Seminar Presentation

on
Passenger Amenities

Presented By:
Shreyas Kumar (396) Vaibhav Singh (397)
Rohit Prasad (398) Aman Yadav (399)
Kushagra Pandey (400)
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 Contents

1. Public Address System and Acoustics

2. Microphones
3. Loudspeakers
4. PA Amplifiers and Mixers
5. Planning of sound reinforcement system

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 Public Address
System and Acoustics

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 Introduction
P.A System is a setup, which is used to disseminate information to a limited public over a
limited area. The basic function of an audio system is to deliver audible and recognizable
sounds to the listeners.

PA system comprises all the devices and networks that exist between a source of sound (or its
electrical equivalent) and its point of final reproduction.

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 Application of P.A. system in Railways
• Passenger Amenities: Detailed info on train arrivals, departures, delays, and locations.

• Marshalling Yards: Communication between Yard Master and shunting staff via paging
and talkback systems.

• Breakdown Train Emergency Equipment: Ensure megaphones and PA systems in ARTs

are tested and operational for accident guidance.

• Special Functions: High-quality PA systems for events with Ministers, G.M., VIPs, and
Railway Week celebrations.

• Railway Workshops: Announcements for staff and entertainment during lunch hours.

• Conferences: PA systems for seminars, lectures, and meetings in conference halls at Zonal
and Divisional HQs.

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 Acoustics
Acoustics is defined as the "Scientific Study” of Sound, especially of its generation,
propagation, perception and interaction with materials and is further described as the "total
effect of sound” especially as produced in an enclosed space.

In order to improve the audibility of an average listener, the sound and the acoustic are to be
distributed uniformly throughout the area to be covered. For this, the sound from the source is
converted to electrical energy by a microphone and the level of this electrical signal is
increased up to a certain level by an amplifier. This amplified signal is then transmitted
through the cables to the loudspeaker which converts the electrical signal back into the
acoustic signal.

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 Audibility
• Hearing is the result of differential pressure changes applied to a membrane within the ear.
• Very little or no pressure changes result in no hearing, while extreme changes can damage
the ear.
• The quality of being audible or perceptible by the ear is called audibility.
• The lowest acoustic pressure that produces a sensation of hearing is known as the
"threshold of audibility".
• The highest pressure the ear can respond to without experiencing pain is called the
"threshold of pain".
• The ratio of acoustic power between these two limits is the dynamic range of the ear, 1012
(the threshold of pain represents 1012 times the power of the threshold of audibility).

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 Sound Pressure Level
• In acoustics, the ratings most commonly encountered are changes in power levels. First of
all there exists a reference. It is 0.0002 dynes/cm2 or 0.00002 Newton/m2 . These are
identical pressures with different labels. Sound pressure levels are identified as dB SPL.
1 atmosphere = 101300 newtons/m^2
Therefore, SPL = 20 log 101300/0.00002 = 194 dB

• Note that the SPL is analogous to voltage. So 20 is the multiplier used for calculating dB
SPL One microbar is equal to 1 dyne/cm2.
1 microbar is equal to 74 dB – SPL.

• Sound pressure is also measured in Pascal - Pa. 1 Pascal is equal to 10 bars.

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 Microphones

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 Introduction
Microphones are devices that convert sound waves into electrical signals, playing a crucial role
in amplifying, recording, and transmitting audio. They are commonly used in various settings,
including live performances, broadcasting, and communication systems.
There are different types of microphones, such as dynamic, condenser, and ribbon
microphones, each suited for specific applications. Key features to consider when choosing a
microphone include sensitivity, frequency response, and directional patterns, such as
omnidirectional and cardioid.

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 Classification of Microphones
• Pressure Operated: These microphones employ a diaphragm with only one surface
exposed to the sound source. The displacement of the diaphragm is proportional to the
instantaneous pressure of the sound wave. At lower frequencies, such microphones
generally cause a resonant response, resulting in a peak that may reach 6 to 8 dB with
reference to 1000 Hz. Examples of pressure-operated microphones include carbon, crystal,
dynamic, and capacitor microphones.

