Unit I

Introduction to Computers

Computers are electronic devices that are designed to perform a wide range of
tasks, from simple calculations to complex data analysis and processing. They
consist of hardware components such as the central processing unit (CPU),
memory, storage devices, input/output devices, and software components such
as the operating system, applications, and programming languages.

The first computers were large and expensive machines that were mainly used
for scientific and military purposes. However, with advances in technology,
computers have become smaller, more affordable, and accessible to everyone.
They are now an integral part of our daily lives and are used in various fields
such as education, entertainment, healthcare, business, and many others.

Block Diagram / Basic Anatomy of Computers

The computer is mainly divided in three parts the Central Processing Unit
(CPU), Input Devices and Output Devices.

The units that are used in Computer are:

1. Input Unit.
2. CPU (Central Processing Unit).
3. Storage Unit.
4. Output Unit.
1. Input Unit:

This is the unit where the processes are initialized. It takes the inputs from the
users through the input devices such as keyboard, mouse, scanners and
joystick etc.

2. Central Processing Unit (CPU):

This is one of the most important unit in computers for processing. All the
process, activities and operations are control and monitored by this unit. It has
direct contact with the memory of to receive the information from the user.

This ALU unit is responsible for the logical operations like AND, OR with
operations like equal to or less than and many more. This can be counted
under the Logical category of the unit.

And operations like addition, multiplication, division etc. fell under the
Arithmetic category of the unit.

The information required to the ALU is provided by the storage unit in those
cases when operations are to done using the data.

3. Storage/Memory Unit:

This is the junction where all the required data for operations is stored. This
unit can also be called as the hub of all the data. This unit is responsible for
providing the data to the control unit for processes to be done.

This storage unit is divided into two more sub units:

 Primary memory:
This is a type of memory storage where the most recent memory is stored. In
this memory only main and running activities are stored, it is smaller in size
than secondary memory.

Data in this unit is stored temporarily and the data gets wiped out once the
power is cut off, so this is also called as temporary memory or main memory.

If any operation is to be done on the data by the CPU, then initially that data is
stored in the primary memory i.e., RAM and then processed.

 Secondary Memory:
For permanent data storage secondary memory is used. This provides the
primary memory data with the for processing. Secondary memory is also called
as auxiliary memory.

Hard disks are the examples of the secondary memory. This memory type is
less expensive than the primary memory.

5. Output Unit:
This is the unit where process reaches the final stage. Output unit contains the
components such as monitor, printer, speakers and projector.

History of Computers

The history of computers spans several centuries, and the development of

computers has been shaped by the need to solve complex problems, store and
process data, and improves human productivity. Here are some of the key
milestones in the history of computers:

Abacus: The abacus, a device used for counting and calculating, was invented
in ancient China around 500 BCE.

Analytical Engine: In 1837, Charles Babbage designed the Analytical Engine,

which was a mechanical computer that could perform complex calculations.

First electronic computer: The first electronic computer was ENIAC

(Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), which was developed by John
Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert in 1945.

IBM PC: In 1981, IBM released its first personal computer, the IBM PC, which
was a huge success and helped to popularize personal computing.

Apple Macintosh: In 1984, Apple released its first graphical user interface-
based computer, the Macintosh, which revolutionized the way people interacted
with computers.

Internet: In the 1990s, the internet revolutionized the way people

communicated and accessed information, leading to the development of social
media, e-commerce, and other online services.

Mobile devices: In the 2000s, mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets
became popular, leading to a shift in the way people interact with technology.

Today, computers have become an integral part of our daily lives, and their
development continues to shape our society and economy.

Generations of Computers

• First Generation Computers

First generation computers bore little resemblance to computers of today,
either in appearance or performance. The first generation of computers took
place from 1940 to 1956 and was extremely large in size. The inner workings of
the computers at that time were unsophisticated. These early machines
required magnetic drums for memory and vacuum tubes that worked as
switches and amplifiers. It was the vacuum tubes that were mainly responsible
for the large size of the machines and the massive amounts of heat that they
released. These computers produced so much heat that they regularly
overheated despite large cooling units. First generation computers also used a
very basic programming language that is referred to as machine language.

