Chapter 2 Solutions

Ketan Vyas

PROBLEM 2.1
Consider the following classical trajectory of an open string

X 0 = Bτ,
X 1 = B cos(τ ) cos(σ),
X 2 = B sin(τ ) cos(σ),
X i = 0, i > 2,

and assume the conformal gauge condition.

(i) Show that this configuration describes a solution to the equations of motion for the
field X µ corresponding to an open string with Neumann boundary conditions. Show
that the ends of this string are moving with the speed of light.

(ii) Compute the energy E = P 0 and angular momentum J of the string. Use your result
to show that
E2 1
= 2πT = 0 .
|J| α

(iii) Show that the constraint equation Tαβ = 0 can be written as

(∂τ X)2 + (∂σ X)2 = 0, ∂τ X µ ∂σ Xµ = 0,

and that this constraint is satisfied by the above solution.

SOLUTION

(i) In the conformal gauge, the equations of motion for a string are


∂σ2 − ∂τ2 X µ = 0, (1)

and the Neumann boundary conditions are

∂σ X µ σ=0,π
= 0. (2)

1
The given trajectory satisfies (1) and (2),1


∂σ2 − ∂τ2 X 0 = 0

∂σ2 − ∂τ2 X 1 = −B cos (τ ) cos (σ) + B cos (τ ) cos (σ)
=0

∂σ2 − ∂τ2 X 2 = −B sin (τ ) cos (σ) + B sin (τ ) cos (σ)
=0

∂σ X 0 σ=0,π
=0

∂σ X 1 σ=0,π
= −B cos (τ ) sin (σ) σ=0,π

=0

∂σ X 2 σ=0,π
= −B sin (τ ) sin (σ) σ=0,π

= 0.

Now, consider a point on an open string (a fixed σ). The speed of this point for a string
following the given trajectory is
s 2  2 s 2  2
dX 1 dX 2 −B sin (τ ) cos (σ) dτ B cos (τ ) cos (σ) dτ
+ = +
dX 0 dX 0 Bdτ Bdτ
= | cos (σ) |.

So the endpoints, σ = 0 and σ = π, move at the speed of light.

1
Recall that in the conformal gauge a solution to the string sigma-model action is constrained to have a
vanishing energy–momentum tensor in addition to satisfying the equations of motion and certain boundary
conditions. In a later part of the problem, we will show that the energy–momentum tensor vanishes for the
given trajectory.

2
(ii) In the X µ coordinates2 , the energy of an open string following this trajectory is
Z π
E= dσ Pτ0
0
Z π
=T dσ ∂τ X 0
Z0 π
=T dσB
0
= πBT,

and the magnitude of the angular momentum is

Z π
|J| = dσ|Jτ12 |
0
Z π
=T dσ|X 1 ∂τ X 2 − X 2 ∂τ X 1 |
Z0 π
=T dσB 2 cos2 (σ)
0
πB 2 T
= .
2
Therefore,
E2
= 2πT.
|J|

(iii) For the string sigma-model action, the equations of motion associated with the world-
sheet metric are
Tαβ = 0, (3)
where Tαβ is the energy–momentum tensor,
1
Tαβ = ∂α X µ ∂β Xµ − hαβ hγδ ∂γ X ν ∂δ Xν . (4)
2
In the conformal gauge, the components of (4) are
1
Tτ τ = Tσσ = (∂τ X µ ∂τ Xµ + ∂σ X µ ∂σ Xµ )
2
Tτ σ = Tστ = ∂ τ X µ ∂ σ Xµ .

By restricting the metric to the conformal gauge, (3) becomes a set of constraints on
trajectories,

∂ τ X µ ∂ τ Xµ + ∂ σ X µ ∂ σ Xµ = 0 (5)
∂τ X µ ∂σ Xµ = 0. (6)
2
The X µ are the center-of-mass coordinates, and therefore the natural frame to consider energy and
angular momentum.

3
The given trajectory satisfies (5) and (6),

∂τ X µ ∂τ Xµ + ∂σ X µ ∂σ Xµ = −B 2 + B 2 sin2 (τ ) cos2 (σ) + B 2 cos2 (τ ) cos2 (σ)

+B 2 cos2 (τ ) sin2 (σ) + B 2 sin2 (τ ) sin2 (σ)
=0

∂τ X µ ∂σ Xµ = B 2 sin (τ ) cos (τ ) sin (σ) cos (σ)

−B 2 sin (τ ) cos (τ ) sin (σ) cos (σ)
= 0.

PROBLEM 2.2
Consider the following classical trajectory of an open string
X 0 = 3Aτ,
X 1 = A cos(3τ ) cos(3σ),
X 2 = A sin(aτ ) cos(bσ),
and assume the conformal gauge.

(i) Determine the values of a and b so that the above equations describe an open string
that solves the constraint Tαβ = 0. Express the solution in the form

X µ = XLµ (σ − ) + XRµ (σ + ).

Determine the boundary conditions satisfied by this field configuration.

(ii) Plot the solution in the (X 1 , X 2 )-plane as a function of τ in steps of π/12.

(iii) Compute the center-of-mass momentum and angular momentum and show that they
are conserved. What do you obtain for the relation between the energy and angular
momentum of this string? Comment on your result.

