Digital and Data Communication

Topic 4

Pulse Code Modulation

The Evolution of the Pulse Code Modulation and its Role in
Enabling Modern Digital Communication Systems

The Pulse Code Modulation Process

Practical Applications of Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) in

Communication and Audio Technologies

The Impact of Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) in Modern

Communication Systems and Technology

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) vs Other Modulation Techniques

Solved Problem Considering the Important Principles of PCM

Mose, Mark; Mora, Rionel; Pascasio, Azel Kaye; Ragadio, Beulah Lyne; Pericon,
Jayvee; Pizarro, Ron; Presillas, Jonas Janoel; Ramos, Loyd
Topic 4

Pulse Code Modulation

Introduction

Pulse code modulation (PCM) is a cutting-edge encoding that comes as a digital deal
which means outdated analyzed signals in digital form. This way is the main in
communication with customers as already said it was digital communication as well as the
storage part last and least but not this cool one multimedia will not operate well without PCM
because of its stability and high level of quality which prevents data mismatch among other
things.

The theory applied in PCM is one in which analog signals like speech or music are
converted to a digital string of numbers. It is the simplest form of digital modulation and has
opened up new communication channels and applications in telecommunications and digital
sound.

Specific Objectives

At the end of the lesson, readers will be able to:

- Describe the evolution of Pulse Code Modulation and its role in enabling modern
digital
communication systems;
- Demonstrate the Pulse Code Modulator circuit, including sampling and transmitting a
given analog signal into an analog form;
- Apply the concepts of PCM in practical communication and audio technologies;
- Analyze the impact of PCM in modern communication systems and technology;
- Examine the differences between PCM and other modulation techniques, focusing on
signal quality and noise immunity and;
- Solve problems involving important principles such as sampling, quantizing,
encoding, pulse shaping, and decoding behind PCM
Discussion Proper

1. The Evolution of the Pulse Code Modulation and

its Role in Enabling Modern Digital
Communication Systems

 Pre-PCM Developments in Electrical Communications

- Telegraph time-division multiplexing (TDM) was invented by an American

inventor Moses G. Farmer in 1853. This method enabled samples from various
telegraph sources to be combined and transmitted through a single telegraph cable,
which can be considered as an example of signal sampling. Based on this idea,
electrical engineer W. M. Miner developed an electro-mechanical commutator in
1903 for TDM of multiple telegraph signals. Miner took this technology to telephony
and proved that speech could be intelligible when channels are sampled at rates above
3500-4300Hz, thus emphasizing the significance of sampling rates in signal
preservation.

More developments were made in 1920 with the Bartlane cable picture transmission
system which used telegraph signaling of characters punched on paper tape to
transmit samples of images quantized to five levels. This system was the first form of
digital image transmission that was ever to be developed. Paul M. Rainey of Western
Electric Company in 1926 invented a facsimile machine that used 5-bit PCM and
was encoded by an opto-mechanical ADC. While Rainey’s machine never went into
production, it was an early step toward encoding and transmitting digital signals.

These developments put together paved way for PCM since it established the basic
concepts of sampling and quantization. They showed that it is possible to digitize
different kinds of signals, which laid the groundwork for the official definition of
PCM in the subsequent decades.

Moses G. Farmer
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  Early Concepts and Inception (1930s – 1940s)

- In 1937, British engineer Alec Reeves revolutionized telecommunications by

conceptualizing Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) while working on long-distance
telephone systems at the International Telephone and Telegraph (ITT) company.
Reeves' idea was to convert analog signals into a series of digital pulses, thereby
significantly reducing noise and improving the quality of signal transmission. Despite
the brilliance of his concept, PCM was initially seen as impractical due to the lack of
advanced electronics required for its implementation at the time. Nevertheless, the
potential for noise immunity and the ability to multiplex signals made PCM an
attractive solution for secure and efficient communication.

- PCM saw its first practical use in 1943 during World War II, where it was
employed for secure military communications. This application marked the beginning
of PCM's journey from a theoretical concept to an essential technology in digital
communications, demonstrating its value in situations where secure and high-quality
transmission was paramount.