• Second Generation Computers

The second generation (from 1956 to 1963) of computers managed to do away
with vacuum tubes in lieu of transistors. This allowed them to use less
electricity and generate less heat. Second generation computers were also
significantly faster than their predecessors. Another significant change was in
the size of the computers, which were smaller. Transistor computers also
developed core memory which they used alongside magnetic storage.

• Third Generation Computers

From 1964 to 1971 computers went through a significant change in terms of
speed, courtesy of integrated circuits. Integrated circuits, or semiconductor
chips, were large numbers of miniature transistors packed on silicon chips.
This not only increased the speed of computers but also made them smaller,
more powerful, and less expensive. In addition, instead of the punch cards and
the printouts of previous systems, keyboards and monitors were now allowing
people to interact with computing machines.

• Fourth Generation Computers

The changes with the greatest impact occurred in the years from 1971 to 2010.
During this time technology developed to a point where manufacturers could
place millions of transistors on a single circuit chip. This was called monolithic
integrated circuit technology. It also heralded the invention of the Intel 4004
chip which was the first microprocessor to become commercially available in
1971. This invention led to the dawn of the personal computer industry. By the
mid-70s, personal computers such as the Altair 8800 became available to the
public in the form of kits and required assembly. By the late 70s and early 80s
assembled personal computers for home use, such as the Commodore Pet,
Apple II and the first IBM computer, were making their way onto the market.

• The Fifth Generation of Computers

In the future, computer users can expect even faster and more advanced
computer technology. Computers continue to develop into advanced forms of
technology. Fifth generation computing has yet to be truly defined, as there are
numerous paths that technology is taking toward the future of computer
development. For instance, research is ongoing in the fields of nanotechnology,
artificial intelligence, as well as quantum computation.

Operating system

An operating system (OS) is a software program that manages the computer's

hardware and provides services for other software programs. It acts as an
intermediary between the user and the computer's hardware, allowing the user
to interact with the computer and run applications.

The primary functions of an operating system include managing memory and

storage, controlling input and output devices such as keyboards, mice, and
printers, managing network connections, and providing security features such
as user authentication and encryption.

There are many different types of operating systems, including:

1. Windows: Windows is the most popular operating system for personal

computers, developed by Microsoft Corporation.
2. macOS: macOS is an operating system developed by Apple Inc. and is
used exclusively on Apple computers.
3. Linux: Linux is a free and open-source operating system that is widely
used in servers and supercomputers.
4. Unix: Unix is a family of operating systems that was developed in the
1970s and is used in many servers and workstations.
5. Android: Android is a mobile operating system developed by Google and
is used on many smartphones and tablets.

Each operating system has its own unique features and advantages, and users
can choose the one that best meets their needs.

Types of Computers

A computer is a device that transforms data into meaningful information. It

processes the input according to the set of instructions provided to it by the
user and gives the desired output. Computers are of various types and they
can be categorized in two ways on the basis of size and on the basis of data
handling capabilities.

On the basis of size, there are five types of computers:

1. Supercomputer
2. Mainframe computer
3. Minicomputer
4. Workstation
5. PC (Personal Computer)

And on the basis of data handling capabilities, there are three types of
computer:

1. Analogue Computer
2. Digital Computer
3. Hybrid Computer

1. Supercomputer:
When we talk about speed, then the first name that comes to mind when
thinking of computers is supercomputers. They are the biggest and fastest
computers(in terms of speed of processing dataIt was first developed by Roger
Cray in 1976.
Characteristics of supercomputers:
 Supercomputers are the computers which are the fastest and they are also
very expensive.
 It can calculate up to ten trillion individual calculations per second, this is
also the reason which makes it even more faster.
 It is used in the stock market or big organizations for managing the online
currency world such as bitcoin etc.
 It is used in scientific research areas for analyzing data obtained from
exploring the solar system, satellites, etc.

