1610 Communication

60
Chapter

28

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Communication
The term communication refers to the transmitting, receiving and The term channel refers to the frequency range allocated to a
processing of information by electronic means.
Basic Communication System
A basic communication system consists of an information source, a
transmitter, a link and a receiver.
ID particular service or transmission.
Table 28.1 : Different channels
Type of communication
Radio communication Free space
Channels or links
U
Telephony and Telegraphy Transmission line
Link Output communication
Source of
Transmitter Receiver signal
information Optical communication Optical fibre
(Channel)
YG

Fig. 28.1
(4) Receiver : The receiver consists of
(1) Information : The idea/message that is to be conveyed is Pickup anteena : To pick the signal
information. The message may be individual one or a set of messages. The
Demodulator : To separate out the audio signal from the
message may be a symbol, code, group of words or any pre decided unit.
modulated signal
(2) Transmitter : In radio transmission, the transmitter consists of a
Amplifier : To boost up the weak audio signal
transducer, modulator, amplifier and transmitting anteena.
D

Transducer : To convert back audio signal in the form of

Transducer : Converts sound signals into electric signal. electrical pulses into sound waves.
Modulator : Mixing of audio electric signal with high frequency
radio wave.
U

Amplifier : Boosting the power of modulated signal. Anteena Output

Anteena : Signal is radiated in the space with the aid of an
anteena. De-
ST

modulator Amplifier Transducer

Anteena

Fig. 28.3 : Receiver

Source of Types of Communication System
Modulator Amplifier
information
Communication systems can be classified according to the nature of
information or mode of transmission or types of transmission channel.
Fig. 28.2 : Transmitter (1) According to the nature of information source
(3) Communication channel : The function of communication channel
(i) Speech transmission
is to carry the modulated signal from transmitter to receiver. The
communication channel is also called transmission medium or link. (ii) Picture transmission
(iii) Facsimile transmission (FAX) : This involves exact reproduction of
a document or picture which are static.
 (2) According to the mode of transmission
(i) Analog communication : The communication system, which make
use of analog signals are called analog communication system.
Table 28.2 : Few analog communication system
(iii) The frequency of analog signals associated with speed or music
System Specification varies over a range between 20 Hz to 20 KHz.
Telegraphy Message in the form of codes are sent. (iv) The range over which the frequencies of a signal vary is called
Television broadcast Both sound as well as pictures are sent. band width.
Telephony It sends voice signal from one place to another by
means of wire.
Radar It means radio detection and ranging. It is used for
determining the distance and direction of objects

Amplitude
using microwave.
Teleprinting Message can be typed and telegraphed to distant
receivers

f1 f2 Frequency

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(ii) Digital communication : In this system digital signals are used. B.W.=f2 – f1
Table 28.3 : Few digital communication system (v) The term base band Fig. designates
28.5 the band of frequencies
System Specification representing the signal supplied by the source of information.
Facsimile transmission This involves exact reproduction of a document or (vi) A signal consist of two or more waves of different frequencies is
(FAX) picture which are static known as a complex analog signal.

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Mobile phone Such telephones are also called cellular phones, A
because they operate within a network of radio
cells.
E-mail the message sent via a computer network are called
e-mail t A
Tele conferencing It is a system in which persons sitting at coloured
television screens. See and talk to each other via a

Communication
satellite
Global positioning
system (GPS)
computer communication network.
Used to relay radio and television programmers.

It is a navigation system based on a network of

earth orbiting satellites. The users can find their
ID A
+

t
t

positions within an accuracy of 100 m by receiving.

U
(2) Digital signals : A digital signal
Fig. is28.6
a discontinuous function of time. It
(3) According to the transmission channel has only two voltage level i.e. either low (0) or high (1).
(i) Line communication (ii) Space communication Either of 0 and 1 is known as bit. A group of bit is called byte.
YG

(4) According to the type of modulation A byte comprising of 2 bits can give on the four code combination i.e.
(i) Amplitude modulation (AM) 00, 01, 10 and 11.
(ii) Frequency modulation (FM) The number of code combination increase with number of bits in a
(iii) Phase modulation (PM) byte is given by N = 2 , where x = number of bits in a byte.
x

(iv) Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) The number of binary digits (bits) per second, which describe a digital
signal is called it's bit rate. Bit rate is expressed in bits per second (bps).
(v) Pulse time modulation (PTM)
D

(vi) Pulse code modulation (PCM) Pulse

V duration
Analog and Digital Signals
U

In communication system, a signal means a time varying electrical 1

Pulse amplitude
signal containing informations.
O
(1) Analog signals : It is a continuous wave form which changes
t
smoothly over time. Modulation
ST

Fig. 28.7
(i) Such signals can be easily generated from the source of information (1) Digital and analog signals to be transmitted are usually of low
by using an appropriate transducer e.g. pressure variations in the sound frequency and hence cannot be transmitted as such.
waves can be converted into corresponding current or voltage pulses with
the help of a microphone. (2) These signals require some carrier to be transported. These
carriers are known as carrier waves or high frequency signals.
(ii) A simple analog signal is represented by a sine wave
(3) The process of placement of a low frequency (LF) signal over the
high frequency (HF) signal is known as modulation.
MODULATION
Amplitude

O t

T Continuous wave Pulse wave modulation

modulation
Fig. 28.4

Amplitude Frequency Phase

modulation modulation modulation
 1612 Communication

(1) Modulation index : The ratio of change of amplitude of carrier wave to

the amplitude of original carrier wave is called the modulation factor or degree
of modulation or modulation index (m). a