Alec Reeves
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 World War II and Military Applications (1940s)

- Despite its initial lack of commercial viability, World War II created the urgent need
for secure communications, accelerating the development of PCM. Reeves applied his
knowledge to the development of the Oboe bomb-aiming system and, more
importantly, SIGSALY—a secure speech transmission system that used PCM to
encode and encrypt voice signals. SIGSALY employed PCM techniques and a
vocoder to digitize speech for secure transmission, making it a groundbreaking system
that allowed secure communications between figures like Winston Churchill and
Franklin D. Roosevelt. The use of vacuum tube technology and large-scale equipment
made SIGSALY impractical for civilian use at the time, but it demonstrated the
enormous potential of PCM for secure and noise-free communications. The
SIGSALY system was critical for planning operations such as the Normandy
invasion and the Yalta Conference, cementing PCM’s role in military history.
 SIGSALY
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 Post-War Civilian Transition (1950s - 1960s)

- The invention of the transistor in 1948 revolutionized electronics, allowing PCM to
transition from military applications to civilian use. In the early 1950s, Bell Labs
implemented PCM in their telephone systems, which greatly improved call quality by
reducing the noise and distortion that plagued earlier analog systems. By 1964, PCM
became the standard for commercial telephony, and it played a key role in the
communication systems of major projects, including the Apollo program. PCM was
used to transmit telemetry data from the Apollo spacecraft, which enabled the
successful landing of humans on the Moon in 1969.

 Impact and Legacy (1960s - Present)

- PCM fundamentally transformed the telecommunications industry, providing the
foundation for the digital communication systems we use today. From its military
origins to becoming the backbone of telephone networks and space missions, PCM
has had a far-reaching impact. Reeves' vision extended beyond just communication—
he predicted that telecommunications would one day allow people to exchange
information without needing to physically move. This vision has become reality in the
modern era, where technologies like video conferencing, voice chat, and remote work
systems rely on the principles of PCM. Reeves, who passed away in 1971, left behind
a legacy of nearly 100 patents, having dedicated his life to transforming the world of
telecommunications.
2. The Pulse Code Modulation Process
 Modulation
- Modulation is the process of varying one or more parameters of a carrier signal based
on the instantaneous values of the message signal. The message signal carries the
information for communication, while the carrier signal is a high-frequency signal
without data, used to facilitate long-distance transmission.

- There are various modulation techniques, categorized by the type of modulation

applied. Among them, Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) is a widely used digital
modulation technique.

 Pulse Code Modulation

- In PCM, the analog information signal is converted into a binary sequence of 1s and
0s. The resulting PCM output appears as a binary sequence, with each binary value
corresponding to the instantaneous amplitude of the original signal. The figure below
illustrates a PCM output in relation to the instantaneous values of a sine wave.

Pulse Code Modulation – Input and Output

- Unlike a pulse train, PCM generates a series of numbers or digits. Each digit,
expressed in binary code, represents an approximate amplitude of the signal sample at
a specific moment. In PCM, the message signal is encoded as a sequence of coded
pulses, effectively converting the signal into a discrete form in both time and
amplitude.

 Basic Elements of the Pulse Code Modulation

- In a Pulse Code Modulator (PCM) circuit, the transmitter section comprises
Sampling, Quantizing, and Encoding, which are carried out by the analog-to-digital
converter. To avoid aliasing of the message signal, a low-pass filter is used before
sampling.

- On the receiver side, the primary tasks include regenerating degraded signals,
decoding, and reconstructing the quantized pulse train. The block diagram of PCM
illustrates the fundamental components of both the transmitter and receiver sections.
 Block Diagram of the Pulse Code Modulation Process

 Low Pass Filter

- A low-pass filter removes high-frequency components from the input analog signal
that are above the highest frequency of the message signal. This filtering prevents
aliasing of the message signal by eliminating these unwanted high-frequency
components.

 Sampler
- A sampler captures sample data from the message signal at specific intervals to
reconstruct the original signal. According to the sampling theorem, the sampling rate
must be greater than twice the highest frequency component of the message signal
to ensure accurate reconstruction.

Sampling of the Analog Signal

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 Quantizer
- A quantizer reduces error by minimizing unnecessary bits through a process called
quantizing. It compresses the sampled output by eliminating redundant bits and
confining the data, thereby streamlining the values.