SOLUTION

(i) In the conformal gauge, a string trajectory must satisfy the equations of motion


∂σ2 − ∂τ2 X µ = 0 (7)

4
and the constraint equations

∂ τ X µ ∂ τ Xµ + ∂ σ X µ ∂ σ Xµ = 0 (8)
∂τ X µ ∂σ Xµ = 0. (9)

Furthermore, boundary conditions must be imposed so that

Z
σ=π
dτ [(∂σ Xµ ) δX µ ] σ=0 = 0. (10)

Neumann boundary conditions are sufficient to satisfy (10),

∂σ X µ σ=0,π
= 0. (11)

Substituting the given trajectory into (9), we find that

9A2 sin (3τ ) cos (3τ ) sin (3σ) cos (3σ) − abA2 sin (aτ ) cos (aτ ) sin (bσ) cos (bσ) = 0.

So a = b = 3. For these values of a and b, the given trajectory satisfies (7), (8), and (11),


∂σ2 − ∂τ2 X 0 = 0


∂σ2 − ∂τ2 X 1 = −9A cos (3τ ) cos (3σ) + 9A cos (3τ ) cos (3σ)
=0


∂σ2 − ∂τ X 2 = −9A sin (3τ ) cos (3σ) + 9A sin (3τ ) cos (3σ)
2

=0

∂τ X µ ∂τ Xµ + ∂σ X µ ∂σ Xµ = −9A2 + 9A2 sin2 (3τ ) cos2 (3σ) + 9A2 cos2 (3τ ) cos2 (3σ)
+9A2 cos2 (3τ ) sin2 (3σ) + 9A2 sin2 (3τ ) sin2 (3σ)
=0

∂σ X 0 σ=0,π
=0
∂σ X 1 σ=0,π
= −3A cos (3τ ) sin (3σ) σ=0,π

=0
∂σ X 2 σ=0,π
= −3A sin (3τ ) sin (3σ) σ=0,π

= 0.

Finally, we explicitly show that this trajectory separates into a right-mover and a left-mover

5
in the world-sheet light-cone coordinates,
3 − 3 +
X0 = Aσ + Aσ
2 2

1
X1 = A {cos (3τ ) cos (3σ) + sin (3τ ) sin (3σ)}
2
1
+ A {cos (3τ ) cos (3σ) − sin (3τ ) sin (3σ)}
2
1
1

= A cos 3σ − + A cos 3σ +
2 2

1
X2 = A {sin (3τ ) cos (3σ) − cos (3τ ) sin (3σ)}
2
1
+ A {sin (3τ ) cos (3σ) + cos (3τ ) sin (3σ)}
2
1
1

= A sin 3σ − + A sin 3σ + .
2 2

(ii) See figures showing an open-string trajectory in the X 1 , X 2 plane.

X2
A

Xl
-A A

-A
Τ = 0

X2
A

Xl
-A A

-A
Π
Τ = €€€€€€€€
12

6
 X2
A

Xl
-A A

-A
Π
Τ = €€€€€
6

X2
A

Xl
-A A

-A
Π
Τ = €€€€€
4

(iii) We first note that X µ are the coordinates of the center-of-mass frame
Z π
1
P = dσ Pτ1
0
Z π
= T dσ ∂τ X 1
0
Z π
= −3AT sin (3τ ) dσ cos (3σ)
0
= 0

Z π
2
P = dσ Pτ2
0
Z π
= T dσ ∂τ X 2
0
Z π
= 3AT cos (3τ ) dσ cos (3σ)
0
= 0.

7
So the center-of-mass energy of an open string following this trajectory is
Z π
E= dσ Pτ0
0
Z π
=T dσ ∂τ X 0
Z0 π
=T dσ 3A
0
= 3πAT,

and the magnitude of the center-of-mass angular momentum is

Z π
|J| = dσ|Jτ12 |
0
Z π
=T dσ|X 1 ∂τ X 2 − X 2 ∂τ X 1 |
Z0 π
=T dσ 3A2 cos2 (3σ)
0
3πA2 T
= .
2
Therefore,
E2
= 6πT.
|J|
Note that this is greater than 2πT . In fact, it can be shown that for all open-string trajec-
tories
E2
≥ 2πT.
|J|
1
So α0 = 2πT
is the Regge slope for open strings.

PROBLEM 2.3
Compute the mode expansion of an open string with Neumann boundary conditions for the
coordinates X 0 , . . . , X 24 , while the remaining coordinate X 25 satisfies the following boundary
conditions:

(i) Dirichlet boundary conditions at both ends

X 25 (0, τ ) = X025 and X 25 (π, τ ) = Xπ25 .

What is the interpretation of such a solution? Compute the conjugate momentum P 25 .

Is this momentum conserved?

8
 (ii) Dirichlet boundary conditions on one end and Neumann boundary conditions at the
other end
X 25 (0, τ ) = X025 and ∂σ X 25 (π, τ ) = 0.

What is the interpretation of this solution?

SOLUTION

(i) Consider an open-string trajectory with X i having Neumann boundary conditions

∂σ X i σ=0,π
= 0,

where i ranges from 0 to 24, and X 25 having Dirichlet boundary conditions

X 25 (τ, 0) = X025
X 25 (τ, π) = Xπ25 .

We first compute the mode expansion for X i . Let X̃ i be an even periodic extension of X i
 i
i X (τ, σ) for 0 ≤ σ < π, σ = σ̃ (mod 2π)
X̃ (τ, σ̃) =
X i (τ, 2π − σ) for π ≤ σ < 2π, σ = σ̃ (mod 2π).

