CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Concrete
Is a structural material composed of a binder (cement), fine aggregates (sand), course aggregates, water,
chemical admixtures and supplementary cementitious materials and in its fresh state can be molded
into different shapes.

All components are bound together by cement and other cementitious materials. In order to understand
the behavior of concrete, we need to understand the properties of these constituents.

Main Constituents of concrete

 Cement
 Aggregates
 Water

CEMENT
Cement is the most important constituent in concrete. Cement consists of various oxides such as
calcium oxide, silicon oxides and other oxides. Currently in the construction practices, OPC and PPC are
most commonly used.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF PORTLAND CEMENT

The raw materials used in the manufacture of Portland cement consist mainly of lime, silica, alumina
and iron oxide. These compounds interact with one another in the kiln (oven for drying, burning or
baking something) to form series of more complex products and apart from small residue of
uncombined lime which has not had sufficient time to react. A state of chemical equilibrium is reached.
However, equilibrium is not maintained during cooling and the rate of cooling affects the degree of
crystallization and amount of amorphous material in the cooled clinker (hard mass of fused stony matter
formed in a furnace).

Four compounds are considered as major constituents of cement

 𝐶𝑎𝑂 = 𝐶
 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 = 𝑆
 𝐴𝑙2 03 = 𝐴
 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 = 𝐹
 𝐻2 𝑂 = 𝐻 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Main compounds

Name of compound Oxide composition Abbreviation

Tri-calcium silicate 3𝐶𝑎. 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 𝐶3 𝑆
Di-calcium silicate 2𝐶𝑎𝑂. 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 𝐶2 𝑆
Tri-calcium aluminate 3𝐶𝑎𝑂. 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 𝐶3 𝐴
Tetra-calcium aluminoferrite 4𝐶𝑎𝑂. 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 . 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 𝐶4 𝐴𝐹

Calculation of potential composition of Portland cement is based on the work of R.H Bogue referred to
as Bogue Composition.

𝐶3 𝑆 = 4.07(𝐶𝑎𝑂) − 7.60(𝑆𝑖02 ) − 6.72(𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 ) − 1.43(𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 ) − 2.85(𝑆𝑂3 )

𝐶2 𝑆 = 2.87(𝑆𝑖02 ) − 0.754(3𝐶𝑎. 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 )

𝐶3 𝐴 = 2.65(𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 ) − 1.69(𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 )

𝐶4 𝐴𝐹 = 3.04(𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 )

Where terms in the brackets represent percentage of given oxide in total mass of cement.

NB: The silicates 𝐶3 𝑆 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶2 𝑆 are most important compounds responsible for strength of hydrated
cement.

𝐶3 𝐴 is beneficial in the manufacture of cement as it facilitates the combination of lime and silica.

𝐶4 𝐴𝐹 is present in small quantities and doesn’t affect the behavior significantly but reacts with gypsum
to from calcium sulfoferrite and its presences may accelerate the hydration of the silicates.

HYDARTION OF PORTLAND CEMENT

Anhydrous cement powder acquires adhesive property after mixing water. The chemical reaction
between water and cement is called hydration of cement. Hydration of cement is an exothermic reaction
(chemical reaction in which there is liberation of heat).

The rate of heat energy liberation is maximum at instant of adding water to cement. The rate slows
down and reaches local minimum at about 2 seconds. Beyond this, the rate increases again to reach
local maximum at about 6 to 8 seconds and thereafter it reduces continuously with time.

The products of hydration of 𝐶2 𝑆 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶3 𝑆 are calcium silicate hydrates and calcium
hydroxide(𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 ). Hydration of 𝐶3 𝐴 produces calcium aluminate hydrates which remain stable up
to a temperature of 225𝑜 𝐶. 𝐶2 𝑆 Reacts slower than 𝐶3 𝑆 on the other hand 𝐶3 𝐴 reacts very fast.
Presence of 𝐶3 𝐴 in large quantities in cement may lead to a flash set. Gypsum is added to cement clinker
while grinding to avoid flash set.
 Faster rate of hydration implies high heat of hydration.