• Velocity Operated: A velocity microphone's electrical output corresponds to the

instantaneous particle velocity in the addressed sound wave. Also referred to as gradient
microphones, their output corresponds to the gradient of the sound pressure. An example of
a velocity-operated microphone is the ribbon microphone.

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 Types of Microphones
• Carbon Microphone

• Crystal Microphone

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 Types of Microphones
• Dynamic Microphone

• Condenser Microphone

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 Types of Microphones
• Ribbon Microphone

• Wireless Microphone

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 Types of Microphone Stands
The microphones are generally mounted on stands, and the common types are:
• i) Table Type
• ii) Floor Type
• iii) Dual head mic stand

Besides, in studios, microphone booms are used. The details of the various types are shown in.
Generally the floor types are telescopic so that the heights are adjustable.

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 Microphone Connectors
Connectors are used to connect the microphones to the amplifiers. Widely used microphone
connectors are 3 pin XLR type and jack type connectors. These connectors may be of mono or
stereo type. The three pins of XLR connector are, ground (1), positive (2) and negative (3)
respectively. The contacts are made of self cleaning type and non-reversible to avoid noise
and interchanging of connections. RCA type connectors are widely used with music systems
and they are for stereo type only.

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 Loudspeakers

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 Introduction
The function of the loudspeaker is to convert electrical energy into acoustic energy. The
loudspeaker should have the following qualities:-

i) Satisfactory sensitivity
ii) Broad directivity
iii) Low distortion over the audio spectrum
iv) Smooth frequency response
v) Balanced response
vi) Good transient response
vii) Sufficient damping at base resonant frequency
viii) Adequate power handling capacity

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 Dynamic Loudspeaker
The most common type is the moving coil loudspeaker also known as dynamic loudspeaker. It
consists of a permanent magnet with strong magnetic field and a diaphragm, which acts like a
piston. A voice coil is attached at the apex of the diaphragm. Audio frequencies are applied to
the voice coil and cause it to react in the permanent field, resulting in motion of the cone. The
motion of the cone sets up a varying air pressure, which is carried to the listener in the form of
sound waves.

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 Shapes of cones
Circular cones are generally used because the tools are easier and cheaper to make than
elliptical types, which offer no rear advantage. The use of elliptical speakers is of special
importance in television sets, where they can be fitted under the cathode ray tube to secure the
largest possible cone area in the minimum available space.

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 Cabinet Loudspeakers
The cabinet improves the acoustic response of the cone type speakers. The basic design
consists of an enclosure with the loudspeaker unit set in the centre of a large box, which is
completely airtight except for a port and the loudspeaker hole in the front panel. The port is so
proportioned to the interior volume of the enclosure and to the loudspeaker characteristics that
it functions acoustically as a low frequency loudspeaker. Thus, the low frequency response is
increased, and distortion, generally experienced with a non ported enclosure, is also reduced.

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 Horn Type Loudspeakers
A typical example of the indirect radiator is the driver unit. It is a loudspeaker unit, which does
not radiate sound waves directly from a vibrating surface but requires acoustic loading from a
“horn”. Horn loading is coupling a loudspeaker diaphragm to the air by means of a horn.
Generally, the horn uses an exponential flare, starting with a small throat and expanding
rapidly to a large bell.

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 PA AMPLIFIERS
AND MIXERS

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 Introduction
An amplifier in PA equipment is a device, which takes low level input signal from
microphones and amplifies it to a high level output signal at the desired output power, which
will be delivered to the loudspeakers at the output stage by suitable connection.

An amplifier in a PA system boosts the audio signal from the microphone to a level suitable for
driving loudspeakers, ensuring clear and powerful sound distribution. It enhances the volume
and quality of the sound, making it audible to large audiences in various settings such as
concerts, conferences, and public events.

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 Performance of amplifiers:
The following particulars are important to assess the performance of an Amplifier:
● Input Impedance.
● Input voltage to produce full rated output (volume control at maximum position)
● Output impedance.
● Rated output in watts.
● Percentage distortion at full output power, expressed in relation to harmonics.
● Percentage of harmonics present at a quarter, half and three quarters of full rated output.
● Frequency response.
● Noise level at full output.
● Power Consumption.