Since X̃ i is continuously differentiable, the Fourier series of X̃ i converges uniformly

X
X̃ i (τ, σ̃) = cin (τ ) cos (nσ̃) .
n

Restricting X̃ i to σ̃ ∈ [0, π], we obtain an expression for X i

X
X i (τ, σ) = cin (τ ) cos (nσ) . (12)
n

Substituting (12) into the equations of motion (in the conformal gauge), we find that


0 = ∂σ2 − ∂τ2 X i
X d2 cin

2 i
=− n cn + cos (nσ) .
n
dτ 2

So cin must satisfy the following differential equation

d2 cin
n2 cin + = 0. (13)
dτ 2

9
Solutions to (13) have the form
( 1
ils αni e−inτ for n 6= 0
cin (τ ) = n (14)
xi + ls2 pi τ for n = 0.

Substituting (14) into (12), we obtain the mode expansion for X i

X1
X i (τ, σ) = xi + ls2 pi τ + ils αni e−inτ cos (nσ) . (15)
n6=0
n

Note that reality of X i constrains the coefficients in (15)3

xi† = xi
pi† = pi
αni† = α−n
i
.

Next, we compute the mode expansion for X 25 . Consider a linear deformation of X 25 which
fixes both endpoints to zero.
1

X̄ 25 (τ, σ) = X 25 (τ, σ) − X025 + X025 − Xπ25 σ.
π

Let X̃ 25 be an odd periodic extension of X̄ 25 .

 25
25 X̄ (τ, σ) for 0 ≤ σ < π, σ = σ̃ (mod 2π)
X̃ (τ, σ̃) = 25
−X̄ (τ, 2π − σ) for π ≤ σ < 2π, σ = σ̃ (mod 2π).

Since X̃ 25 is continuously differentiable, the Fourier series of X̃ 25 converges uniformly.

X
X̃ 25 (τ, σ̃) = c25
n (τ ) sin (nσ̃) .
n6=0

Restricting X̃ 25 to σ̃ ∈ [0, π], we obtain an expression for X̄ 25

X
X̄ 25 (τ, σ) = c25
n (τ ) sin (nσ) ,
n6=0

from which we recover X 25 .

1
X
X 25 (τ, σ) = X025 − X025 − Xπ25 σ + c25
n (τ ) sin (nσ) . (16)
π n6=0

3
Recall that in the conformal gauge a string trajectory is constrained to have a vanishing energy–
momentum tensor. However, some quantization procedures deal with these Virasoro constraints at the
quantum level. For this reason, we shall not impose the Virasoro constraints at this time.

10
Substituting (16) into the equations of motion (in the conformal gauge), we find that


0 = ∂σ2 − ∂τ2 X 25
X d2 c25

2 25 n
=− n cn + 2
sin (nσ) .
n6=0
dτ

So c25
n must satisfy the following differential equation.

d2 c25
n2 c25
n +
n
= 0. (17)
dτ 2
Solutions to (17) have the form
1 25 −inτ
c25
n (τ ) = ls αn e . (18)
n
Substituting (18) into (16), we obtain the mode expansion for X 25 .
1
X1
X 25 (τ, σ) = X025 − X025 − Xπ25 σ + ls αn25 e−inτ sin (nσ) . (19)
π n6=0
n

Note that reality of X 25 constrains the coefficients in (19).

αn25† = α−n
25
.

Physically, this solution describes an open string with endpoints restricted to hyperplanes
X 25 = X025 and X 25 = Xπ25 . Consider the momentum of the string along X 25 .
Z π
25
P = dσ Pτ25
0
Z π
=T dσ ∂τ X 25
0
X Z π
25 −inτ
= −ils T αn e dσ sin (nσ)
n6=0 0
X1
= −2ils T αn25 e−inτ ,
n∈A
n

where A is the set of odd integers. Note that this momentum is not conserved.
X
∂τ P 25 = −2ls T αn25 e−inτ .
n∈A

Therefore, solutions with Dirichlet boundary conditions explicitly break Poincaré invariance.

(ii) Consider an open-string trajectory with X i having Neumann boundary conditions

∂σ X i σ=0,π
= 0,

11
where i ranges from 0 to 24, and X 25 having Dirichlet boundary conditions at one end and
Neumann boundary conditions at the other.

X 25 (τ, 0) = X025
∂σ X 25 σ=π
=0

We found the mode expansion for X i in part (i). The mode expansion for X 25 will be
computed in the same way. We begin by shifting the fixed endpoint of X 25 to zero.

X̄ 25 (τ, σ) = X 25 (τ, σ) − X025 .

Let X̃ 25 be an odd periodic extension of X̄ 25 .

 25

 X̄ (τ, σ) for 0 ≤ σ < π, σ = σ̃ (mod 4π)
 25
X̄ (τ, 2π − σ) for π ≤ σ < 2π, σ = σ̃ (mod 4π)
X̃ 25 (τ, σ̃) =

 −X̄ 25 (τ, σ − 2π) for 2π ≤ σ < 3π, σ = σ̃ (mod 4π)

−X̄ 25 (τ, 4π − σ) for 3π ≤ σ < 4π, σ = σ̃ (mod 4π)

Note that X̃ 25 is continuously differentiable, so the Fourier series of X̃ 25 converges uniformly.

X  
25 25 1
X̃ (τ, σ̃) = cn (τ ) sin nσ̃
n6=0
2

Since X̃ 25 is even about σ̃ = π,

X  
25 1
X̃ (τ, σ̃) = c25
n (τ ) sin nσ̃ ,
n∈A
2

where A is the set of odd integers. Restricting X̃ 25 to σ̃ ∈ [0, π], we obtain an expression for
X̄ 25  
X 1
25
X̄ (τ, σ) = c25
n (τ ) sin nσ
n∈A
2

from which we recover X 25 .