(4) Need for modulation : The sound wave (20 Hz to 20 KHz) cannot Change in amplitude of carrier wa ve kEm
be transmitted directly from one place to another for the following reasons. ma  
Amplitud eof originalcarrier wa ve Ec
(i) Height of anteena : For efficient radiation and reception , the height
of transmitting and receiving antennas should be comparable to a quarter of where k = A factor which determines the maximum change in the
wavelength of the frequency used. For 15 KHz it is 5000 m (too large) and amplitude for a given amplitude E of the modulating signal. If k = 1 then
m

for 1 MHz it is 75 m. E E  Emin

m a  m  max
The energy radiated from an anteena is practically zero, when the Ec Emax  Emin

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frequency of the signal to be transmitted is below 15 Hz. If a carrier wave is modulated by several sine waves the total
(ii) Detecting signals : All audible signals are in the range of 20 Hz to
20 KHz so the signals from all sources remains heavily mixed up in air. It modulated index m is given by m t  m12  m 22  m 32  ........
t

will be very difficult to differentiate or detect the broadcast signal at the (2) Voltage equation for AM wave : Suppose voltage equations for
receiving station. carrier wave and modulating wave are e c  Ec cos c t and

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Thus modulation is necessary for a low frequency signal. When it is to em  Em sinm t  mEc sinm t
be sent to a distant place so that the information may not die out in the
way it self as well as for the proper identification of a signal and to keep the where e = Instantaneous voltage of carrier wave, E = Amplitude of
c c

height of anteena small also carrier wave, c  2 fc  Angular velocity at carrier frequency fc ,
em  Instantaneous voltage of modulating, Em  Amplitude of
Source of modulating wave, m  2 fm  Angular velocity of modulating frequency
Original
signal
information Baseband
signal
Modulator

Carrier
wave
Modulated
signal
ID f
m

Voltage equation for AM wave is

e  E sinc t  (Ec  em ) sinc t  (Ec  em sinm t) sinc t

m a Ec m E
 Ec sinc t  cos(c  m )t  a c cos (c  m )t
U
2 2
The above AM wave indicated that the AM wave is equivalent to
Oscillator summation of three sinusoidal wave, one having amplitude E and the other c
YG

m E
Amplitude ModulationFig.
(AM) two having amplitude a c .
28.9 2
The process of changing the amplitude of a carrier wave in accordance (3) Side band frequencies and band width in AM wave
with the amplitude of the audio frequency (AF) signal is known as (i) Side band frequencies : The AM wave contains three frequencies
amplitude modulation (AM).
fc , ( fc  fm ) and ( fc  fm ), fc is called carrier frequency, ( fc  fm ) and
In AM frequency of the carrier wave remains unchanged.
( fc  fm ) are called side band frequencies.
The amplitude of modulated wave is varied in accordance with the
( fc  fm ) : Upper side band (USB) frequency
D

amplitude of modulating wave.

ec ( fc  fm ) : Lower side band (LSB) frequency
Ec Side band frequencies are generally close to the carrier frequency.
U

(ii) Band width : The two side bands lie on either side of the carrier
t frequency at equal frequency interval f . m

So, band width  ( fc  fm )  ( fc  fm )  2 fm

(A) HF carrier wave
ST

em Ec
Em
Amplitude

m a Ec
Voltage

2
t

(B) LF modulating wave

(fc – fm) fc (fc + fm) Frequency
Ec + ma Ec sin mt 2 fm
e
 Communication 1613

(4) Frequency deviation : The maximum change in frequency from

V2 mean value ( ) is known as frequency deviation. This is also the change or
(4) Power in AM waves : Power dissipated in any circuit P  rms . c

R
shift either above or below the frequency  and is called as frequency c
2
 Ec  deviation.
 
 2 2
Hence (i) carrier power Pc     Ec Em
R 2R    ( fmax  fc )  fc  fmin  k f .
2
2
 m a Ec   m a Ec  k = Constant of proportionality. It determines the maximum variation
   
 2 2   2 2  m 2 E2
f

(ii) Total power of side bands Psb        a c in frequency of the modulated wave for a given modulating signal.

60
R R 4R (5) Carrier swing (CS) : The total variation in frequency from the
 2 
Ec2 lowest to the highest is called the carrier swing
(iii) Total power of AM wave P = P + P  1  m a 
Total

2R 
c

2 
sb

i.e. CS = 2  f
(6) Frequency modulation index (m ) : The ratio of maximum
Pt  m2  2 f

(iv)  1  a  and Psb  m a / 2 frequency deviation to the modulating frequency is called modulation index.


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Pc  2  Pt  2 
1  m a   f f f f k E
 2  mf   max c  c min  f m
 fm fm fm fm
(v) Maximum power in the AM (without distortion) will occur when (7) Frequency spectrum : FM side band modulated signal consist of
m = 1 i.e. Pt  1.5 P  3 Psb
a infinite number of side bands whose frequencies are
(vi) If I = Unmodulated current and I = total or modulated current  ( fc  fm ), ( fc  2 fm ), ( fc  3 fm ) .......
Pt
Pc

It2
Ic2

c

It
Ic


m a2
  1 
2




(5) Limitation of amplitude modulation
t

ID The number of side bands depends on the modulation index m. f

U
(i) Noisy reception (ii) Low efficiency
Amplitude

(iii) Small operating range (iv) Poor audio quality

Frequency Modulation (FM)
YG

The process of changing the frequency of a carrier wave in accordance (fc – 2fm) (fc – fm) fc (fc + fm) (fc + 2fm) Frequency
with the audio frequency signal is known as frequency modulation
(1) Audio quality of AM transmission is poor. There are need to Fig. 28.13
In FM signal, the information (audio signal) is contained in the side
eliminate amplitude sensitive noise. This is possible if we eliminate
bands. Since the side bands are separated from each other by the frequency
amplitude variation. (i.e. a need to keep the amplitude of the carrier
of modulating signal f so
constant). This is precisely what we do in FM. m