2. Mainframe computer:
Mainframe computers are designed in such a way that it can support
hundreds or thousands of users at the same timeAll these features make the
mainframe computer ideal for big organizations like banking, telecom sectors,
etc., which process a high volume of data in general.
Characteristics of mainframe computers:
 It is also an expensive or costly computer.
 It has high storage capacity and great performance.
 It can process a huge amount of data (like data involved in the banking
sector) very quickly.
 It runs smoothly for a long time and has a long life.

3. Minicomputer:
Minicomputer is a medium size multiprocessing computer. In this type of
computer, there are two or more processors, and it supports 4 to 200 users at
one time. Minicomputers are used in places like institutes or departments for
different work like billing, accounting, inventory management etc. It is smaller
than a mainframe computer but larger in comparison to the microcomputer.
Characteristics of minicomputer:
 Its weight is low.
 Because of its low weight, it is easy to carry anywhere.
 less expensive than a mainframe computer.
 It is fast.

4. Workstation:
Workstation is designed for technical or scientific applications. It consists of a
fast microprocessor, with a large amount of RAM and high speed graphic
adapter. It is a single-user computer. It generally used to perform a specific
task with great accuracy.
Characteristics of Workstation:
 It is expensive or high in cost.
 They are exclusively made for complex work purposes.
 It provides large storage capacity, with better graphics, and a more
powerful CPU when compared to a PC.
 It is also used to handle animation, data analysis, CAD, audio and video
creation, and editing.

5. PC (Personal Computer):
It is also known as a microcomputer. It is basically a general-purpose
computer and designed for individual use. It consists of a microprocessor as a
central processing unit(CPU), memory, input unit, and output unit.. For
example, Laptops and desktop computers.
Characteristics of PC (Personal Computer):
 In this limited number of software can be used.
 It is smallest in size.
 It is designed for personal use.
 It is easy to use.

6. Analogue Computer:
It is particularly designed to process analogue data. Continuous data that
changes continuously and cannot have discrete values is called analogue
data. So, an analogue computer is used where we don’t need exact values or
need approximate values such as speed, temperature, pressure etc. For
example speedometer, mercury thermometer, etc.
7. Digital Computer:
Digital computers are designed in such a way that it can easily perform
calculations and logical operations at high speed. It takes raw data as an
input and processes it with programs stored in its memory to produce the
final output. It only understands the binary input 0 and 1, so the raw input
data is converted to 0 and 1 by the computer and then it is processed by the
computer to produce the result or final output.
8. Hybrid Computer:
As the name suggests hybrid, which means made by combining two different
things. Similarly, the hybrid computer is a combination of both analog and
digital computers. Hybrid computers are fast like an analog computer and
have memory, and accuracy like a digital computer. So, it has the ability to
process both continuous and discrete data. For working when it accepts
analog signals as input then it converts them into digital form before
processing the input data.

Hardware & Software

Hardware refers to the physical components of a computer system, such as

the CPU (Central Processing Unit), RAM (Random Access Memory), hard drive,
motherboard, graphics card, keyboard, mouse, and monitor. These
components are tangible and can be physically touched and manipulated.
Software, on the other hand, refers to the programs, applications, and
instructions that tell the computer hardware what to do. This includes the
operating system (such as Windows or macOS), word processing software,
web browsers, video games, and other applications. Software is intangible and
cannot be physically touched or manipulated. Instead, it is stored on the
computer's hard drive or in the cloud, and the computer hardware reads and
executes the software instructions as needed.
The hardware and the software make up a complete operating computer
system. Hardware is the mechanical device in a computer system that is
interconnected for operation. The user may not be able to see all the hardware
devices because they are internal to the computer’s casing.
An example of this would be storage drives. Most of the hardware devices are a
part of the motherboard that is responsible for controlling the computer.
Software, on the other hand, works on the idea of instructing programs in
computer language for execution. They tell the device what to perform and how
to do it using a set of instructions.
Hardware Components:

1. Peripheral Devices
These devices are the ones that provide input/output to the computer
externally. They are auxiliary devices meant to form a connection with the
device externally via a cable or Bluetooth to function. Some examples are
mouse, headphones, etc.