Quantizing of the Sample

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 Encoder
- The encoder digitizes the analog signal by assigning a binary code to each
quantized level. This process involves the sample-and-hold technique. Along with the
low-pass filter, sampler, and quantizer, which together function as an analog-to-digital
converter, encoding also helps in reducing bandwidth usage.

Digitizing of the Sample

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 Regenerative Repeater
- This section enhances the signal strength by using a regenerative repeater circuit.
The repeater compensates for signal loss, reconstructs the signal, and boosts its
strength. Consequently, the channel output is equipped with a regenerative repeater to
ensure signal integrity and strength.

 Decoder
- The decoder circuit decodes the pulse coded waveform to reproduce the original
signal. This circuit acts as the demodulator.

 Reconstruction Filter
- The reconstruction filter is used to retrieve the original signal after the digital-to-
analog conversion process. In a Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) system, the analog
signal is first digitized, coded, and sampled before being transmitted in digital form.
 To recover the original analog signal, the entire process is reversed, and the
reconstruction filter, a type of low-pass filter, is applied to achieve this.

Reconstruction of the Analog Signal at the Receiver Section

3. Practical Applications of Pulse Code Modulation

(PCM) in Communication and Audio Technologies
- Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) is a widely used method for digitally representing
analog signals, essential in modern communication and audio systems. By converting
continuous analog signals into a digital format, PCM enables efficient processing,
transmission, and storage. The following sections illustrate how PCM is applied
across various communication and audio technologies.

 Telecommunication Systems

a. Voice Transmission in Traditional Telephony - In telecommunication, PCM is

fundamental for converting voice signals from analog to digital. The standard
process in traditional landline telephony (PSTN) involves sampling the analog
voice signal at 8 kHz and quantizing it with 8-bit resolution. This yields a 64 kbps
digital data stream, which is transmitted across digital networks. PCM's digital
format minimizes noise and distortion, enhancing call quality.

b. Mobile Networks - Early mobile networks, such as 2G (GSM), utilized PCM to

digitize voice signals, which improved sound quality and allowed for clearer
communication. Modern mobile networks (4G, 5G) employ advanced
compression techniques, but still build upon PCM principles for efficient
encoding and transmission.

 Audio Recording and Playback

a. Digital Audio Formats - PCM serves as the foundation for various digital audio
formats, such as WAV and AIFF. In these formats, sound captured by a
microphone is sampled and quantized into digital signals using PCM. A standard
audio CD, for example, uses a sampling rate of 44.1 kHz and 16-bit depth per
sample, providing high-quality, accurate sound reproduction.
 b. CD Audio Compact Disc (CD) - audio technology relies on PCM to convert and
store analog music signals digitally. This ensures high fidelity, making CDs a
popular medium for delivering rich, lossless audio quality since their inception.

 Broadcasting

a. Digital Radio and Television - PCM is central to digital broadcasting systems

such as Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) and Digital Video Broadcasting
(DVB). These systems convert analog audio signals into digital format using
PCM, which are then compressed and transmitted. The use of PCM results in
superior sound quality compared to analog broadcasting methods, significantly
reducing noise and interference.

b. Internet Streaming - While online streaming platforms use compressed formats

(such as MP3, AAC), PCM is typically used at the initial stage of audio
recording. It captures raw audio data, which is then processed and compressed
before streaming, ensuring that the source material maintains its fidelity.

 VoIP and Video Conferencing

a. Voice Over IP (VoIP) - PCM plays an integral role in VoIP systems, converting
analog voice into digital signals for transmission over IP networks. The use of
PCM ensures that voice data is transmitted with high fidelity and low latency,
making it ideal for real-time communication applications.

b. Video Calls - In video conferencing platforms like Zoom and Microsoft Teams,
PCM is used to digitize audio input. Once digitized, these audio signals are
processed and compressed for efficient transmission, but PCM's initial conversion
ensures the audio remains clear and intelligible.

 Medical Devices
a. Ultrasound and Imaging Technologies - Medical imaging technologies, such as
ultrasound, apply PCM to convert analog sensor data into digital signals. By
digitizing these signals, PCM allows for enhanced image resolution and detail,
crucial for diagnostic accuracy in medical practices.