Band width  2n  fm ; where n = number of significant side

D

(2) In FM the overall amplitude of FM wave remains constant at all

times. band pairs
(3) In FM, the total transmitted power remains constant.
(8) Deviation ratio : The ratio of maximum permitted frequency
ec
U

deviation to the maximum permitted audio frequency is known as deviation

Ec
(f ) max
ratio. Thus, deviation ratio 
( fm ) max
ST

t (9) Percent modulation : The ratio of actual frequency deviation to the

maximum allowed frequency deviation is defined as percent modulation.
(A) HF carrier wave
(f )actual
em Thus, percent modulation, m 
Em (f ) max
Table 28.4 : Range of frequency allotted for FM radio/TV broadcast
t

(B) LF modulating wave

e

t
 1614 Communication

Type of broadcast Frequency band (3) Coding : The process of digitising the quantised pulses according
to some code is called coding.
FM radio 88 to 108 MHz
Table 28.5 : Coding
UHF TV 47 to 230 MHz Quantis-
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
ation level
UHF TV 470 to 960 MHz
Binary
000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111
Pulse Modulation code
Here the carrier wave is in the form of pulses.
For example consider that voltage amplitude of an analog signal varies
(1) Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) : The amplitude of the pulse between 0 and 7 V.
varies in accordance with the modulating signal.
7

60
(2) Pulse width modulation (PWM) : The pulse duration varies in V (volt) 6
accordance with the modulating signal.
5
(3) Pulse position modulation (PPM) : In PPM, the position of the 4
pulses of the carrier wave train is varied in accordance with the 3
instantaneous value of the modulating signal. 2
1
0

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t
(A) Analog voltage signal

(A) Unmodulated pulse

7
V (volt) 6
5 6.9 V
4

(B) Modulating signal

ID 3
2
1
0
4.2 V

1.4 V

(B) Sampling at three

discrete time
t
U
7
V (volt) 6
5 7V
YG

4
(C) Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) 3 4V
2
1 1V
0
(C) Quantisation t
(D) Pulse width modulation (PWM)
V (volt)
Original pulse positions 100 001 111
D

Demodulation0
U

The process of extracting the(D)audio

Coding t
signal from the modulated wave is
Pulse Code Modulation
(E) Pulse position modulation (PPM) known as demodulation or detection. Fig. 28.15
The pulse amplitude, pulse width and pulse position modulations are
Fig. 28.14 The wireless signals consist of radio frequency (high frequency) carrier
ST

not completely digital. wave modulated by audio frequency (low frequency). The diaphragm of a
A completely digital modulation is obtained by pulse code modulation telephone receiver or a loud speaker cannot vibrate with high frequency. So
(PCM). it is necessary to separate the audio frequencies from the radio frequency
carrier wave.
An analog signal is pulse code modulated by following three operation.
Simple demodulator circuit : A diode can be used to detect or
(1) Sampling : It is the process of generating pulses of zero width and demodulate an amplitude modulated (AM) wave. A diode basically acts as a
of amplitude equal to the instantaneous amplitude of the analog signal. rectifier i.e. it reduces the modulated carrier wave into positive envelope
The number of samples taken per second is called sampling rate. only.
(2) Quantisation : The process of dividing the maximum amplitude of The AM wave input is shown in figure. It appears at the output of the
the analog voltage signal into a fixed number of levels is called quantisation. diode across PQ as a rectified wave (since a diode conducts only in the
e.g. amplitude 5 V of the analog voltage signal divides into six. positive half cycle). This rectified wave after passing through the RC
Quantisation level viz 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. network does not contain the radio frequency carrier component. Instead, it
Pulses having amplitude between – 0.5 V to 0.5 V are approximated has only the envelope of the modulated wave.
(quantised) to a value 0 V, amplitude between 0.5 V to 1.5 V are
approximated to a value of 1 V and so on.
 Communication 1615

1
In the actual circuit the value of RC is chosen such that  RC ;
fc
where f = frequency of carrier signal.
C

AM
Wave input C R Output

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The analog signal is sampled by the sampler. The sampled pulses are
then quantised. The encoder codes the quantised pulses according to the

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(A) t (B) t (C) t binary codes. After modulating the PCM signal (by ASK, FSK or PSK
method) the modulated signal is, then transmitted into free space in the
form of bits.
Data Transmission and Retrieval
Fig. 28.16 Carrier
The term data is applied to a representation of facts, concepts or oscillator
instructions suitable for communication, interpretation or processing by
human beings or by automatic means. Data in most cases consists of pulse
type of signals.
The pulse code modulated (PCM) signal is a series of 1's and 0's. The
following three modulation techniques are used to transmit a PCM signal.
ID Information

Output
Source
encoder
Channel
encoder Modulator
U
(1) Amplitude shift keying (ASK) : Two different amplitudes of the
carrier represent the two binary values of the PCM signal. This method is
also known as on-off keying (OOK) Transmitter

Communication
1 : Presence of carrier of same constant amplitude.
YG

channel
0 : Carrier of zero amplitude.
(2) Frequency shift keying (FSK) : The binary values of the PCM signal Receiver
are represented by two frequencies.
1 : Increase in frequency Information
Source Channel Demodulato
0 : Frequency unaffected decoder decoder r or detector
Output and Fax
Modem
(3) Phase shift keying (PSK) : The phase of the carrier wave is changed
D

in accordance with modulating data signal. Fig. 28.18

1 : Phase changed by 
0 : Phase remains unchanged.
U
ST

(1) Modem : Modems are used to interface two digital

sources/receivers.
(A) Carrier wave
(i) Word modem has been obtained from the words modulator and
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
demodulator. As the name implies both the functions (modulation) and
demodulation) are included in a signal unit.
(ii) Modems are placed at both ends of the communication circuit as
shown.
(B) Modulating source code Modem -1 Modem -2
Business Modulator Computer
machine or section or Data
computer or Communication display
data code channel machine
generator Demodulator
section