MANUFATURE OF PORTLAND CEMENT

The OPC is manufactured by burning proportionately mixed argillaceous (having alumina) and
calcareous (having lime) materials at 1400𝑜 𝐶. Amount of coal burnt per ton of cement ranges between
200-350kg. Burnt material is called Clinker.

PROCESS

The process consists essentially of grinding the raw materials into very fine powder, mixing them
intimately in predetermined proportions and burning them intimately at a temperature of about
1400𝑜 𝐶 when material sinters and partially fuses into clinker. Clinker is cooled and ground into fine
powder with some gypsum added and resulting product is commercial Portland cement.

Mixing and grinding of raw materials can be done either in wet or dry processes.

WET PROCESS

The material is mixed with water and blended to form slurry. In tanks the slurry is stirred constantly for
obtaining uniformity, after the same is passed through huge firebrick kilns.

DRY PROCESS

The raw material (raw meal) is homogeneously mixed and passed through a set of 5 or 6 stage pre-
calcining units and fed into the inclined kiln in the dry state. The temperature of the material is
progressively increased at 425𝑜 𝐶, water is completely driven out. At 875𝑜 𝐶 lime stone gives out
𝐶𝑂2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑂 powder remains. At this time sintering, a thermal process of converting loose fine
particles into solid coherent mass occurs and clinker is formed.

ATYPICAL FLOW DIAGRAM OF MANUFACTURING CEMENT

Processing raw Raw material Dry mixing and

Quarrying material materials preparation blending
(crushing) (grinding)

Pre-heating

Rotary Kiln

Shipping Packaging Product Finish grinding Clinker cooler

storage
For Quarrying material, processing raw materials (crushing), raw material preparation (grinding), dry
mixing and blending, rotary kiln, finish grinding, packaging and shipping Electrical energy is use.

For pre-heating and rotary kiln heat energy is used.

PROPERTIES OF PORTLAND CEMENT

1. Fineness
Fineness of cement indicates the average size of cement particles. It increases with specific area
of cement. Finer cement has higher specific surface area and gives higher rate of hydration and
early gain of strength. Some of the disadvantages of fine cement include probability of air
setting and quality of cement may deteriorate faster during storage.
2. Standard Consistency
It’s also called normal consistency. It refers to a particular percentage of water by weight of
cement to produce a standard cement paste. A vicat’s apparatus is universally used to find
standard consistency.
3. Setting Time
Setting is a change in state from a fluid to rigid state. Setting of cement naturally takes place
gradually after adding water due to chemical reactions. Plastic cement paste attains sufficient
hardness and rigidity making itself capable of withstanding a definite amount of pressure. This
time is called setting time.
 Initial setting time is time elapsed from the time of mixing water up to which cement
product remains in plastic state.(not less than 30mins)
 Final setting time is time elapsed from time of mixing water up to which cement
product completely loses its plasticity. (less than equal to 10hrs)
 False set is the premature abnormal hardening (shortly while after adding water).
4. Soundness
It refers to any expansion in volume of hydrated cement after setting. It occurs due to presence
of lime, magnesia and calcium sulphates. They may cause large expansion in volume of cement
paste.
Free lime is present in clinker and is inter-crystallized with other compound; consequently it
hydrates very slowly occupying larger volume than original free calcium oxide.
5. Strength
For structural use, compressive strength of cement is mostly evaluated and depends
on the chemical composition of the cement. Typical combinations of oxides form Bogue
compounds. Each of these compounds has a specific contribution to the strength of cement.
The development of strength is mainly contributed by the Tri-calcium silicates, followed by
calcium silicates.
According to research, moderate cooling rate has provided marginally high strength of cement
than slower cooling rate.
 NB: High strength cement pastes are made by improving on the microstructure by several means
such as;
 Mixing ultra-fine silica fume, the particles mass packed per unit volume may be
increased
 By applying heat and pressure on the cement paste
 By removing entrapped air.

