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General Biology 1 – Grade 12 (STEM)

Learning Activity Sheets
Quarter 1 – Week 3: Cell Cycle

First Edition, 2021

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Author: LARA MAE B. REALISTA

School/Station: LINGIG NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL (Senior High School)
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email address: [email protected]
 WEEKLY LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET
General Biology 1, Grade 12, Quarter 1 Week 3-A

CELL CYCLE

Name: __________________________________________________ Section: ______________

Learning Competency:

- Characterize the phases of the cell cycle and their control points.
(STEM_BIO11/12-Id-f-6)

Specific Learning Objectives:

1. Describe the phases of the cell cycle.

2. Describe the control points of the different phases of the cell cycle.
3. Discuss the molecular mechanisms of cell cycle checkpoints.

Time Allotment: 2 Hours

Key Concepts

• All organisms consist of cells and arise from preexisting cells.

• The Cell Cycle represents all phases in the life of a cell.
• DNA replication (S phase) must precede mitosis so that all daughter cells
receive the same complement of chromosomes as the parent cell.
• The gap phases separate mitosis from S phase. This is the time when
molecular signals mediate the switch in cellular activity.
• Cell cycle checkpoints normally ensure that DNA replication and mitosis
occur only when conditions are favorable, and the process is working
correctly.
• Mutations in genes that encode cell cycle proteins can lead to unregulated
growth, resulting in tumor formation
and ultimately invasion of cancerous
cells to other organs.

CELL CYCLE
Cell division is a very important process in all
living organisms. During the division of a cell,
DNA replication and cell growth also take
place. All these processes, i.e., cell division,
DNA replication, and cell growth, hence, have
to take place in a coordinated way to ensure
correct division and formation of progeny cells
containing intact genomes. The sequence of
events by which a cell duplicates its Figure 1 Phases of Cell Cycle
Source: Jane Reece, et al., Campbell Biology Ninth
2

genome, synthesizes the other constituents Edition. (San Francisco, California: Pearson Benjamin
Page

of the cell and eventually divides into two Cummings,2010ummings,2010)

Author: LARA MAE B. REALISTA

School/Station: LINGIG NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL (Senior High School)
Division: SURIGAO DEL SUR
email address: [email protected]
daughter cells is termed cell cycle. Although cell growth (in terms of cytoplasmic
increase) is a continuous process, DNA synthesis occurs only during one specific
stage in the cell cycle. The replicated chromosomes (DNA) are then distributed to
daughter nuclei by a complex series of events during cell division. These events are
themselves under genetic control.

Phases of Cell Cycle

A typical eukaryotic cell cycle is illustrated by human cells in culture. These cells
divide once in approximately every 24 hours (Figure 1). However, this duration of cell
cycle can vary from organism to organism and also from cell type to cell type. Yeast
for example, can progress through the cell cycle in only about 90 minutes.

The cell cycle is divided into two basic phases:

• Interphase
• M Phase (Mitosis phase)

The M Phase represents the phase when the actual cell division or mitosis occurs
and the interphase represents the phase between two successive M phases. It is
significant to note that in the 24 hour average duration of cell cycle of a human cell,
cell division proper lasts for only about an hour. The interphase lasts more than 95%
of the duration of cell cycle. The M Phase starts with the nuclear division,
corresponding to the separation of daughter chromosomes (karyokinesis) and
usually ends with division of cytoplasm (cytokinesis). The interphase, though called
the resting phase, is the time during which the cell is preparing for division by
undergoing both cell growth and DNA replication in an orderly manner.

The interphase is divided into three further phases:

• G1 phase (Gap 1)
• S phase (Synthesis)
• G2 phase (Gap 2)

G1 phase (Gap 1)
- G1 phase corresponds to the interval between mitosis and initiation of DNA
replication. During G1 phase the cell is metabolically active and continuously
grows but does not replicate its DNA.