X  
25 1
X (τ, σ) = X025 + c25
n (τ ) sin nσ . (20)
n∈A
2

Substituting (20) into the equations of motion (in the conformal gauge), we find that


0 = ∂σ2 − ∂τ2 X 25
X 1 d2 c25
 
1

2 25 n
=− nc + sin nσ .
n∈A
4 n dτ 2 2

12
So c25
n must satisfy the following differential equation.

1 2 25 d2 c25
n
n cn + = 0. (21)
4 dτ 2
Solutions to (21) have the form
1 25 − i nτ
c25
n (τ ) = ls αn e
2 . (22)
n
Substituting (22) into (20), we obtain the mode expansion for X 25 .
X1  
25 25 25 − 2i nτ 1
X (τ, σ) = X0 + ls αn e sin nσ . (23)
n∈A
n 2

Note that reality of X 25 constrains the coefficients in (23).

αn25† = α−n
25
.

Physically, these solutions describe open strings with one endpoint restricted to the hyper-
plane X 25 = X025 and the other end free.

PROBLEM 2.4
Consider the bosonic string in light-cone gauge.

(i) Find the mass squared of the following on-shell open-string states:
i i j
|φ1 i = α−1 |0; ki, |φ2 i = α−1 α−1 |0; ki,
i i j k
|φ3 i = α−3 |0; ki, |φ4 i = α−1 α−1 α−2 |0; ki.

(ii) Find the mass squared of the following on-shell closed-string states:
i j i j k
|φ1 i = α−1 α̃−1 |0; ki, |φ2 i = α−1 α−1 α̃−2 |0; ki.

(iii) What can you say about the following closed-string state?
i j
|φ3 i = α−1 α̃−2 |0; ki

SOLUTION

(i) The mass operator in the open-string sector is

1
M2 = (N − 1) ,
α0
13
where N is the number operator
24 X
X ∞
i
N= α−n αni .
i=1 n=1

Recall that N has the following properties

 
N, αni = −nαni
N |0; ki = 0.

Therefore,
1
M 2 |φ1 i = i
(N − 1) α−1 |0, ki
α0
=0

1 j
M 2 |φ2 i = i
(N − 1) α−1 α−1 |0, ki
α0
1
= 0 |φ2 i
α

1
M 2 |φ3 i = 0
i
(N − 1) α−3 |0, ki
α
2
= 0 |φ3 i
α

1 j
M 2 |φ4 i = i
(N − 1) α−1 α−1 k
α−2 |0, ki
α0
3
= 0 |φ4 i.
α

(ii) The mass operator in the closed-string sector is

4
M2 = (N − 1) ,
α0
where N is the number operator
24 X
X ∞
i
N= α−n αni .
i=1 n=1

Recall that N has the following properties

 
N, αni = −nαni
 
N, α̃ni = 0
N |0; ki = 0.

14
Therefore,
4 j
M 2 |φ1 i = i
(N − 1) α−1 α̃−1 |0, ki
α0
=0

4 j
M 2 |φ2 i =
0
i
(N − 1) α−1 α−1 k
α̃−2 |0, ki
α
4
= 0 |φ2 i.
α
Note that the level matching condition in the closed-string sector implies that there is an
equivalent expression for the number operator4
24 X
X ∞
i
Ñ = α̃−n α̃ni ,
i=1 n=1

which have similar properties

 
Ñ , αni = 0
 
Ñ , α̃ni = −nα̃ni
Ñ |0; ki = 0.

We obtain the same results using Ñ .

4  
j
M 2 |φ1 i = Ñ − 1 i
α−1 α̃−1 |0, ki
α0
=0

2 4  
i j k
M |φ2 i = 0 Ñ − 1 α−1 α−1 α̃−2 |0, ki
α
4
= 0 |φ2 i.
α

(iii) The state |φ3 i is unphysical, since it does not satisfy the level matching condition.
i j
N |φ3 i = N α−1 α̃−2 |0, ki
= |φ3 i,

i j
Ñ |φ3 i = Ñ α−1 α̃−2 |0, ki
= 2|φ3 i.
4
In the text, we proved the level-matching condition only for canonical quantization. However, it can be
shown that the closed-string sector in lightcone quantization also requires the level matching condition.

15
PROBLEM 2.5
Use the mode expansion of an open string with Neumann boundary conditions in Eq. (2.54)
and the commutation relations for the modes in Eq. (2.62) to check explicitly the equal-time
commutators
[X µ (σ, τ ), X ν (σ 0 , τ )] = [P µ (σ, τ ), P ν (σ 0 , τ )] = 0,

while
[X µ (σ, τ ), P ν (σ 0 , τ )] = iη µν δ(σ − σ 0 ).
P
Hint: The representation δ(σ − σ 0 ) = π1 n∈ cos(nσ) cos(nσ 0 ) might be useful.

SOLUTION

Consider open-string trajectories with Neumann boundary conditions.

X1
X µ (τ, σ) = xµ + ls2 pµ τ + ils αnµ e−inτ cos (nσ) .
n6=0
n

The canonical momentum conjugate is

P µ (τ, σ) = T ∂τ X µ
X
= ls2 T pµ + ls T αnµ e−inτ cos (nσ) .
n6=0

We quantize this theory by promoting xµ , pµ , and αnµ to operators, taking the nontrivial
commutation relations to be
 
xµ , pν = iη µν
 µ ν
αm , αn = mη µν δm+n,0 .

By computing the equal time commutators of X µ and P µ , we verify that this quantization

16
procedure is canonical quantization.
     
