ( f )   g ( f )  g ( f )   e
 f * x * f 1  K
Thus K is a normal subgroup of G.

(ii) Prove that intersection of any two normal subgroups of a group (G, *) is a normal subgroup
of a group (G, *). (Nov/Dec 2016,2018)

Answer:
Let G be the group and H and K are the normal subgroups of G.
Since H and K are normal subgroups of
 H and K are subgroups of G
H K is a subgroup of G.
Now we have to prove H K is normal
Since e  H and e  K  e  H K.
Thus H  K is nonempty.
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Let x  G and h  H K
x  G and h  H , h  K
x  G , h  H and x  G , h  K
So, x  h  x 1  H and x  h  x 1  K
 x  h  x1  H K
Thus H K is a Normal subgroup of G.

4(i) State and Prove Lagrange’s theorem on finite groups (or) Prove that in a finite group, order
of any subgroup divides the order of the group. (May/June2021 , Nov/Dec 2019)

Answer:
Statement:
The order of each subgroup of a finite group is divides the order of the group.
Proof:
Let G be a finite group and O  G   n and let H be a subgroup of G and O  H   m
Let h1 ,h2 ,h3 , ...,hm are the m distinct elements of H
For x  G, the right coset of H is defined by H x  {h1 x, h2 x, h3 x,........hm x} .
Since there is a one to one correspondence between H and H x , the members of H x are
distinct.
Hence, each right coset of H in G has m distinct members.
We know that any two right cosets of H in G are either identical or disjoint.
The number of distinct right cosets of H in G is finite (say k)
The union of these k distinct cosets of H in G is equal to G.
(i.e.) G  H x1 H x2 H x3 ... H xk
O(G)  O  H x1   O  H x 2   O  H x3   ...  O  H xk 
n = m + m + m + … + m (k times)
O G 
k
OH 
Hence O  H  divides O  G 

(ii) Prove that every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic. [May/June 2016,May - 2019]

Proof:
Let (G,*) be the cyclic group generated by an element a  G and let H be the subgroup of G.

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If H contains identity element alone, then trivially H is cyclic.

Suppose if H contains the element other than the identity element.
Since H  G, any element of H is of the form ak for some integer k.
Let “m” be the smallest positive integer such that am  H.
Now by division algorithm theorem we have k = qm + r where 0  r < m.
Now ak = aqm + r = (am)q. ar and from this we have ar = (am)- q. ar.
Since am, ak  H, we have ar  H.
Which is a contradiction that am  H such that “m: is small.
Therefore r = 0 and ak = (am)q.
Thus every element of H is a power of a m and hence H is cyclic.

Prove that the set Z4  0,1, 2, 3 is a commutative ring with respect to the binary operation  4
5(i) and x 4 . (Nov/Dec -2017)

Answer:
Composition table for additive modulo 4.
+4 [0] [1] [2] [3]
[0] 0 1 2 3
[1] 1 2 3 0
[2] 2 3 0 1
[3] 3 0 1 2

Composition table for multiplicative modulo 4.

x4 [0] [1] [2] [3]
[0] 0 0 0 0
[1] 0 1 2 3
[2] 0 2 0 2
[3] 0 3 2 1

From tables, we get

(i) all the entries in both tables belongs to Z 4
Therefore Z 4 is closed under the both operations addition and multiplication.
(ii) From the both tables, entries in the first, second, third and fourth row is equal to entries in the

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first, second, third and fourth columns respectively.

Hence the operations are commutative.
(iii) Modular addition and Modular multiplications are always associative.
(iv) 0 is the additive identity and 1 is the multiplicative identity.
(v) Additive inverse of 0, 1, 2, 3 are respectively 0, 3, 2, 1. Multiplicative inverses of the non-zero
elements 1, 2 and 3 are 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
(vi) If a, b, c  Z4 then
a  b  c    a  b    a  c 

 a  b   c   a  c   b  c 
The operation multiplication is distributive over addition
Hence  Z4 , 4 , 4  is a commutative ring with unity.

(ii) Discuss Ring and Fields with suitable examples. (Nov/Dec 2014)

Answer:
Ring:
An algebraic system  R, ,  is called a ring if the binary operations + and  satisfies the
following.
(i)  R,   is an abelian group
(ii)  R,  is a semi group and
(iii) The operation  is distributive over +.
Example:
The set of all integers under usual addition and multiplication is a Ring.
Field:
A commutative ring  F , , which has more than one element such that every nonzero
element of F has a multiplicative inverse in F is called a field.
Example:
 R, , is a field ,  Q, ,  is a field

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