(C) ASK modulated wave

Transmitter side Receiver side
Fig. 28.19
 1616 Communication

The reflected light is focussed on a device known as photo detector

(iii) The modem at the transmitting station changes the digital output which converts the optical signals (carrying the information regarding the
from a computer (or any other business machine) to a from (analog signal) patterns/writings/signatures etc.) in to electrical signals.
which can be easily sent via a communication channel (Telephone line etc.).
While the receiving modem reverses the process. These electrical signals are then modulated and transmitted on to the
telephone lines to the receiving end.
(iv) There are three modes of operation of a modem.
(a) Simplex mode : In this mode data is transmitted in only one Space Communication
direction. The communication process utilising the physical space around the
(b) Half duplex : In this mode data is transmitted between the earth is termed as space
transmitter and the receiver in both direction, but only in one direction at a communication.
time.

60
(c) Full duplex : In this mode, the data are transmitted between the Electromagnetic waves which are
transmitter and receiver in both directions at the same time. used in Radio, Television and other
communication system are radio waves
Table 28.6 : Modem data transmission speed
and microwaves.
Types Speed in bits per sec and (bps) The radio waves emitted from a
Low speed modem 600 bps transmitter anteena can reach the

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receiver antenna by the following mode
Medium speed modem 600 to 2400 bps
of operation.
High speed modem 2400 to 10,800 bps
 Ground wave propagation
(2) Fax (Facsimile transmission) : The electronic reproduction of a  Sky wave propagation.
document at a distance place is known as facsimile transmission (FAX).
 Space wave propagation.
The original written document is converted into transmittable codes at
the sending end. These codes are converted back into a copy of the original
document at the receiving end.
Fax machine at sender's end
ID (1) Ground wave propagation
(i) In ground wave propagation, radio waves travel along the surface of
the earth (following the curvature of earth).
(ii) These waves induce currents in the ground as they propagate due
U
Original document to which some energy is lost.
Digital signal Analog (iii) The decrease in the value of energy (i.e. attenuation) increases
Modem with the increase in the frequency of radiowave.
Signal
YG

Optical (iv) As the ground wave propagates over the earth, it tilts over more
Sensor
scanner and more due to diffraction. (This is another cause of attenuation of ground
wave). After covering some distance, the wave just lie down which means
Printer
it's death.

Direction of
travelling of surface wave
Fax machine at receding end
D

Digital signal Analog

Modem
Signal
Optical
U

Sensor
scanner Earth
Printer
Fax
copy (v) Ground wave propagation Fig.
can 28.22
be sustained only at low frequencies
ST

(~ 500 kHz to 1500 kHz) or for radio broadcast at long wavelengths.

The original written document is put into the machine. A scanner (2) Sky wave propagation
scans the whole document. Fig. 28.20
(i) These are the waves which are reflected back to the earth by
The scanned written document is then moved on a glass plate. A beam ionosphere.
of light from a given source is projected through the glass and is reflected
from the surface of the document. Ionosphere is a layer of atmosphere having charged particles, ions and
electrons and extended above 80 km – 300 km from the earth's surface.
Cover plate Document
(stationary)
Glass plate Ionosphere
Slit

Light source
Photodetector Electrical signal
Rail for movement Sky waves
Transmitter
Fig. 28.21
Earth
 The space waves are the radio waves of very high frequency (30 MHz
to 300 MHz) ultra high frequency (300 MHz to 3000 MHz) and microwave
(more than 3000 MHz). At such high frequencies, the sky wave as well as
ground wave propagation both fails.
These waves can be transmitted from transmitting to receiving antenna
(ii) These are the radio waves of frequency range 2 MHz to 30 MHz. either directly or after reflection from the ground or in troposphere, the wave
propagation is called space wave propagation.
(iii) Sky waves are used for very long distance radio communication at
medium and high frequencies (i.e. at medium waves and short waves). Troposphere
(iv) The sky waves being electromagnetic in nature, changes the
dielectric constant and refractive index of the ionosphere. The effective 3
refractive index of the ionosphere is Transmitter 1
Receiving
1/2 1/2
2 antenna
 Ne  2
 80.5 N 
neff  n0 1  2
 n0 1  
  0 m  

60
 f2  Earth

where n = refractive index of free space, N = electron density of

0
The space wave propagation isFig.also28.25
called as line of sight propagation.
ionosphere,  = dielectric constant of free space, e = charge on electron, m =
0 The line of sight distance is the distance between transmitting antenna and
mass of electron  = angular frequency of EM wave. receiving antenna at which they can see each other.
Space wave propagation can be utilised for transmitting high

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(v) As we go deep into the ionosphere, N increases so n decreases. eff
frequency TV and FM signals.
The refractions or bending of the beam will continue and finally it reflects
back. (1) Television signal propagation : Frequency range for propagation is
80 MHz to 200 MHz
(vi) Critical frequency (f ) : It is defined as the highest frequency of
c

radio wave, which gets reflected to earth by the ionosphere after having d2
Height of transmitting antenna : h  (d = distance covered by
been sent straight to it. 2R
If maximum electron density of the ionosphere is N per m , then max

fc  9(N max )1 / 2 . Above f , a wave will penetrate the ionosphere and is not
reflected by it.
c
3
ID
the signal, R = Radius of the Earth)
Area covered : A = d = 2Rh
2

Population cover : Population density  Area covered

(2) Microwave communication : Microwave communication systems are
U
(vii) Maximum usable frequency (MUF) : It is the highest frequency of used for long distance communication. Since at microwave frequencies,
radio waves which when sent at some angle of incidence , towards the electromagnetic waves cannot bend across the obstacles, such as the top of
the buildings, mountains etc., it is therefore necessary that microwave
f
ionosphere, get reflected and return to the earth. MUF  c transmission is in line-of-sight.
YG

cos 
Repeater Repeater
(viii) Skip distance : It is the smallest distance from a transmitter Transmitter Receiver
along the earth's surface at which a sky wave of a fixed frequency but more
than f is sent back to the earth.
c