X µ (τ, σ), X ν (τ, σ 0 ) = ls2 τ xµ , pν + ls2 τ pµ , xν
X 1  
−ls2 αmµ
, αnν e−i(m+n)τ cos (mσ) cos (nσ 0 )
m,n6=0
mn
X 1
= ls2 η µν cos (mσ) cos (mσ 0 )
m6=0
m
=0

  X  
P µ (τ, σ), P ν (τ, σ 0 ) = ls2 T 2 µ
αm , αnν e−i(m+n)τ cos (mσ) cos (nσ 0 )
m,n6=0
X
= ls2 T 2 η µν m cos (mσ) cos (mσ 0 )
m6=0
=0

    X 1 
X µ (τ, σ), P ν (τ, σ 0 ) = ls2 T xµ , pν + ils2 T µ
αm , αnν e−i(m+n)τ cos (mσ) cos (nσ 0 )
m,n6=0
m
X
= ils2 T η µν + ils2 T η µν cos (mσ) cos (mσ 0 )
m6=0
1X
= iη µν cos (mσ) cos (mσ 0 )
π m
= iη µν δ(σ − σ 0 ).

PROBLEM 2.6
Exercise 2.10 showed that the Lorentz generators of the open-string world sheet are given by
X∞
1 µ ν

J µν = xµ pν − xν pµ − i ν
α−n αn − α−n αnµ .
n=1
n

Use the canonical commutation relations to verify the Poincaré algebra

[pµ , pν ] = 0,

[pµ , J νσ ] = −iη µν pσ + iη µσ pν ,

[J µν , J σλ ] = −iη νσ J µλ + iη µσ J νλ + iη νλ J µσ − iη µλ J νσ .

17
SOLUTION

In the open-string sector, the generators of Poincaré transformations are

P µ = pµ
X1 µ
J µν = xµ pν − xν pµ − i α−n αnν .
n6=0
n

We can explicitly verify that these generators satisfy the Poincaré algebra.
 
P µ, P ν = 0

     
P µ , J νσ = pµ , xν pσ − pµ , xσ pν
= −iη µν P σ + iη µσ P ν

         
J µν , J σλ = xµ pν , xσ pλ − xµ pν , xλ pσ − xν pµ , xσ pλ + xν pµ , xλ pσ
X 1  µ 
ν σ
− α−m αm , α−n αnλ
m,n6=0
mn
       
= x µ p ν , xσ p λ + x σ xµ , p λ p ν − x µ p ν , xλ p σ − x λ xµ , p σ p ν
       
−xν pµ , xσ pλ − xσ xν , pλ pµ + xν pµ , xλ pσ + xλ xν , pσ pµ
X 1  µ   λ µ
 ν λ
ν σ σ
− α−m αm , α−n αn + α−m α−n αm , αn
m,n6=0
mn

 µ σ
 λ ν σ
 µ λ
 ν
+ α−m , α−n αn αm + α−n α−m , αn αm

= −iη νσ J µλ + iη µλ J σν + iη νλ J µσ − iη µσ J λν .

PROBLEM 2.7
Exercise 2.10 derived the angular-momentum generators J µν for an open bosonic string.
Derive them for a closed bosonic string.

18
SOLUTION

The generators of Lorentz transformations are

Z π
µν
J = dσJτµν
0
Z π
=T dσ (X µ ∂τ X ν − X ν ∂τ X µ ) . (24)
0

In the closed-string sector

i X 1 µ −2in(τ −σ)

X µ = xµ + ls2 pµ τ + ls αn e + α̃nµ e−2in(τ +σ) (25)
2 n6=0 n
X

∂τ X µ = ls2 pµ + ls αnµ e−2in(τ −σ) + α̃nµ e−2in(τ +σ) . (26)
n6=0

Substituting (25) and (26) into (24), we find that


J = πls T xµ pν + ls2 pµ pν τ − xν pµ − ls2 pν pµ τ
µν 2

iX1 µ ν

+ αn α−n + αnµ α̃nν e−4inτ + α̃nµ αnν e−4inτ + α̃nµ α̃−n
ν
2 n6=0 n

iX1 ν µ µ


− αn α−n + αnν α̃nµ e−4inτ + α̃nν αnµ e−4inτ + α̃nν α̃−n
2 n6=0 n
X1 µ µ
= xµ pν − xν pµ − i (α−n αnν + α̃−n α̃nν ) .
n6=0
n

PROBLEM 2.8
The open-string angular momentum generators in Exercise 2.10 are appropriate for covariant
quantization. What are the formulas in the case of light-cone gauge quantization.

19
SOLUTION

In spacetime lightcone coordinates, the angular momenta of open-string trajectories are

X1
J +i = x+ pi − xi p+ − i +
α−n αni
n6=0
n
X1
J +− = x+ p− − x− p+ − i +
α−n αn−
n6=0
n
X1
J i− = xi p− − x− pi − i i
α−n αn−
n6=0
n
X1
J ij = xi pj − xj pi − i i
α−n αnj .
n6=0
n
Choosing the lightcone gauge, we have
αn+ = 0
D−2
− 1 XX i
p = +2 α αi
2p ls i=1 m −m m
D−2
1 XX i
αn− = + α αi .
2p ls i=1 m n−m m
Substituting these gauge fixed modes into our expressions for the angular momenta and
quantizing our theory, we find that the generators of Lorentz transformations5 in the open-
string sector are
J +i = x+ pi − xi p+
(D−2 ∞ D−2
)
1 XX 1 X
2
J +− = x+ + 2 αi αi + ls p i − a − x − p +
p ls i=1 m=1 −m m 2 i=1
(D−2 ∞ D−2
)
1 XX 1 X
2
J i− = xi + 2 αi αi + ls p i − a − x − p i
p ls i=1 m=1 −m m 2 i=1
D−2
i XXX 1 i i i
− +
α−n αn−m αm
2p ls i=1 m n6=0 n
X1
J ij = xi pj − xj pi − i i
α−n αnj .
n6=0
n

Note that p− has a normal-ordering ambiguity when quantized

(D−2 ∞ D−2
)
1 XX 1 X
2
p− = + 2 αi αi + ls p i − a .
p ls i=1 m=1 −m m 2 i=1
5
Lorentz symmetry is generically anomalous in lightcone quantization. Only for a = 1 and D = 26 do
the generators above satisfy the Lorentz algebra.