 Consumer Electronics

a. Bluetooth and Wireless Audio Devices - PCM is used in many wireless audio
devices, such as Bluetooth headphones and speakers, to capture and process
sound before transmission. The data is often compressed for wireless
transmission but originates in PCM format to ensure clarity and fidelity.

b. Smart Home Devices - Voice-activated smart home devices, including Amazon

Alexa and Google Assistant, rely on PCM to convert voice commands into digital
signals. The captured analog signal is processed as PCM data before being
analyzed by the system, ensuring accurate voice recognition and responsive
control.
4. The Impact of Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) in
Modern Communication Systems and Technology
- Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) has played a transformative role in the evolution of
modern communication systems and technologies. As a method of converting analog
signals into a digital format, PCM has allowed for significant improvements in the
quality, reliability, and efficiency of data transmission. Its introduction marked the
shift from analog communication systems, which were prone to noise and
degradation, to robust digital systems that dominate today’s telecommunications,
broadcasting, and data networking landscapes.

 Enhanced Signal Quality and Noise Resistance

- One of the most significant contributions of PCM is its ability to improve signal
quality through the digitization of analog signals. In traditional analog communication
systems, signal quality deteriorated significantly over long distances due to noise,
interference, and distortion. With PCM, however, signals are converted into discrete
digital values that are far less susceptible to noise during transmission. This enables
error detection and correction techniques, ensuring that transmitted data can be
faithfully reconstructed at the receiver’s end.

- In telecommunication systems, PCM’s noise resistance has enhanced the quality of

voice transmission. For example, in early telephone networks, analog voice signals
often suffered from noise, resulting in unclear and unreliable communication. The
digitization of voice using PCM in the 1960s led to the development of high-quality
digital voice transmission, which is now the backbone of both landline and mobile
telephony. By converting voice into a stream of digital bits, PCM ensures clear and
consistent communication, even across vast geographical distances.

 Efficient Data Compression and Bandwidth Utilization

- PCM is the foundation for many compression techniques that have revolutionized
communication and multimedia transmission. While PCM itself is a relatively simple
method of encoding, its principles are used in more advanced digital communication
standards and codecs. These codecs, such as MP3 for audio and H.264 for video, rely
on the initial PCM representation of data before applying compression algorithms to
reduce file sizes while maintaining acceptable quality. This ability to compress digital
data efficiently has enabled the proliferation of high-bandwidth applications such as
video streaming, online gaming, and VoIP communication.

- In modern mobile networks, such as 4G and 5G, PCM has been instrumental in
creating advanced digital modulation and compression techniques that optimize
bandwidth usage. By digitizing voice and data signals, these networks can efficiently
allocate resources to multiple users, maximizing throughput while minimizing
latency. PCM, through its digital framework, allows modern networks to manage
 large amounts of data without sacrificing quality, making high-speed mobile internet
and real-time video communication possible on a global scale.

 Facilitating the Convergence of Communication and Computing

- The digitization of communication signals through PCM laid the groundwork for the
convergence of telecommunications and computing technologies. With PCM
transforming analog signals into a digital format, communication networks could now
interoperate with computing systems, leading to the development of the internet and
the modern data-centric communication infrastructure.

- PCM’s digital foundation is compatible with the binary nature of computing systems,
allowing voice, video, and data to be processed and transmitted using the same
protocols. This convergence is evident in Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)
technologies, where voice signals are digitized and transmitted as data packets over IP
networks. Services such as Skype and Zoom have further demonstrated how PCM-
driven digitization has blurred the lines between telephony and computing, allowing
for seamless voice and video communication over the internet.

- Similarly, in broadcasting, PCM has enabled the shift from analog television and radio
systems to digital platforms such as Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) and Digital
Audio Broadcasting (DAB). These systems provide superior sound and picture quality
by transmitting PCM-encoded data, allowing broadcasters to deliver high-definition
content to millions of viewers worldwide. The transition to digital broadcasting has
also made it possible to transmit additional data, such as subtitles and multiple
language tracks, enhancing the overall user experience.