Ionosphere Earth
F-layer
D

4
Fig. 28.26
Due to curvature in the surface of earth, the range of microwave
E-layer transmission is very small ( 50 km). The range of microwave transmission
1
(Say is also limited by the fact that signals gets weaker and weaker as it
U

F-layer) 2
3 propagates. However, these problems are overcome by using repeaters (A
T repeater is basically an amplifier, which amplifies the attenuated signal and
then retransmits it.) at intervals between the transmitter and the receiver.
Due to this, the cost of transmission of signal between the two stations
ST

Skip A B increases.
distance
Earth C The problems faced in a microwave communication system are solved
to a large extent by using a geostationary satellite as a communication
Fig. 28.24
satellite.
(ix) Fading : It is defined as the fluctuation in the strength of a signal
at a receiver due to interference of two waves. Satellite Communication
Fading is more at high frequencies. It results into errors in data (1) Satellite communication is like the line-of-sight microwave
transmission and retrieval. transmission. In this case, a beam of modulated microwave is projected
towards the satellite.

Receiving signal

Transmitted signal 36000 km

 1618 Communication
(8) The Indian communication satellites INSAT-2B and INSAT-2C are
positioned in such away in the outer space that they are accessible from any
place in India.
Remote Sensing
Remote sensing is the technique to obtain information about an object
(in respect of it's size, colour nature, location, temperature etc.) by
observing it from a distance and without coming to actual contact with it.
(1) There are two types of remote sensing instruments : active and
passive. Active instruments provide their own energy to illuminate the
object of interest, as radar does. They send an energy pulse to the object

60
and then receive and process the pulse reflected from the object. Passive
instruments sense only radiations emitted by the object or solar radiation
(2) Satellite communication is mainly done through geostationary reflected from the object.
satellites (for steady reliable transmission and reception) (2) The remote sensing is done through a satellite. The satellite used
in remote sensing should move in an orbit around the earth in such away
(3) A geostationary satellite has the same time period of revolution of
that it always passes over the particular area of the earth at the same local

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earth (i.e. 24 hrs.). It appears stationary w.r.t. earth. It locates at the height
of 36000 km above the earth's surface (well above the ionosphere). time.
The orbit of such a satellite is known as sun-synchronous orbit. A
(4) A communication satellite is a spacecraft placed in an orbit around
remote sensing orbit can be circular polar orbit or in highly inclined
the earth which carriers a transmitting and receiving equipment called radio
elliptical orbit.
transponder. It amplifies the microwave signals emitted by the transmitter
from the surface of earth and send then to the receiving station on earth. Polar orbit Highly elliptical

(5) The transmitted signal is UP-LINKED and received by the satellite

station which DOWN-LINKS it with the ground station through it's
transmitter.
The up-link and down-link frequencies are kept different (both
ID (Circular) (Inclined) orbit
U
frequencies being in the regions of UHF/microwave). Geostationary orbit
(circular)
(6) A single satellite cannot cover the entire surface of the earth. At
least three geo-stationary satellites are required which are 120° apart from Fig. 28.29
YG

each other to have the communication link over the entire globe of earth. (3) A remote sensing satellite takes, photographs of a particular region
which nearly the same illumination every time it passes through that region.
(4) The most useful remote sensing technology is that it makes
possible the repetitive surveys of vast areas in a very short time, even if the
areas are inaccessible.
(5) Space based remote sensing is a new technology. It has high
potential for applications in nearly all aspects of resource management.
D

(6) The Indian remote sensing satellites are IRS-1A, JRS-1B, and IRS-1C.
(7) Some applications of remote sensing includes
U

(i) Meteorology : (development of weather systems and weather for

(7) Satellite technology is very useful in collecting information about
Fig. 28.28 casting).
various factors of the atmosphere which governs the weather and climatic
conditions. (ii) Climatology : Monitoring climatic changes.
(iii) Oceanography : (Sea surface temperatures, mapping of sea-ice and
ST

The satellite communication can be used for establishing mobile

oil pollution monitoring).
communication with great use the communication satellites are now being
used in Global Positioning System (GPS). The ordinary users can find their (iv) Archaeology, geological surveys.
positions within an accuracy of 100m. (v) Water resource surveys,
There are two types of satellites used for long distance transmission. (vi) Urban land use surveys.
(i) Passive satellite : It act as reflector only for the signals transmitted (vii) Agriculture and forestry and natural disaster.
from earth. Moon the natural satellite of earth is a passive satellite. (viii) In the field of spying to detect movements of enemy army an
(ii) Active satellite : It carries all the equipment used for receiving their positions.
signals sent from the earth, processing them and then re-transmitting them (ix) It is used to locate the place where under ground nuclear
to the earth. Now a days active satellites are in use. explosion has carried out.
Line Communication
 Communication 1619
(ii) The communication through co-axial lines is more efficient than
through a twisted pair wire lines.
(iii) Co-axial cables can be gas filled also. To reduce flash over between
the conductor handling high power, N -gas is used in the cable.
2

Impedance of Line
Line communication means interconnection of two points that are at Each portion of the transmission line can be considered as a small
some distance from each other with the help of wires for exchange of inductor, resistor and capacitor as shown.
information e.g. interconnection between a transmitter and receiver or a L R L R
L R
transmitter and anteena or an anteena and receiver.
Two Wire Transmission Line

60
The most commonly used two wire lines are : Parallel wire, twisted C G C G C G
pair wires and co-axial cable.
(1) Parallel wire line : In a two wire transmission line, two metallic
wires are arranged parallel to each other inside a protective insulation Fig. 28.33
coating. (1) Such inductors, resistors and capacitors are distributed throughout

E3
the transmission line.
Conductor I
As a result each length of transmission line has a characteristic
impedance.
Insulation
(2) In case of co-axial cable, the dielectric can be represented by a
Conductor II shunt resistance G.

handled.
Fig. 28.30
(i) The wires may be hard or flexible depending on the power to be

(ii) It is commonly used to connect an anteena with TV receiver.