20
PROBLEM 2.9
Show that the Lorentz generators commute with all Virasoro generators,

[Lm , J µν ] = 0.

Explain why this implies that the physical-state condition is invariant under Lorentz trans-
formations, and states of the string spectrum appear in complete Lorentz multiplets.

SOLUTION

The Virasoro generators in the open-string sector are

 ∞
 1 2 X

 σ
αnρ for m = 0
 2 α0 + ησρ α−n
Lm = Xn=1

 1 σ

 ησρ αm−n αnρ for m =
6 0,
2 n

and the Lorentz generators are

X1 µ
J µν = xµ pν − xν pµ − i α−l αlν .
l6=0
l

L0 and Lm for m 6= 0 commutes with the Lorentz generators:

  1   1  
L0 , J µν = ησρ α0σ α0ρ , xµ pν − ησρ α0σ α0ρ , xν pµ
2 2
X∞ X

1 σ ρ µ ν
−iησρ α α ,α α
n=1 l6=0
l −n n −l l
1   1  
= ησρ α0σ α0ρ , xµ pν + ησρ α0σ , xµ pν α0ρ
2 2
1   1  
− ησρ α0σ α0 , xν pµ − ησρ α0σ , xν pµ α0ρ
ρ
2 2
X ∞ X 
1 σ  µ
 ν µ
 ρ ν
−iησρ α−n αnρ , α−l σ
αl + α−n α−l αn , αl
n=1 l6=0
l

 σ µ
 ν ρ µ
 σ ν
 ρ
+ α−n , α−l αl αn + α−l α−n , αl αn
X µ X µ
= −i α−l αlν + i αlν α−l
l6=0 l6=0
=0

21
   1 X  1 X 
Lm , J µν = ησρ σ
αm−n αnρ , xµ pν − ησρ σ
αm−n αnρ , xν pµ
2 n
2 n
i X X 1 σ µ

− ησρ αm−n αnρ , α−l αlν
2 n l6=0
l
X  
1 σ
 ρ µ ν  σ 
µ ν ρ
= ησρ αm−n αn , x p + αm−n , x p αn
2 n
1 X  ρ ν µ  σ 

σ ν µ ρ
− ησρ αm−n αn , x p + αm−n , x p αn
2 n
i X X 1  ρ µ ν µ
 ρ ν
σ σ
− ησρ αm−n αn , α−l αl + αm−n α−l αn , αl
2 n l6=0
l

 σ µ
 ν ρ µ
 σ ν
 ρ
+ αm−n , α−l αl αn + α−l αm−n , αl αn
X µ X
µ ν ν µ µ
= −iαm α0 + iαm α0 − i αm−l αlν + i ν
αm+l α−l
l6=0 l6=0
= 0.

Since the Virasoro generators L0 and Lm with m > 0 commute with the Lorentz genera-
tors, the physical state conditions are invariant under Lorentz transformations:
 
(L0 − a) , J µν = 0
 
Lm , J µν = 0.

Furthermore, the Lorentz transformations take physical states into physical states:

(L0 − a) J µν |φi = J µν (L0 − a) |φi

=0

Lm J µν |φi = J µν Lm |φi
= 0.

Therefore, physical states must form complete Lorentz multiplets.

PROBLEM 2.10
Consider an on-shell open-string state of the form


|φi = Aα−1 · α−1 + Bα0 · α−2 + C(α0 · α−1 )2 |0; ki,

22
where A, B and C are constants. Determine the conditions on the coefficients A, B and C
so that |φi satisfies the physical-state conditions for a = 1 and arbitrary D. Compute the
norm of |φi. What conclusions can you draw from the result?

SOLUTION

The Virasoro generators in the open-string sector are

 ∞

 1 2 X

 2 0α + α−n · αn for m = 0
Lm = n=1

 1X

 αm−n · αn for m =6 0.
2 n

Recall that the L0 has the following properties

 
L0 , αnµ = −nαnµ
1
L0 |0; ki = ls2 k 2 ,
2
and the Virasoro generators Lm with m > 0 satisfy
  µ
Lm , αnµ = −nαm+n
Lm |0; ki = 0.

Consider a physical state of the form

 
|φi = Aα−1 · α−1 + Bα0 · α−2 + C (α0 · α−1 )2 |0; ki.

Using the properties above, we find that the physical state conditions (for a = 1) impose the
following constraints on A, B, C and k µ

0 = (L0 − 1) |φi
 
1 2 2
= 1 + ls k |φi
2

0 = L1 |φi



= 2 A + B + ls2 k 2 C k · α−1 |0; ki

0 = L2 |φi
 
= A (α1 · α−1 ) + 2Bα02 + C (α0 · α1 ) (α0 · α−1 ) |0; ki


= AD + 2ls2 k 2 B + ls2 k 2 C |0; ki.