 Revolutionizing Audio and Multimedia Systems

- PCM’s impact extends beyond communication systems into the realm of digital audio
and multimedia technologies. The adoption of PCM in consumer audio formats, such
as the Compact Disc (CD), revolutionized the music industry in the late 20th century.
PCM allowed for high-fidelity audio recording and playback, surpassing the
limitations of analog media such as vinyl records and cassette tapes. The sampling
rate and bit depth of PCM ensured that the digital reproduction of audio was both
accurate and lossless, preserving the quality of the original sound recording.

- Moreover, PCM’s influence in multimedia extends to digital streaming platforms,

such as Spotify and Apple Music. These services rely on PCM-based compression
techniques to stream high-quality audio over the internet to millions of users
simultaneously. PCM’s ability to digitize audio with precision allows for efficient
storage and transmission, facilitating the widespread availability of on-demand music
and podcasts.
5. Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) vs Other
Modulation Techniques
- PCM is a digital modulation technique that converts analog signals into a digital bit
stream by sampling the signal at regular intervals, quantizing each sample, and
encoding it into a binary format.

 Advantages:
 High noise immunity: PCM signals can be easily regenerated and amplified
without amplifying noise, making them robust in noisy environments.
 Compatibility with digital systems: PCM is ideal for use in modern digital
communication systems like telephony, computer networks, and storage media.
 Scalability: PCM allows the flexibility to adjust bit depth and sample rate, thus
optimizing for quality or data rate as needed.
 Disadvantages:
 Requires more bandwidth: PCM encoding can require higher bandwidth compared
to other modulation techniques, particularly for high-fidelity signals.
 Complex hardware: Implementing PCM involves additional steps, such as
sampling, quantization, and coding, which requires more sophisticated equipment.

Analog Modulation Techniques

 Amplitude Modulation (AM):

- AM modulates the amplitude of the carrier wave in proportion to the

information signal.

 Advantages:
 Simple to implement and demodulate.
 Widely used in radio broadcasting.

 Disadvantages:
 Highly susceptible to noise and interference, since noise affects
the amplitude of the signal.
 Poor signal quality, especially in environments with high electrical
noise.
  Frequency Modulation (FM):

- FM varies the frequency of the carrier wave according to the

amplitude of the input signal.

 Advantages:
 Better noise resistance than AM because noise typically affects
amplitude rather than frequency.
 Provides better sound quality, making it ideal for music and
higher-quality audio broadcasts.

 Disadvantages:
 Requires a wider bandwidth compared to AM, which limits its use
in bandwidth-constrained systems.
 More complex circuitry is required for demodulation.

 Phase Modulation (PM):

- PM changes the phase of the carrier wave in relation to the input

signal.

 Advantages:
 Even better noise immunity than FM, as it is less susceptible to
amplitude and frequency variations caused by noise.

 Disadvantages:
 More complex than AM and FM in terms of demodulation.
 Requires very precise synchronization between transmitter and
receiver to avoid signal distortion.

Digital Modulation Techniques

 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM):

- QAM modulates both the amplitude and the phase of the carrier
wave, allowing the transmission of more bits per symbol.

 Advantages:
 Efficient use of bandwidth, as it can transmit multiple bits per
symbol.
  Commonly used in digital communication systems like Wi-Fi,
cable modems, and cellular networks.

 Disadvantages:
 More complex to implement due to the need for both amplitude
and phase synchronization.
 More susceptible to noise compared to simpler digital modulation
schemes.

 Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK):

- FSK modulates the frequency of the carrier to represent digital

information (e.g., “0” and “1” are transmitted as two distinct
frequencies).

 Advantages:
 Simple to implement and relatively robust against noise.
 Commonly used in low-cost and low-power applications, such as
RFIDs and early modems.

 Disadvantages:
 Less bandwidth-efficient compared to QAM or PSK.
 Limited data rates due to the reliance on distinct frequency
shifts.

 Phase-Shift Keying (PSK):

- PSK modulates the phase of the carrier signal to represent digital

data. Different versions, such as Binary PSK (BPSK) or Quadrature
PSK (QPSK), modulate different numbers of bits per symbol.