ID (3) When co-axial cable is used to transmit a radio frequency signal, X
and X are large as compared to R and G respectively. Hence R and G can be
C

neglected.
L L L
L
U
(iii) Such wires can suffer from interferences and losses.
(2) Twisted pair wire : It consists of two insulated copper wires
twisted around each other at regular intervals to minimize electrical C C C
YG

interference.
(i) Twisted pair wires are used to connect telephone systems. It works
Fig. 28.34
well up to a distance of about 10 cm. They cannot transmit signals over very
(4) In co-axial cable, R is zero, so no loss of energy and hence no
large distances.
attenuation of frequency signal occurs when transmitted along it. That's
why co-axial cables are specially used in cable TV network.

(5) Characteristic impedance (Z ) : It is defined as the impedance

D

Fig. 28.31 0

measured at the input of a line of infinite length.

(ii) They can be used for transmitting both, the analog and digital
signals. 276 2s s
For parallel line Z0  log
(iii) They are easy to install and cost effective. k d
U

(3) Coaxial wire lines : It consist of a central copper wire (which d = Diameter of each wire
transmits the signals) surrounded by a PVC insulation over which a sleeve
s = Separation between the two wires d d
of copper mesh (outer conductor) is placed. The outer conductor is
ST

normally connected to ground and thus it provides an electrical shield to k = Dielectric constant of the insulating
the signals carried by the central conductor. The outer conductor is medium Fig. 28.35
externally covered with a polymer jacket for protection.
138 D
Outer shielding For co-axial line wire Z0  log
copper mesh k d
Inner copper wire
d = Diameter of inner conductor
D = Diameter of outer conductor
d D
Inner PVC insulation (or Outer PVC insulation
dielectric)
L
(i) Co-axial line wires can Fig.
be 28.32
used for microwaves and ultra high At radio frequency Z 0  Fig. 28.36
C
frequency waves.
 1620 Communication
the usual range of characteristic impedance for parallel wire lines is (2) The useful optical frequency range is 10 Hz to 10 Hz which is very
12 16

150 to 600  and for co-axial wire it is 40  to 150 . high as compared to radio and microwave frequencies (10 Hz – 10 Hz). 6 11

(3) The information carrying capacity  bandwidth  frequency of

(6) Velocity factor of a line (v. f.) : It is the ratio of reduction of speed
carrier wave. So optical communication is better than others. (because of
of light in the dielectric of the cable high frequency).
v Speed of lightin medium 1 (4) Basic setup of optical communication shown below
v. f .   
c Speed of lightin vacuum K
Information Optical
Signal Source Modulator
For a line v.f. is generally of the order of 0.6 to 0.9.

Optical fibre
cable
Optical

60
Telephone Links Electrical
Destination detector
receiver
(1) Telephone is the most common means of communication. Now a
days, the telephone system is required to converse from earth to another Fig. 28.38
heavenly bodies like moon etc. (5) Light emitting diodes (LED) and diode lasers are preferred for
optical source. LED's are used for small distance transmission while diode
(2) A telephone link can be established with the help of co-axial cables,
laser is used for very large distance transmission.

E3
ground waves, sky waves, microwaves or optical fibre cables.
(6) In order to transmit information signal via an optical
(3) Simultaneous transmission of a number of messages over a single
communication system, it is necessary to modulate light with the
channel without their interfering with one another is called multiplexing.
information signal.
Two types of multiplexing techniques are in use :
(7) The optical signal reaching the receiving end has to be detected by
(i) Frequency division multiplexing uses analog modulation of message
signals. a detector which converts light into electrical signals, So that the
(ii) Time division multiplexing makes use of pulse modulation of
message signals.
(4) Twisted pair wire lines provide a band width of 2 MHz, while co-
axial cable provides a band width of 20 MHz. For further increase in band
width, we use
ID transmitted information may be decoded. Semiconductor based photo-
electors are used
Optical Fibre
The optical fibres are used to transmit light signals from one place to
U
another without any practical loss in the intensity of light signal.
(i) microwave link (1) Design : Optical fibre is made of a thin glass core (diameter 10 to
(ii) communication satellite link. 100 m) surrounded by a glass coating called cladding are protected by a
jacket of plastic.
YG

100 m to
Cladding
400 m
Core
Opaque projecting jacker
Fig. 28.39
(2) Principle : It works on the principle of total internal reflection.
D

Wire line
(3) Action : The refractive index of the glass used for making core ( 1

 1.7) is a little more than the refractive index of the glass (   1.5) used 2

Earth satellite Microwave Microwave Earth satellite for making the cladding i.e.  >  .
U

1 2

station transmitter receiver station

The core dimension is so small ( 10 m) that the light entering will
almost essentially be having incident angle ( ) more than the critical angle
Optical fibre
i

( ) and will suffer total internal reflection at the core. Cladding boundary
ST

Main exchange C

Main exchange such successive total reflections at opposite boundaries will confine the light
Coaxial cable to the core as shown in figure.