23
Therefore,
2
k2 = −
ls2
D−1
B= A
5
D+4
C = A.
10
Now consider the norm of |φi

hφ|φi = |A|2 h0; k| (α1 · α1 ) (α−1 · α−1 ) |0; ki + A∗ Ch0; k| (α1 · α1 ) (α0 · α−1 )2 |0; ki
+AC ∗ h0; k| (α1 · α0 )2 (α−1 · α−1 ) |0; ki + |C|2 h0; k| (α1 · α0 )2 (α0 · α−1 )2 |0; ki
+|B|2 h0; k| (α2 · α0 ) (α0 · α−2 ) |0; ki
   2  2
2 2 2 2 D+4 4 4 2 D+4 2 2 2 D−1
= 2|A| D + 4ls k |A| + 2ls k |A| + 2ls k |A|
10 10 5
2 54 52
= − |A|2 D2 + |A|2 D − |A|2
25 25 25
2
= − |A|2 (D − 1) (D − 26) .
25
So 1 ≤ D ≤ 26 for this physical state to have a nonnegative norm.

PROBLEM 2.11
The open-string states at the N = 2 level were shown in Section 2.5 to form a certain
representation of SO(25). What does this result imply for the spectrum of the closed bosonic
string at the NL = NR = 2 level?

SOLUTION

The open-string states at the N = 2 level

i
α−2 |0; ki
i j
α−1 α−1 |0; ki

are in the 324 of SO(25) (the rank 2 traceless symmetric representation). Therefore, the

24
closed-string states at the N = Ñ = 2 level

i j
α−2 α̃−2 |0; ki
i j k
α−2 α̃−1 α̃−1 |0; ki
i j k
α−1 α−1 α̃−2 |0; ki
i j k l
α−1 α−1 α̃−1 α̃−1 |0; ki

are in the 324 ⊗ 324 of SO(25).

PROBLEM 2.12
Construct the spectrum of open and closed strings in light-cone gauge for level N = 3. How
many states are there in each case? Without actually doing it (unless you want to), describe
a strategy for assembling these states into irreducible SO(25) multiplets.

SOLUTION

(i) The open-string states at the N = 3 level are

i
α−3 |0; ki
i j
α−2 α−1 |0; ki
i j k
α−1 α−1 α−1 |0; ki.

For a fixed k µ , there are 24 + 576 + 2600 = 3200 such states. In the closed-string sector,
there are 32002 = 10, 240, 000 states for a fixed k µ at the N = Ñ = 3 level:

i j
α−3 α̃−3 |0; ki
i j k
α−3 α̃−2 α̃−1 |0; ki
i j k l
α−3 α̃−1 α̃−1 α̃−1 |0; ki
i j k
α−2 α−1 α̃−3 |0; ki
i j k l
α−2 α−1 α̃−2 α̃−1 |0; ki
i j k l m
α−2 α−1 α̃−1 α̃−1 α̃−1 |0; ki
i j k l
α−1 α−1 α−1 α̃−3 |0; ki
i j k l m
α−1 α−1 α−1 α̃−2 α̃−1 |0; ki
i j k l m n
α−1 α−1 α−1 α̃−1 α̃−1 α̃−1 |0; ki.

25
(ii) We first decompose the N = 3 open-string states into irreducible SO(24) multiplets.

States Representation
i
α−3 |0; ki 24
i j
α−2 α−1 |0; ki 1 ⊕ 276 ⊕ 299
i j k
α−1 α−1 α−1 |0; ki 24 ⊕ 2576

Recall that these irreducible representations have the following tensorial constructions:

Representation Tensorial Construction

1 trivial
24 vector
276 rank 2 antisymmetric
299 rank 2 traceless symmetric
2576 rank 3 traceless symmetric

Now consider irreducible representation of SO(25), specifially the 300 (rank 2 antisymmetric
representation) and the 2900 (rank 3 traceless symmetric representation). Under the action
of an SO(24) subgroup, the 300 decomposes into 24 ⊕ 276 and the 2900 decomposes into
1 ⊕ 24 ⊕ 299 ⊕ 2576. These are exactly the irreducible SO(24) multiplets we found above.
So the N = 3 open-string states are in the 2900 ⊕ 300 of SO(25). Furthermore, this result
implies that the N = Ñ = 3 closed-string states are in the (2900 ⊕ 300) ⊗ (2900 ⊕ 300) of
SO(25).

PROBLEM 2.13
We expect the central extension of the Virasoro algebra to be of the form

[Lm , Ln ] = (m − n)Lm+n + A(m)δm+n,0 ,

because normal-ordering ambiguities only arise for m + n = 0.

(i) Show that if A(1) 6= 0 it is possible to change the definition of L0 , by adding a constant,
so that A(1) = 0.

(ii) For A(1) = 0 show that the generators L0 and L±1 form a closed subalgebra.

26
SOLUTION

(i) Assume that A(1) 6= 0. We begin by noting that A(1) only appears in a single commu-
tation relation.
[L1 , L−1 ] = 2L0 + A(1).

This suggests the following redefinition of L0

e0 = L0 + 1 A(1),
L
2
so that
e0.
[L1 , L−1 ] = 2L

Since A(1) is central, this redefinition doesn’t affect the commutator structure.6 So we can
always choose L0 such that A(1) = 0.

(ii) Let us choose an L0 such that A(1) = 0. The commutation relations for L−1 , L0 , L1 are
then

[L1 , L−1 ] = 2L0

[L1 , L0 ] = L1
[L0 , L−1 ] = L−1 .

So {L−1 , L0 , L1 } form a closed subalgebra.