 Advantages:
 Good noise immunity, especially in environments with high
interference.
 More bandwidth-efficient than FSK, as multiple bits can be
transmitted per symbol.

 Disadvantages:
 Requires precise phase synchronization between the transmitter
and receiver, which increases the complexity of the system.
Summary: PCM vs Other Modulation Techniques
PCM: Excellent for digital communication, providing high-quality, noise-
immune transmission at the cost of higher bandwidth and more complex
hardware.

AM, FM, PM: Analog modulation techniques vary in terms of simplicity

(AM) and noise immunity (FM, PM), but analog signals are generally more
vulnerable to noise compared to digital ones.

QAM, FSK, PSK: Digital modulation schemes offer more efficient use of
bandwidth and higher noise immunity than analog techniques but vary in
complexity. QAM is bandwidth-efficient but complex, FSK is simple but less
efficient, and PSK balances noise immunity and bandwidth efficiency but
requires phase synchronization.

Each technique has its specific use cases, determined by the balance
between complexity, noise tolerance, bandwidth, and the intended
application.

Comparison Table:

Feature PCM AM FM QAM FSK PSK

Signal High Low Mediu High Mediu High
Quality m m
Noise High Low Mediu High Mediu High
Immunity m m
Bandwidt Mediu Low High High Mediu Mediu
h m m m
Efficiency
Complexi Mediu Low Mediu High Low Mediu
ty m m m

PCM in Telephony
- PCM is the cornerstone of modern telephony systems, enabling high-
quality voice transmission over digital networks. By converting
analog voice signals into digital data, PCM reduces noise, improves
clarity, and allows for efficient transmission over long distances.

PCM in Audio and Video Broadcasting

- In the realm of audio and video broadcasting, PCM plays a crucial
role in ensuring high-fidelity reproduction. Digital audio and video
formats, such as CDs, DVDs, and high-definition television (HDTV),
 rely on PCM to capture and store audio and visual information with
precision.

PCM in Data Networking

- PCM is also integral to data networking technologies. Ethernet, the
ubiquitous networking standard used in offices, homes, and data
centers, employs PCM to transmit digital data packets over copper
cables.

PCM in Satellite Communication

- Satellite communication systems, which transmit signals over long
distances, often utilize PCM to encode and decode data. This
enables efficient transmission of various types of information,
including television broadcasts, internet traffic, and voice
communications.

PCM in Medical Imaging

- In the medical field, PCM is employed in imaging techniques such as
computed tomography (CT) scans and magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI). These technologies rely on PCM to capture and process digital
data representing the internal structure of the human body.

PCM Variants and Enhancements

Differential PCM (DPCM): Exploits the correlation between adjacent
samples to reduce the required number of bits.

Adaptive PCM (ADPCM): Adjusts the quantization step size based on

the signal characteristics to improve efficiency.

Delta Modulation (DM): A simplified form of PCM that transmits only the
difference between consecutive samples.

Adaptive Delta Modulation (ADM): Combines the advantages of DM

and ADPCM.
Pulse Code Modulation has become an indispensable component of
modern communication systems. Its ability to convert analog signals into
digital data with high fidelity and robustness has enabled advancements
in various fields, from telephony and broadcasting to data networking and
medical imaging. As technology continues to evolve, PCM will likely
remain a cornerstone of digital communication for many years to come.
By understanding the principles and applications of PCM, we can
appreciate its significance in modern communication systems and its role
in shaping the digital world we live in today.
 6. Solved Problem Considering the Important
Principles of PCM
Problem:
Suppose you want to convert an analog signal with a frequency range up to 4
kHz into a digital format using Pulse Code Modulation (PCM). The following
parameters are given:
 Sampling rate: 8 kHz (which satisfies the Nyquist criterion for the 4 kHz
signal)
 Quantization levels: 8 levels (3-bit binary encoding)
 Pulse shape: Rectangular
 Encoding: Binary
 Signal duration: 1 second
 Decoding: Reconstruct the original signal after transmission

Step 1: Sampling

According to the Nyquist theorem, the minimum sampling rate should be twice the highest
frequency component in the signal. Here the highest frequency is 4 kHz, so the sampling rate
must be at least 8 kHz.