Local exchange Local exchange

Cladding  2

core  1
Light in Light out
Calling Receiving
(4) Critical angle ( ) : At Fig.
c
core-cladding
28.40 interface if  =  then c

 12   22  2  2 
 2 
cos  c    c  cos 1 
1
Optical Communication 
Fig. 28.37 1  1 
(1) The use of optical carrier waves for transmission of information  
from one place to another is called optical communication.
 Communication 1621

(5) Acceptance angle ( ) : The value of maximum angle of incidence

a
Cladding ( 1)
with the axis of fibre in air for which all the incident light is totally reflected
is known as acceptance angle. 125m 1
50m 2

Cladding ( c)
Core ( )
Acceptance

a 
cone

a Fig. 28.43
core ( c)
Since refractive index of a material depend on the wavelength of light.
The wavelength fellow diff. paths.
 > c
The overall time difference between two wavelengths reaches the other
Fig. 28.41

60
If a = Acceptance angle then  = refractive index of core,  =
1 2
end is of the order of 33  10 sec/cm length of the fibre.
–9

refractive index of cladding.

(iii) Graded index multimode fibre : Refractive index decreases
smoothly from it's centre to the outer surface of the fibre (cladding). There
12   22
sin a    a  sin1 12   22 (for air  = 1) is no notieable boundary between core and cladding.
0 0

E3
(6) Numerical aperture : Light gathering capability of a fibre is related  decreases 1
to numerical aperture. This is defined as the sine of acceptance angle i.e. 2

NA  sin i  12   22
The numerical aperture can also be given in terms of relative core- Fig. 28.44

cladding index difference (), where  

Thus, NA  12  22  1 2

12   22
2 12
ID Advantages of Optical Fibres Over Wires
(1) Lower cost in the long run.
(2) Low loss of signal typically less than 0.3 dB/km), so repeater-less
transmission over long distances is possible.
U
(7) Fibre attenuation : In practice a very small part of light energy is (3) Large data-carrying capacity (thousands of times greater, reaching
lost from an optical fibre. This reduction in energy of the light is called speeds of up to 1.6 Tb/s in field deployed systems and up to 10 Tb/s in lab
attenuation and is described by I  I 0 e x systems).
YG

where I = Intensity of light when it enters the fibre (4) No electromagnetic radiation; difficult to eavesdrop.
0

I = Intensity of light at a distance x along the fibre (5) High electrical resistance, so safe to use near high-voltage
equipment or between areas with different earth potentials.
 = Absorption co-efficient or attenuation co-efficient
(6) Low weight.
I
Also attenuation (in dB)  10 log 10 (7) Signals contain very little power.
I0
D

(8) No cross talk between cables.

(8) Types of optical fibre
(9) No sparks (e.g. in automobile applications)
(i) Monomode optical fibre : It has a very narrow core of diameter
U

(10) Difficult to place a tap or listening device on the line, providing

about 5m or less, cladding is relatively big.
better physical network security.
Cladding ( 1)
Laser
ST

125m 1
5m
2

Core ( )

Fig. 28.42
(ii) Multimode optical fibre : It is again of two types
(a) Step index multimode fibre :
Laser is a process by which we get a beam which is coherent, highly
The diameter of the core is about 50 m. monochromatic and almost perfectly parallel. Such a beam is also called
laser.
Core has constant R.I  from it's centre to boundary.
1
Coherent : Because all the photons in the light beam,
The refractive index then changes to a lower value of  , which emitted by different atoms, at different
instant are in phase.
2

remains constant through the cladding.

 1622 Communication
Monochromatic : Because, the spread  in wavelength is very photons which are coherent (i.e. in phase), the number of atoms in the
small, of the order of 10 nm. –6 higher state must be greater than the number of atoms in the lower energy
Perfectly parallel : Because, a laser beam can be sent to a far state. In other words, population of atoms in the higher energy state must
off place and returns back without any be larger than the population of atoms in the lower energy state. The
practical loss of intensity. process of making the population of atoms in the higher energy state more
d
than that of lower energy state is known as population inversion.
The term LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission Radiation. The method used to invert the population of atoms is known as
pumping.
Source
Source of
of (5) Metastable states : A metastable state is one, which has a mean life
ordinary
Laser
light beam
time of the order of 10 s or more i.e. much larger than 10 s, the life time of
–3 –8

a higher energy state. Some atomic systems, such as chromium, neon, etc

60
(A) In coherent beam (B) Coherent beam possess metastable states. The atom of such an atomic system, when in
higher energy state, does not come down to lower energy state directly. It
Fig. 28.45 first returns to metastable state and then after a finite lapse of time of the
Concepts Related to Production of LASER
order of 10 s, returns to the lower energy state. Since such atom stays in
–3

(1) Stimulated absorption : Consider an atom which has an allowed metastable state for a sufficiently long time, the population inversion can
state at energy E and another allowed state at a higher energy E . Suppose
1 2
sustain in such atomic system.

E3
the atom is in the lower energy state E . If a photon of light having energy E
1

– E is incident on this atom, the atom may absorb the photon and jump to
2

A system in which population inversion is achieved is called the active

system.
1

the higher energy state E . This process is called stimulated absorption of

2

light photon. The incident photon has stimulated the atom to absorb the
energy. Principle of Laser
E2 E2 E3 Short lived state
Rapid decay

h

E1
Absorption

E1
ID Pumping
E2

E1
Metastable state
Laser

Ground state
Fig. 28.49
U
Fig. 28.46
(2) Spontaneous emission : If an atom is present in the higher energy Atoms from the ground state E are 'pumped' up to an excited state E .
1 3

state, it tends to return to the lower energy state within a time of 10 sec by –8
From E the atom decay rapidly to state of energy E . For lasing (lasing
3 2

emitting a photon of energy h = E – E . We call this process spontaneous

2 1
means laser action) to occur, this state must be metastable. If conditions are
emission. Spontaneous because the event was not triggered by any outside right, state E can then become more heavily populated than state E , thus
YG

2 1

influence. providing the needed population inversion.