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 Measurements on amplifier
The common measurements made to judge the performance of amplifier is:
● Frequency Response
● Amplification
● Internal Noise Level
● Output Power
● Harmonic Content
● Output Regulation
● Power Consumption

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 Audio mixer pre-Amplifier:
As the number of input devices can be connected to the main amplifier system is limited,
there will be another device called audio mixer pre-amplifier, which accommodates more
number of input devices with more no. of individual controls. The combined output of all
individual channels will be connected to Aux. input of the main amplifier. The designing
aspect of mixer pre-amplifier will depends upon the requirement of no. of input channels i.e.
2, 4, 8, 12 and 16 etc.

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 Earthing of amplifier units:
Earthing of amplifier is necessary to provide greater safety for the person handling the
amplifier and protection for the amplifier in case of faults. The connectivity of Earth to an
amplifier is between the metal chassis of the amplifier and the Earth or ground.
Methods of Earthing the Amplifier:
For Earthing of Amplifiers, there is not one standard ground resistance threshold
that is recognized by all agencies. However, the NFPA and IEEE have recommended
a ground resistance value of 5.0 ohms or less. We can use any one of the following
methods for earthing.
i) Connect the earth terminal of the amplifier with a wire to a
separate earth.
ii) Connect the earth terminal of the amplifier with a wire to any
metallic water pipe.

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 PLANNING OF SOUND
REINFORCEMENT
SYSTEM

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 Introduction
A sound reinforcement system is governed mainly by the following factors:
● Size
● Type
● Location
● Audience to be covered
● Type of sound to be reproduced
● Desired psychological reaction on audience

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 General requirements
Composition of sound distribution system: Sound distribution system consists essentially of
microphones, amplifiers and number of loudspeakers, connecting cables, power supply units
and voltage regulating devices. 1+1 standby equipment are also to be provided as per
requirement.

Sound power and ambient noise levels: Taking into account, factors such as audience
absorption and maximum ambient level depends upon the area, but the mean variation in level
of sound pressure shall be 5 to 15 dB above the noise level. In quiet places like waiting halls
and refreshment rooms, sound level should be higher by 5dB; in closed auditoriums 5-10dB, in
station premises, loco sheds, outdoor stadiums and similar noisy places 12-15dB.

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 Acoustic corrections:
Requisite for acoustic corrections: The type and extent of acoustic defects are to be known,
so that the acoustic correction can be applied.
Effect of parallel walls: Parallel walls must be avoided as far as possible.
Effect of side walls: Random reflections from the side walls will reduce the flutter and high
efficiency absorbent material like foam, fabric Panels, foam, vinyl or rubber underlayment,
partitions, mineral wool, etc. may be used on the side walls to reduce the flutter.
Areas opposite to sound source: Curvilinear surfaces and large areas of reflection opposite to
the sound normally give rise to echo and they must be avoided.

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 Special types of sound reinforcement systems:
Some special types of sound reinforcement systems other than the conventional public
address system used in Railways are:
i) Power Megaphone
ii) Paging and talkback System
iii) Centralized Sound redistribution system
iv) Intercommunications System
v) Integrated Sound system
vi) Train entertainment system
vii) Portable P.A. System.

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• Power Megaphone: A portable, handheld device that amplifies voice for addressing small
to medium-sized crowds. It is battery-operated and ideal for outdoor and emergency
situations.

• Paging and Talkback System: A communication system allowing announcements and two-
way communication between different areas within a facility. Commonly used in
marshalling yards and operational areas for efficient coordination.

• Centralized Sound Redistribution System: A system that distributes audio from a central
source to multiple locations within a building or complex. It ensures consistent audio
quality across all areas and is used for background music, announcements, and emergency
alerts.

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• Intercommunications System: A system facilitating direct voice communication between
specific points within a building or complex. It is essential for internal communication in
offices, control rooms, and operational centers.

• Integrated Sound System: A comprehensive system combining multiple audio sources and
outputs, controlled from a central point. It integrates paging, music, and public
announcements, providing versatile audio management for large venues.

• Train Entertainment System: An onboard system providing audio and visual

entertainment for passengers during their journey. It includes music, announcements, and
video content, enhancing the travel experience.

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 THANK YOU !!