Given the sampling rate of 8 kHz, the number of samples per second is:
Number of samples=8000samples/sec

For a signal lasting 1 second, the total number of samples is: 8000samples

Step 2: Quantizing

The amplitude of the analog signal is continuous, but for digital conversion, we need to
quantize it into discrete levels. Here, we have 8 quantization levels (since 3 bits are used for
encoding). These levels divide the range of the analog signal into 8 equal segments.

Each sampled amplitude is rounded off to the nearest quantization level. If the input
amplitude varies from -1 to +1, for example, the range is divided into 8 levels, each covering
a specific amplitude range.

Step 3: Encoding

Each quantized level is then represented by a 3-bit binary code, since 3 bits allow for
23=82^3 = 823=8 unique values. The binary codes corresponding to the quantized levels
might look like this:

 Level 0 → 000
 Level 1 → 001
  Level 2 → 010
 Level 3 → 011
 Level 4 → 100
 Level 5 → 101
 Level 6 → 110
 Level 7 → 111

For each sample, the quantized value is encoded into its corresponding 3-bit binary code.
Over 1 second, we will have 8000 samples, and each sample will be represented by 3 bits.

The total number of bits generated per second (bit rate) is:

Bit rate=8000 samples/sec×3 bits/sample=24,000 bits/sec

Step 4: Pulse Shaping

In practical systems, before transmission, the binary sequence is pulse-shaped. A common

shape is the rectangular pulse, where each bit is represented by a rectangular pulse of a
certain width (time duration).

If the communication channel has bandwidth limitations, pulse shaping techniques like
Raised Cosine Filtering can be used to reduce bandwidth usage and inter-symbol
interference (ISI). However, in this problem, we’re using simple rectangular pulses.

Step 5: Decoding

At the receiver, the signal is decoded back into its binary form. The receiver reads each group
of 3 bits and decodes it back to the quantized level. For example, the binary code 011 would
be decoded as level 3, and 110 would be decoded as level 6.

After decoding, the quantized values are converted back into an analog signal by a Digital-
to-Analog Converter (DAC). This reconstruction involves interpolation (typically low-pass
filtering) to smooth out the signal and remove high-frequency artifacts.

The quality of the reconstructed signal depends on the number of quantization levels
(higher levels provide better approximation) and the sampling rate (higher rates capture
more detail from the original signal).

Summary of the PCM Process:

 Sampling: The continuous analog signal is sampled at 8 kHz.

 Quantizing: Each sample is approximated to one of 8 levels.
 Encoding: Each quantized value is encoded as a 3-bit binary number.
  Pulse Shaping: Each bit is transmitted as a rectangular pulse.
 Decoding: At the receiver, the binary sequence is decoded, and the signal is
reconstructed to an analog form.

This PCM system results in a bit rate of 24 kbps, suitable for real-time transmission of voice
or simple analog signals over a digital network.

Example 2.

Step 1: Sampling and Nyquist Rate

An analog signal has a maximum frequency of 3 kHz. You need to digitize this signal using
PCM. What is the minimum sampling rate you should use to avoid aliasing?

Solution:

The Nyquist theorem states that the sampling rate should be at least twice the maximum
frequency of the analog signal to avoid aliasing.

Minimum sampling rate=2×Maximum frequency=2×3 kHz=6 kHz

Thus, the minimum sampling rate required is 6 kHz.

Step 2: Quantization

A PCM system uses 16 quantization levels to represent sampled values. If the amplitude
range of the analog signal is from -5V to +5V, what is the step size for quantization?

Solution:

The step size is the difference in voltage between each quantization level. If the amplitude
range is from -5V to +5V, the total range is:

Total range=5−(−5)=10 V

The step size is the total range divided by the number of quantization levels:

Step size=Total range/ Number of levels=10 V/16=0.625 V

Thus, the step size is 0.625 V.

Step 3: Bit Rate Calculation

A PCM system has a sampling rate of 10 kHz and 8 quantization levels. How many bits per
second (bps) are required to transmit the digitized signal?