S phase (Synthesis)
- S or synthesis phase marks the period during which DNA synthesis or
replication takes place. During this time the amount of DNA per cell
doubles. If the initial amount of DNA is denoted as 2C then it increases to
4C. However, there is no increase in the chromosome number; if the cell
had diploid or 2n number of chromosomes at G1, even after S phase the
number of chromosomes remains the same, i.e., 2n. In animal cells, during
the S phase, DNA replication begins in the nucleus, and the centriole
3

duplicates in the cytoplasm.

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Author: LARA MAE B. REALISTA

School/Station: LINGIG NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL (Senior High School)
Division: SURIGAO DEL SUR
email address: [email protected]
G2 phase (Gap 2)

- During the G2 phase, proteins are synthesized in preparation for mitosis

while cell growth continues.

Some cells in the adult animals do not appear to exhibit division (e.g., heart cells)
and many other cells divide only occasionally, as needed to replace cells that have
been lost because of injury or cell death. These cells that do not divide further exit
G1 phase to enter an inactive stage called quiescent stage (G0) of the cell cycle. Cells
in this stage remain metabolically active but no longer proliferate unless called on to
do so depending on the requirement of the organism.

In animals, mitotic cell division is only seen in the diploid somatic cells. However,
there are few exceptions to this, where haploid cells divide by mitosis, for example,
male honeybees. Against this, the plants can show mitotic divisions in both haploid
and diploid cells.

M Phase (Mitosis phase)

This is the most dramatic period of the cell cycle, involving a major reorganization of
virtually all components of the cell. Since the number of chromosomes in the parent
and progeny cells is the same, it is also called as equational division. Though for
convenience mitosis has been divided into four stages of nuclear division
(karyokinesis), it is very essential to understand that cell division is a progressive
process and very clear-cut lines cannot be drawn between various stages.
Karyokinesis involves following four stages: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and
Telophase

The Cell Cycle Control System

The cell cycle stops at several checkpoints and

can only proceed if certain conditions are met, for
example, if the cell has reached a certain diameter.
Some cells, such as neurons, never divide once
they become locked in a G0 phase.

In this diagram (Figure 2) of the cell cycle, the flat

“stepping stones” around the perimeter represent
sequential events. Like the control device of an
automatic washer, the cell cycle control system
proceeds on its own, driven by a built-in clock.
However, the system is subject to internal and
external regulation at various checkpoints, of
which three are shown (red). Figure 2 Mechanical analogy for the cell cycle control
system.
Source: Jane Reece, et al., Campbell Biology Ninth
Edition. (San Francisco, California: Pearson Benjamin
Cummings,2010ummings,2010)
4 Page

Author: LARA MAE B. REALISTA

School/Station: LINGIG NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL (Senior High School)
Division: SURIGAO DEL SUR
email address: [email protected]
The G1 Checkpoint—the Restriction Point
• The G1 checkpoint ensures that the
cell is large enough to divide and that
enough nutrients are available to
support the resulting daughter cells.

The G2 Checkpoint—ensures that

DNA replication in S phase has been
successfully completed.

The Metaphase Checkpoint—ensures

that all of the chromosomes are
attached to the mitotic spindle by a
kinetochore.

The cell-cycle control system is

based on oscillations in the activities Figure 3. The G1 Checkpoint
Source: Jane Reece, et al., Campbell
of cyclin-dependent protein kinases. Biology Ninth Edition. (San Francisco,
California: Pearson Benjamin
Cummings,2010ummings,2010)
The central components of the cell-cycle control
system are a family of enzymes called the cyclin-
dependent kinases (Cdks). Like other protein
kinases, Cdks catalyze the covalent attachment of
phosphate groups derived from ATP to protein
substrates. This phosphorylation results in changes in
the substrate’s enzymatic activity or its interaction
with other proteins.