PROBLEM 2.14
Derive an equation for the coefficients A(m) defined in the previous problem that follows
from the Jacobi identity

[[Lm , Ln ], Lp ] + [[Lp , Lm ], Ln ] + [[Ln , Lp ], Lm ] = 0.

Assuming A(1) = 0, prove that A(m) = (m3 − m)A(2)/6 is the unique solution, and hence
that the central charge is c = 2A(2).
6 e 0 + A(m).
Note that A(m) for m 6= 1 is also modified so that [Lm , L−m ] = 2mL

27
SOLUTION

Evaluating the Jacobi identity, we find that

0 = [[Lm , Ln ], Lp ] + [[Lp , Lm ], Ln ] + [[Ln , Lp ], Lm ]

= (m − n)[Lm+n , Lp ] + (p − m)[Lp+m , Ln ] + (n − p)[Ln+p , Lm ]
= {(m − n)(m + n − p) + (p − m)(p + m − n) + (n − p)(n + p − m)} Lm+n+p
+ {(m − n)A(m + n) + (p − m)A(p + m) + (n − p)A(n + p)} δm+n+p,0 .

Since {Lk } and the central element are linearly independent, both coefficients must vanish
separately. A little algebra shows that the coefficient of Lm+n+p is indeed zero. Requiring
that the coefficient of the central element vanishes, we obtain an equation for A(k).

(m − n)A(m + n) − (2m + n)A(−n) + (m + 2n)A(−m) = 0. (27)

Before solving for A(k), we first note that the skew symmetry of the commutator implies
that A(−k) = −A(k).

[Ln , Lm ] = −[Lm , Ln ]
(n − m)Ln+m + A(n)δm+n,0 = −(m − n)Lm+n − A(m)δm+n,0
A(−m) = −A(m).

Assume A(1) = 0. For n = 1, we obtain a recursion relation for A(k) from (27).

(m − 1)A(m + 1) = (m + 2)A(m).

For a given A(2), this recurrence relation uniquely determines A(k). We now verify that
1
A(m) = (m3 − m)A(2) (28)
6
solves the recurrence relation.
1  1
(m − 1) (m + 1)3 − (m + 1) A(2) = (m + 2)(m3 − m)A(2)
6 6
1 2  1 2
(m − 1) (m + 1) − 1 A(2) = (m + 2m)(m2 − 1)A(2)
2
6 6
1 2 1 2
(m − 1)(m + 2m)A(2) = (m − 1)(m2 + 2m)A(2).
2
6 6

So (28) is the unique solution of the recurrence relation.

28
PROBLEM 2.15
Verify that the Virasoro generators in Eq. (2.91) satisfy the Virasoro algebra. It is difficult to
verify the central-charge term directly from the commutator. Therefore, a good strategy is
to verify that A(1) and A(2) have the correct values. These can be determined by computing
the ground-state matrix element of Eq. (2.93) for the cases m = −n = 1 and m = −n = 2.

SOLUTION

The Virasoro generators in the open-string sector are

 ∞
 1 2 X

 µ
αlν for m = 0
 2 α0 + ηµν α−l
Lm = Xl=1

 1 µ

 ηµν αm−l αlν for m =
6 0.
2 l

The generators L0 and Lm with m 6= 0 satisfy the following Lie algebra (with central exten-
sion)
 
L0 , L0 = 0

X∞ X
  1  µ ν σ 
L0 , Lm = ηµν ησρ α−l αl , αm−p αpρ
2 l=1 p
X∞ X
1 µ
 ν σ  ρ µ σ
 ν ρ
= ηµν ησρ α−l αl , αm−p αp + α−l αm−p αl , αp
2 l=1 p 
 µ σ  ρ ν σ
 µ ρ ν
+ α−l , αm−p αp αl + αm−p α−l , αp αl
1 X µ 1 X µ
= ηµν (p − m) αm−p αpν − ηµν pαm−p αpν
2 p
2 p
= −mLm

29
   1 XX µ 
Lm , Ln = ηµν ησρ αm−l αlν , αn−p
σ
αpρ
4 l p
X X 
1 µ
 ν σ  ρ µ σ
 ν ρ
= ηµν ησρ αm−l αl , αn−p αp + αm−l αn−p αl , αp
4 p
l 
 µ σ
 ρ ν σ
 µ ρ
 ν
+ αm−l , αn−p αp αl + αn−p αm−l , αp αl
1 X µ 1 X µ
ν
= ηµν lαm−l αn+l + ηµν (m − l)αm+n−l αlν
2 l
2 l
= (m − n)Lm+n + A(m)δm+n,0 ,

where A(m) is an m-dependent normal ordering constant. Since

L0 |0; 0i = 0,
 
we can determine the value of A(m) by computing the expectation value of Lm , L−m in
the zero momentum oscillator ground state.
 
A(m) = h0; 0| Lm , L−m |0; 0i.

Specifically,
 
A(1) = h0; 0| L1 , L−1 |0; 0i
= h0; 0|L1 L−1 − L−1 L1 |0; 0i
=0

 
A(2) = h0; 0| L2 , L−2 |0; 0i
= h0; 0|L2 L−2 − L−2 L2 |0; 0i
1
= ηµν ησρ h0; 0|α1µ α1ν α−1
σ ρ
α−1 |0; 0i
4
1
= ηµν η µν
2
D
= .
2
In Problem 2.14, we studied this Lie algebra (with central extension) and found that
1
A(m) = (m3 − m)A(2). (29)
6
Substituting the value of A(2) into (29), we have
D

A(m) = m3 − m .
12
Therefore, the Virasoro generators satisfy the Virasoro algebra.

30