Solution:

First, determine the number of bits required to represent each quantized value. The number of
bits is given by:

Number of bits=log2(Number of levels)=log2(8)=3 bits

Next, the bit rate is the product of the sampling rate and the number of bits per sample:

Bit rate=Sampling rate x Number of bits per sample=10,000 samples/sec×3

bits/sample=30,000bps

Thus, the required bit rate is 30,000 bps (30 kbps).

Step 4: Encoding in PCM

An analog signal is sampled and quantized into 4 levels. The quantization levels are 0V, 1V,
2V, and 3V, and each sample is encoded using 2 bits. What is the binary encoding for a
sample that measures 2.5V?

Solution:

Since the measured voltage (2.5V) falls between the quantization levels of 2V and 3V, it will
be quantized to the nearest level, which is 3V.

The binary encoding for the quantization level 3V is:

3V→11 (in binary)

Thus, the binary encoding for the sample is 11.

Step 5: Signal-to-Quantization Noise Ratio (SQNR)

A PCM system uses 256 quantization levels. Calculate the Signal-to-Quantization Noise
Ratio (SQNR) in dB.

Solution:

The SQNR for a PCM system is given by the formula:

SQNR (dB)=6.02×n+1.76 dB

Where n is the number of bits. For 256 quantization levels, the number of bits is:

n=log2(256)=8 bits
Now, substitute the value of nnn into the SQNR formula:

SQNR (dB)=6.02×8+1.76=48.16+1.76=49.92 dB

Thus, the SQNR is approximately 49.92 dB.

Step 6: Pulse Shaping and Bandwidth

You are using rectangular pulses to represent bits in a PCM system with a bit rate of 64 kbps.
What is the minimum required bandwidth of the transmission channel?

Solution:

For rectangular pulses, the minimum required bandwidth is approximately half the bit rate:

Bandwidth=Bit rate/2 = 64,000 bps/2 = 32,000 Hz=32 kHz

Thus, the minimum required bandwidth is 32 kHz.

Step 7: Decoding PCM

An encoded PCM sequence reads as follows: 101, 110, 111. The quantization levels for the
system are 0V, 1V, 2V, 3V, 4V, 5V, 6V, and 7V. What are the corresponding decoded analog
values?

Solution:

Each 3-bit binary value corresponds to a quantization level:

 101 = 5 (binary) → 5V
 110 = 6 (binary) → 6V
 111 = 7 (binary) → 7V

Thus, the decoded analog values are 5V, 6V, and 7V.
References/Additional Resources/Readings

BYJUS. (n.d.). Pulse Code Modulation - Modulation, Types, Advantages and Disadvantages,
Applications. Retrieved from https://byjus.com/physics/pulse-code-modulation

Dubois, C. (2023, November 7). How Alec Reeves Revolutionized Telecom With Pulse-Code
Modulation. Retrieved from https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/news/how-alec-reeves-
revolutionized-telecom-pulse-code-modulation

Electronics Coach. (2018, October 9). Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)? Definition, Block
diagram, Advantages and Disadvantages of PCM system. Retrieved from
https://electronicscoach.com/pulse-code-modulation.html

Engineering and Technology History Wiki (ETHW). (2021, May 12). Pulse Code
Modulation. Retrieved from https://ethw.org/Pulse_Code_Modulation?
fbclid=IwZXh0bgNhZW0CMTEAAR0Ti_HodaX9DpRmPvZBBUNcnJQC4TgB8ddSKS0AtM
DU-06p7fgtFYrctCw_aem_hFlQB6A0XvzUQTECI0gM0g

Tutorialspoint. (n.d.). Pulse Code Modulation. Retrieved from

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/digital_communication/
digital_communication_pulse_code_modulation.htm‌l
Pohlmann, Ken C. Principles of Digital Audio. McGraw-Hill, 6th Edition, 2010. ISBN-13:
978-0071663465.
Proakis, J. G., & Salehi, M. (2008). Digital communications: fundamentals and applications
(5th ed.). Pearson Prentice Hall.
Sklar, B. (2001). Digital communications: fundamentals and applications (2nd ed.). Prentice
Hall.
Lathi, B. P. (2005). Modern digital and analog communication systems (4th ed.). Oxford
University Press.
Haykin, S. (2001). Communication systems (4th ed.). John Wiley & Sons.

Group meetings:
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in photo, date and time taken the photo)