Cdk activities rise and fall as the cell progresses

through the cell cycle. These oscillations lead directly
Figure 4. Cyclin-dependent kinase activation
to cyclical changes in the phosphorylation of Source: David O. Morgan, Cell Cycle: Principles
of Control, Primers in Biology (New Science
components of the cell-cycle machinery, resulting in Press Ltd 2007)
the initiation of cell-cycle events. Thus, for example, an
increase in Cdk activity at the beginning of S phase causes the phosphorylation of
proteins that then initiate DNA synthesis.

Cdks are activated by binding to regulatory proteins called cyclins (Figure 4).
Oscillations in Cdk activity during the cell cycle are due primarily to changes in the
amounts of cyclins. Different types of cyclins are produced at different cell-cycle
phases, resulting in the periodic formation of distinct cyclin–Cdk complexes that
trigger different cell-cycle events. A wide range of mechanisms contributes to the
control of cyclin levels and Cdk activity, resulting in a complex Cdk regulatory
network that forms the core of the cell-cycle control system.
5
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Author: LARA MAE B. REALISTA

School/Station: LINGIG NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL (Senior High School)
Division: SURIGAO DEL SUR
email address: [email protected]
 Figure 5. Overview of Cell Cycle Control
Source: David O. Morgan, Cell Cycle: Principles of Control, Primers in Biology (New Science Press Ltd 2007)

During G2 Checkpoint, when conditions are ideal for cell proliferation, G1/S- and S-
phase cyclin–Cdk complexes are activated, resulting in the phosphorylation of
proteins that initiate DNA replication, centrosome duplication and other early cell-
cycle events. Eventually, G1/S- and S-phase Cdks also promote the activation of M-
phase cyclin–Cdk complexes, which drive progression through the second major
checkpoint at the entry into mitosis (G2/M checkpoint). M-phase cyclin–Cdks
phosphorylate proteins that promote spindle assembly, bringing the cell to
metaphase.

The third major checkpoint which is the metaphase-to-anaphase transition, which

leads to sister chromatid segregation, completion of mitosis and cytokinesis.
Progression through this checkpoint occurs when M-phase cyclin–Cdk complexes
stimulate an enzyme called the anaphase promoting complex, which causes the
proteolytic destruction of cyclins and of proteins that hold the sister chromatids
together. Activation of this enzyme therefore triggers sister-chromatid separation and
segregation. Destruction of cyclins leads to inactivation of all Cdks in the cell, which
allows phosphatases to dephosphorylate Cdk substrates. Dephosphorylation of these
substrates is required for spindle disassembly and the completion of mitosis, and for
cytokinesis.

Definitions
• Cdk: see cyclin-dependent kinase.
• Checkpoint: regulated transition point in the cell cycle, where progression to
6

the next phase can be blocked by negative signals. This term is sometimes
Page

Author: LARA MAE B. REALISTA

School/Station: LINGIG NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL (Senior High School)
Division: SURIGAO DEL SUR
email address: [email protected]
 defined to include the signaling mechanisms that monitor cell-cycle events
and transmit the information to the control system; in this book the term is
used to define the transition point in the cell cycle where these mechanisms
act.
• Cyclin: positive regulatory subunit that binds and activates cyclin-
dependent kinases, and whose levels oscillate in the cell cycle.
• Cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk): protein kinase whose catalytic activity
depends on an associated cyclin subunit. Cyclin-dependent kinases are key
components of the cell-cycle control system.
• G2/M checkpoint: important regulatory transition where entry into M phase
can be controlled by various factors such as DNA damage or the completion
of DNA replication.
• Metaphase-to-anaphase transition: cell-cycle transition where the initiation
of sister-chromatid separation can be blocked if the spindle is not fully
assembled. Also called the M/G1 checkpoint, but this is not an ideal term
because it does not coincide with the boundary between M phase and G1.

ACTVITY 1. Fill me in!

Objective: Describe the phases of the cell cycle.
What you need: Pen and paper
What to do: Complete the table by noting what occurs in each phase of the cell
cycle.