TYPES OF PORTLAND CEMENT

Many of the cements have been developed to ensure good durability of concrete under a variety of
conditions. It has not been possible to however find the composition of cement a complete answer to
problem of durability, principle mechanical and physical properties of hardened concrete like strength,
shrinkage, permeability resistance to weathering and creep.

1. ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT (OPC)

The most common cement used in the general concrete construction when there is no exposure
to sulphates in soil or in ground water.
2. RAPID-HARDENING PORTLAND CEMENT
The strength of cement develops rapidly because of high 𝐶3 𝑆 and higher fineness. It’s used
when structural element formwork is to be removed early for re-use or where sufficient
strength for further construction is required quickly. Additionally it’s used in
 Cold weather concreting
 Precast and prefabricated concrete
 Repair of rigid pavements
3. LOW HEAT PORTLAND CEMENT
It has low heat of hydration. It has a lower content of𝐶3 𝑆 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶3 𝐴. There is a slower
development of strength than OPC but the ultimate strength is not affected. It’s mostly used in
large gravity dams i.e. mass concreting
4. SULPHATE RESISTING CEMENT
This cement has low 𝐶3 𝐴 content so as to avoid sulphur attacks from outside the concrete
otherwise the formation of calcium sulfoaluminate and gypsum would cause disruption of
concrete due to increased volume of the resultant compounds.
Salts active are magnesium and sodium sulfate accompanied by alternate wetting and drying.
To achieve this 𝐶3 𝐴 content is limited to 3.5% (BS 4027:1996) and 𝑆𝑂3 CONTENT OF 2.5%.
5. PORTLAND POZZOLANA CEMENT
Reactive pozzolana material is ground with OPC clinker. Pozzolana materials may be siliceous (if
it originates from butinamous coals) or aluminates in composition.
The typical materials of this type are volcanic ash (the original pozzolan), pumicite, opaline
shales and cherts, calcined diatomaceous earth burnt clay and fly ash.
Merits of PPC
 Economical as a waste material such as fly ash are used to replace 15-35% of OPC
  Calcium hydroxide is converted to a cementitious material in combination with fly ash.
 It can reduce minor cracks in concrete by improving on pore size distribution concrete
 Permeability of concrete is lesser and gives a more volume of mortar.
 Sufficient curing of PPC, the long term strength is more than OPC
Demerits
 Removal of formwork takes longer time as strength development is slow and setting
time is longer.
 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 is absorbed by pozzolanic material, Alkalinity of hydrated Cement paste is
reduced. This may increase risk of corrosion.
6. HIGH ALUMINA CEMENT
This cement is used for making refractory concrete which can withstand high temperature. It’s
also preferred where high early strength development is essential. It’s used in under water
works.
7. WHITE CEMENT
This is used for architectural purposes. It’s used for floor finishes, plastering, and ornamental
works. In swimming pools white cement is used to replace glazed tiles and used for fixing glazed
tiles and marbles
8. EXPANSIVE CEMENT.
This type of cement expands during first few hours of life and pre-stress by restraining this
expansion with steel reinforcements.
Expands even on hardening. It’s used for filling cracks in concrete structures
9. BLAST FURNACE SLAG CEMENT
It’s obtained by thorough mixing and grinding of OPC clinker, gypsum and granulated blast
furnace slag in suitable proportions. This cement has low heat of hydration. It’s used in mass
concreting. The slag improves the strength at later stages. It has better resistance towards
chloride and sulphate attacks, alkali metals and acidic environment.

STORAGE OF CEMENT
As per IS269-2013, the cement shall be stored in such a manner as to permit easy access for
proper inspection and identification. A suitable water tight building shall be used to store to
protect the cement from dampness and to minimize ware house deterioration. It shall be
stacked on racks.