PHY 4113

Structure of Matter, Electricity, Magnetism and Modern Physics

Lecture 1

Structure of matter

Dr. Fahmida Sharmin

Assistant Professor, NSc
All engineering disciplines need to know about materials, to be able to,

• select a material for a given use based on considerations of cost and

performance.
• understand the limits of materials and the change of their properties with use.
• create a new material that will have some desirable properties.

Even the software or system engineering depend on the development of new

materials, which in turn alter the economics, like software-hardware trade-offs.

This concept equip the students with basic knowledge of materials (crystals) at
microscopic level.
Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. It consists of
subatomic particles, atoms, ions, and compounds. Sometimes these
particles are tightly bound and close together, while other times
particles are loosely connected and widely separated. States of matter
describe the qualities displayed by matter.
 Solid and its classification

• Solid-state is one of the states of matter

• We have learnt that matter exists in three states – solid, liquid and gas.
• In this lesson, we will be dealing with the properties as well as the types of
solids.
• Solids generally exhibit certain characteristics that set them apart from liquids
and gases.
Physical and Chemical Properties of Solids

•Solids are incompressible, which means the constituent particle is arranged

close to each other and because of that, there is negligible space between the
constituent particle.
•Solids are rigid. This is due to the lack of space between the constituent
particles.
•Solids have definite mass, volume and shape, due to which it has a compact
arrangement of constituent particles.
•The intermolecular distance between molecules is short. Due to this, the force
between the constituent particles (atoms, molecules or ions) is very strong.
•The constituents particles can only oscillate about their mean positions.
Based on the arrangement of constituent particles, solids are classified into two-
state types:

1. Crystalline Solids
2. Non-crystalline/Amorphous Solids

Crystalline Solid
Crystalline solids are those that have a typical geometry. In such types of solids,
there are definite arrangements of particles (atoms, molecules or ions ) throughout
the 3-dimensional network of a crystal in a long-range order. Examples include
Sodium Chloride, Quartz, Diamond, etc.

Properties of Crystalline Solids

•Crystalline solids have a sharp melting point and start melting when it reaches a
particular temperature.
•The shape of crystalline solids is definite and has typical arrangements of
particles.
•They show cleavage property, i.e., when they are cut with the edge of a sharp
tool, they split into two pieces, and the newly generated surfaces are smooth and
plain.
Crystalline solids

When the periodicity in crystal pattern extends throughout a certain piece of

material, one speaks of a crystalline solid.

Calcite, quartz, etc. are examples of common single crystal.

Periodic across the

Whole volume Periodic across each grain Not periodic
Polycrystalline solids

When the periodicity in the crystal structure is interrupted at so-called grain

boundaries, the crystal is said to be polycrystalline. Rock, sand, metals, etc. are
some examples of polycrystalline solids.
 Uses of crystalline solids

Examples: Quartz, Calcite, Sugar, Mica, Diamonds etc.

There are many applications of crystalline solids, some are:

• Diamond is the most decent example of crystalline solids and is widely

used in making beautiful jewelry items

• Quartz is extensively used in manufacturing of watches and clocks

• Many crystalline solids are used as a raw material in many industries

 Crystal lattice and unit cell

Solid Constituent particles=Atoms, molecules, ions

How these particles form big structures????

Lattice point Unit cell Crystal structure

 Crystal structure

Lattice point: In crystal lattice each atom, ion and molecule is represented
by a single point, known as lattice point.
Unit Cell: The smallest repeating unit of the lattice. The lattice is
generated by repeating the unit cell in all three dimensions.
Lattice: The regular arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules in 3D-
space.
Lattice parameters/Unit cell parameter L2
Describes the orientation of an unit cell

The lattice constant [or lattice parameter] refers to the constant distance
between unit cells in a crystal lattice. Lattices in three dimensions
generally have three lattice constants, referred to as a, b, and c. However,
in the special case of cubic crystal structures, all of the constants are equal
and we only refer to a. Similarly, in hexagonal crystal structures, the a and
b constants are equal, and we only refer to the a and c constants. A group
of lattice constants could be referred to as lattice parameters. However, the
full set of lattice parameters consist of the three lattice constants and the
three angles between them.
For example the lattice constant for a
common carbon diamond is a = 3.57Å at
300 K. The structure is equilateral
although its actual shape can not be
determined from only the lattice constant.
As lattice constants have the dimension of
length, their SI unit is the meter. Lattice
constants are typically of the order of
several angstroms (i.e. tenths of a
nanometre). Lattice constants can be
determined using techniques such as X-
ray diffraction

Thus, the tree fundamental translation vectors along with

opposite angles each of between two crystallographic
axis as shown in figure are the lattice parameters and the
distance between two identical atoms or molecules is the lattice
constant
 Number of Atoms Per Unit Cell

1.The atoms in the primitive cubic unit cell are present

only at the corners
2.Every atom at the corner is shared among eight adjacent
unit cells
3.Therefore, a particular unit cell has the only 1/8th of an
atom
The total number of atoms in one unit cell is
8 × 1/8 = 1 atom.

in a BCC cell, we have:

•8 corners × 1/8 per corner atom = 8 × 1/8 = 1 atom
•1 body center atom = 1 × 1 = 1 atom
Therefore, the total number of atoms present per unit cell
= 2 atoms.

in a face-centred cubic unit cell, we have:

•8 corners × 1/8 per corner atom = 8 × 1/8 = 1 atom
•6 face-centred atoms × 1/2 atom per unit cell = 3 atoms
Therefore, the total number of atoms in a unit cell = 4
atoms.
We see each of the corner atoms have 1/8th of its structure in the actual cube.
Crystal structures are like blueprints that define how atoms or molecules
are arranged within crystals. These structures play a fundamental role in
determining the physical, chemical, and mechanical properties of solids.
These arrangements affect the properties of materials. By studying crystal
structures, scientists can predict how substances will behave and even
design new materials. Crystallography is essential for various fields and
helps us understand nature better while also paving the way for new
technologies.
The seven crystal systems are a method of classifying crystals according to their
atomic lattice or structure.