PHASES MAJOR EVENTS

G1 Phase

S Phase

G2 Phase

M Phase 7
Page

Author: LARA MAE B. REALISTA

School/Station: LINGIG NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL (Senior High School)
Division: SURIGAO DEL SUR
email address: [email protected]
Activity 2. Think On Point!
Objective: Describe the control points of the different phases of the cell cycle.
What you need: Pen and paper
What to do: Write on the given boxes below what happens during every checkpoint
of the cell cycle. Copy the boxes on another sheet of paper

ACTIVITY 3 Check Your Points!

Objective: Discuss the molecular mechanisms of cell cycle checkpoints.
What you need: Pen and paper
What to do: Answer the following questions in two or three sentences.
1. How does a cell know when to proceed to the next stage of the cell cycle?

__________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________.

2. How does a cell know if it needs to start or stop dividing?

__________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________.

3. What aspects of the cell cycle are controlled by the different checkpoints?
__________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________.
8
Page

Author: LARA MAE B. REALISTA

School/Station: LINGIG NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL (Senior High School)
Division: SURIGAO DEL SUR
email address: [email protected]
Reflection
Relate the processes of Covid19 quarantine protocols to the Cell Cycle
regulation/checkpoints. Write your answers on a different sheet of paper.

Rubrics:

Score Description
10 Ideas are expressed scientifically, consistent to the concepts and has no misconception.
8 Ideas are expressed scientifically, consistent to the concepts but with misconception.

6 Ideas are expressed scientifically but contains several contradictory concepts.

4 Ideas are poorly expressed scientifically.
2 Ideas are vague and unprecise
0 No discussion

REFERENCES

A. Book Source
Domingo, Doreen D., Ph.D., et al., Teaching Guide for Senior High School General
Biology 1. (Published by the Commission on Higher Education, 2016) , pp 38-39

Morgan, David O., Cell Cycle: Principles of Control, Primers in Biology (New Science
Press Ltd 2007), pp 8-9

Reece, Jane, et al., Campbell Biology Ninth Edition. (San Francisco,

California: Pearson Benjamin Cummings,2010), 231, 238 – 239.

B. Internet Source
Chapter 10: Cell Cycle and Cell Division Accessed June 30, 2021
https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/kebo110.pdf

Cell Biology, Accessed July 1, 2021

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Cell_Biology.pdf

Answer Key

Activity 1

Gap 1 (G1) Cell is metabolically active and continuously grows but does not
replicate its DNA.

S Phase The amount of DNA per cell doubles, If the initial amount of DNA
is denoted as 2C then it increases to 4C.
Gap 2 (G2) Proteins are synthesized in preparation for mitosis while cell
growth continues.
9
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Author: LARA MAE B. REALISTA

School/Station: LINGIG NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL (Senior High School)
Division: SURIGAO DEL SUR
email address: [email protected]
 M Phase Actual cell division or mitosis occurs

Activity 2

Figure 6.
Activity 3.
Source:https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%3A_Introductory_Bio
logy_(CK-12)/02%3A_Cell_Biology/2.33%3A_Cell_Cycle
1. How does a cell know when to proceed to the next stage of the cell cycle?
Ans: Increases in the concentration of cyclin proteins are triggered by both external
and internal signals. After the cell moves to the next stage of the cell cycle,
the cyclins that were active in the previous stage are degraded. The proteins
phosphorylated by Cdks are involved in advancing the cell to the next phase.

2. How does a cell know if it needs to start or stop dividing?

Ans: Cells regulate their division by communicating with each other using chemical
signals from special proteins called cyclins. These signals act like switches to tell
cells when to start dividing and later when to stop dividing.

3 What aspects of the cell cycle are controlled by the different checkpoints?
Ans: Cell cycle checkpoints are surveillance mechanisms that monitor the order,
integrity, and fidelity of the major events of the cell cycle. These include growth to
the appropriate cell size, the replication and integrity of the chromosomes, and
their accurate segregation at mitosis.
10
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Author: LARA MAE B. REALISTA

School/Station: LINGIG NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL (Senior High School)
Division: SURIGAO DEL SUR
email address: [email protected]