E2 E2
When photon of energy h  E2  E1 is incident on one of the atoms
present in the metastable state, the atom will drop to lower energy state E ,
Spontaneous 1

emission
emitting a photon of same energy as that of the incident photon, which is in
h phase with it and is emitted in the same direction. The two photons, then
interact with two more atoms present in metastable state and so on. This
E1 E1
D

process is called amplification of light.

Fig. 28.47a photon of energy h = E – E
(3) Stimulated emission : Suppose 2 1 For smooth process two conditions are necessary
interacts with an atom that is already in the excited state E . 2
(1) The metastable state should all the time have larger number of
U

The incident photon may stimulate the atom to emit a photon, the atoms than the number of atoms in lower energy state.
energy, phase, and direction of travel of this second photon are exactly the
(It is achieved by pumping)
same as those of the incident photon. That is the quantum state of the
stimulated photon is identical to that of the incident photon. This process is (2) The photons emitted due to stimulated emission should stimulate
ST

called stimulated emission. other atoms to multiply the photons inside the system.

If these two photons then interact with two more excited state atoms, (It is achieved by two mirrors are fixed at the ends of the system
two more photons are produced, and soon. Therefore, the stimulation containing lasing material. The mirrors reflect the photons back and forth
to keep them inside the region for a long time.)
process leads to photon amplification.
Transparent side
E2 E2

Stimulated h
mission
h h
E1 E1 Laser beam
M1 M2
Fig. 28.48
Mirror Partially silvered mirror
(4) Population inversion : Usually the number of atoms in the lower
energy state is more than the number of atoms in the excited state. To emit Fig. 28.50
 Communication 1623

Helium-Neon Laser  A Hertz antenna is a straight conductor of length equal to half the
wavelength of radio signals to be transmitted or received. A Marconi
This laser contains a mixture of helium ( 90%) and neon ( 10%) at
low pressure in a cylindrical tube with mirrors at each end. The energy level antenna is a straight conductor of length l = /4
diagram in figure shows the important energy levels for the helium and  In a digital signal, information is carried by the pattern of pulses
neon atoms. A large electric field is established in the tube by electrodes and not by the shape of pulses.
connected to a high-voltage power supply, Electrons from ionized atoms are
accelerated by the field and collide with atoms.  Sampling converts an analog signal into digital. For example when
an analog signal is sampled at interval of 125 -sec the number of
1
Partially reflecting samples taken per second   8000.
Mirror Laser tube mirror 125  10  6

60
 AGC stands for automatic gain control. It is used in receive.
Beam  Sputinik-I launched by Russia in 1957 was the first active satellite.
 First communication satellite was put in an orbit by USA in 1958.
Power
Because of the energy-level structure for helium, collisions often excite
supply  The first India experimental satellite i.e. Apple was launched on

E3
helium atoms to the level labeled E in the figure. In a process called June 19, 1981.
Fig. 28.51 3

collision transfer, energy is transferred from excited helium atoms to neon

atoms during collisions, thus producing a population of neon atoms in the
 The national information cenre at Delhi has linked computers at all
head quarters through INSAT 2B.
E level. The transition from level E to E in neon is forbidden, but the
2 2 1

transition out of the E level is allowed. This means that the population of
1
 First communication satellite was put in an orbit by USA in 1958.
atoms in the E level builds up, and that of the E level is rapidly depleted.
2

E3
Helium

Electron
atom
Collision
transfer
1

Neon

Forbidden
transition
E2

E1
Laser
Light
ID
 Just as

transmission line,
Z
Y
represents characteristic impedance (Z ) of a
0

ZY represents propagation constant of the line.

 Glass-core and glass cladding (often called SCS fire i.e. silica clad
U
collisions silica fibre) have the best propagation characteristics.
(gas
Allowed
discharge)
transition
 The dish type antenna's used for satellite communication are
generally of cassegrain type
YG

EG EG  Ground waves propagate along the surface of the earth. These are
Fig. 28.52 vertically polarised to prevent short circuiting of the electric field at a
Stimulated emission from E to E predominates and laser light is 120 ht l
2 1
distance d is given by E  and signal received by an antenna
generated. d
The mirrors at each end of the tube encourage emissions along the 120ht hr I
of height h is given by V (volts) 
tube axis by reflecting the light back and forth inside the tube. One of the d
r

mirrors is slightly leaky, transmitting about 1 percent of the incident light.

D

This transmitted light forms the laser beam which we find so useful.  Receivers may be of two types, tuned radio frequency (TRF)
receivers and superheterodyne receivers. Super heterodyne receivers use
local oscillators and intermediate frequency amplifiers before the signal is
U

detected. In this way the reception becomes free of signal frequency but
depends only on intermediate frequency which is fixed.
 A rectifier with peak detection is used in the AM wave detection
ST

and FM detection is achieved by an LC circuit tuned at off resonant

 Parallel wire lines are never used for transmission of microwaves. frequency.
This is because at the frequency of microwaves, separation between the
 APDs (Avalanche photodiodes) are best suited for detection in fiber
two wires approaches half a wavelength (/2). Therefore radiation loss of optic communication.
energy becomes maximum.
 MASER is microwave amplification by stimulated emission of
 Number of channel accommodated for radiation. It is used as a microwave amplifier or oscillator. The principle
Total band width of channel of MASER is identical to that of LASER. Only frequency range is  10 Hz 11

Transmission 
Band width needed per channel in masers.

 Bit rate = Sampling rate  no. of bits per sample.  In frequency modulation m (frequency modulation index) is
f

inversely proportional to modulating frequency f . While in PM it does

 Modulation factor determines the strength and quality of the
m

not vary with modulating frequency. Moreover, FM is more noise

transmitted signal. immune.

 AM with single side band suppressed carrier is better as it contains

maximum modulating power.