The “lattice parameter” is the length between two points on the corners of a unit cell,
designated by the letters a, b, and c. The angles are designated by the Greek letters
α, β, and γ
Seven crystal systems
 Coordination Number
Coordination Number (CN) is the number of nearest neighbors that each atom has.
Amorphous Solid

Amorphous It is the opposite extreme of a single crystal. They do not have a

definite geometrical form or long range of order. Examples include glass,
rubber, plastic, etc. When the size of the grains or crystallites becomes
comparable to the size of the pattern unit, we speak of amorphous substances. A
typical feature of these substances is that they have no definite melting points.
As their temperature is increased, they gradually become soft; their viscosity
drops, and begins to behave like ordinary viscous liquids.

Properties of Amorphous Solids

•Amorphous solids are gradually softened over a range of temperatures, and they
can be molded into different shapes on heating.
•Amorphous solids are pseudo-solids or supercooled liquids, which means they
have a tendency to flow very slowly
•Amorphous solids have irregular shapes. i.e., their constituent particles do not
have definite geometry of arrangements.
•When amorphous solids are cut with a sharp edge tool, they form pieces with
irregular surfaces.
Formation of amorphous solids

In numerous instances amorphous solids are formed when liquids are

cooled below the melting temperature.

This occurs for two reasons:

1) the structure of the molecules is so complex that they cannot easily
rearrange themselves to form a crystalline structure, and/or
2) the solid forms so rapidly that the atoms or molecules do not have time
enough to rearrange themselves in a crystalline structure.

Solids with pure ionic bonds do not form amorphous solids but all the
other bond types can produce amorphous solids. Silica (SiO2) can form
either covalent amorphous solids, usually called glasses or regular crystal
structures (Quartz).
 Quartz is crystalline but quartz glass is amorphous

Silicon and oxygen are the most abundant

elements on the earth’s crust. Silicon is found in
nature always chemically combined with oxygen
to which it binds with the strong chemical bond
Si-O. This simple combination of these elements
(Silicon Oxide) is known as Silica. Silicon
dioxide exists naturally in the crystalline form
known as quartz. Although the chemical
composition and the basic structural units of a
quartz crystal and quartz glass are the same—
both are SiO2 and both consist of linked
SiO4 tetrahedra—the arrangements of the atoms
in space are not. Crystalline quartz contains a
highly ordered arrangement of silicon and
oxygen atoms, but in quartz glass the atoms are The lattice of crystalline
arranged almost randomly. When molten SiO2 is quartz (SiO2). The atoms
cooled rapidly (4 K/min), it forms quartz glass, form a regular arrangement in
whereas the large, perfect quartz crystals sold in a structure that consists of
mineral shops have had cooling times of linked tetrahedra
thousands of years.
Difference between Crystalline and Amorphous Solid
Density of materials and Packing fraction
Lecture-3
g/mol
 6.02214076×1023
/

4R

6.02214076×1023
per mol
 Atomic Packing Factor (APF)

In crystallography, atomic packing factor (APF) or packing fraction is the

fraction of volume in a crystal structure that is occupied by atoms. It is
dimensionless and always less than unity. For practical purposes, the
APF of a crystal structure is determined by assuming that atoms are rigid
spheres. The radius of the spheres is taken to be the maximal value
such that the atoms do not overlap. It is defined as the ratio of the actual
volume occupied by the spherical atoms to the total available of the
structure. It is also known as relative pacing density, efficiency or
packing fraction.
For one-component crystals (those that contain only one type of atom),
the APF is represented mathematically by
APF for SC

Vol. of sphere
 APF for bcc

y
APF for fcc
Mathematician Auguste Bravais discovered that there were 14 different
collections of the groups of points, which are known as Bravais lattices
Learning crystal structure is highly relevant in the study of engineering for several
reasons:
1.Material properties: The atomic-level arrangement of atoms in a material's crystal
structure determines many of its physical and chemical properties, such as strength,
hardness, electrical conductivity, and melting point. Understanding crystal structure
is crucial for designing and selecting materials with the desired properties for
engineering applications.

2.Microstructure and processing: The processing methods used to manufacture

materials, such as casting, welding, heat treatment, and mechanical deformation, can
significantly alter the material's microstructure and crystal structure. Knowing how
processing techniques affect the crystal structure helps engineers optimize
manufacturing processes to achieve the target material properties.

3.Defects and imperfections: Defects and imperfections in a material's crystal

structure, such as dislocations, grain boundaries, and point defects, can greatly
influence a material's mechanical, electrical, and other properties. Engineers need to
understand how these defects arise and how they can be controlled or mitigated
through processing and design.
1.X-ray and electron diffraction: Techniques like X-ray diffraction and electron
diffraction are widely used to characterize the crystal structure of materials.
Understanding the principles of these analytical methods is essential for engineers
to accurately interpret the structural information and use it for material selection,
design, and quality control.

1.Nanotechnology and thin films: At the nanoscale and in thin-film materials, the
crystal structure and its interactions with surfaces and interfaces become
increasingly important. Engineers working in these emerging fields must have a
deep understanding of crystal structure to design and optimize nanoscale devices
and coatings.
By studying crystal structure, engineers can gain critical insights into the
relationships between a material's atomic-level structure and its macroscopic
properties, which is essential for the design, development, and optimization of a
wide range of engineering products and processes.