2. Input devices
The input device allows the user to send data or information to the computer to
perform a task. Keyboards, joysticks, mouse, etc. are some of the examples.

3. Output devices
The output device completes the task related to the data sent by the input
device. They receive the data from the input devices and execute the tasks
accordingly. Printers, monitors, headphones, etc. are some of the output
devices.

4. Secondary storage devices

The place where all the data on the computer goes is a storage device. This
allows users to access all the data safely and without any trouble. This device
is one of the core components of a computer system.

It is a hardware device to store digital data in multiple forms like text, images,
audio, etc. Some examples are – hard drives, USBs, memory cards, etc.

5. Internal components
The components that are already a part of the motherboard and the system are
internal components. Computer memory is internal to the system, becoming a
good example of this.

Many devices may become a part of the system from inside using ribbon cables
and insertion cards. Some examples are – RAM, CPU, etc.
Software Components:

1. System Software
The software that runs the computer by activating, controlling, and
coordinating the hardware is system software. They also control the application
programs on the computer. They differ according to the function they need to
perform in the computer system. Some of the examples are –

a. Operating System
The most relevant example of system software is an operating system. It is an
interface connecting the users to the computer hardware. Linux, Windows,
Edge, etc. are a few famous operating systems that people use.

b. BIOS

A basic input-output system is part of Read-Only Memory or flash memory.

The first software that users activate at their computer is BIOS because it loads
the drivers to assist storage of operating systems. It has a set of commands to
make the devices perform effectively.

The starting up of a device refers to boot, the ROM commands automatic

execution of loading boot in memory once the device starts.

c. Device driver
It is responsible for controlling computer hardware by providing an interface.
The kernel uses this software to communicate with the processor. The
operating systems usually have these drivers to work with hardware systems.

Difference Between Computer Hardware and Software

Basis Hardware Software

It is internal to the computer

It is the physical part of the that uses a set of
Type device that takes care of instructions to command
data processing. the device for different
tasks.

It is made by It is made by developers and

Development
manufacturing. engineers.

Uses binary codes to Relies on high-level

Language
function. programming languages to
 function.

Monitors machine-level Monitors the hardware

Function
tasks. functioning.

It depends on the software It depends on hardware to

Dependency
to execute the task. process the information.

They are tangible and thus They are intangible and thus
Tangible we can see and touch we can’t see and touch
hardware. software.

Works for most of the Is designed according to the

computers in general as computer system and
Use
they have uniform updates according to user
architecture. preference.

It mainly consists of input

System software and
devices, output devices,
Categories Application software are two
storage, and internal
of its major types.
components.

Integrated Circuits, diodes,

Numbers, alphabets,
Components registers, crystals,
symbols, keywords, etc.
insulators, etc.

The viruses cannot attack The viruses can attack the

Protection
the hardware system. software system.

Usually have something to

They are very random and
Faults do with the system and
hard to find.
troubleshoots automatically.

Their electric transmission

They can easily transfer
is possible from one place to
Transfer from different locations
another electrically using a
using the network.
network.

Durability Depreciates over time. Keeps updating with time.

Replacement In case of damage, a new

In case of damage, it
device replaces the
 hardware. undergoes reinstallation.

Keyboard, Monitor, Printer, Ms Word, Operating system,

Examples
CPU, Hard disk, ROM, etc. Photoshop, MySQL, etc.

Computer Networking

Computer networking refers to the process of connecting multiple computer

systems together to share data, resources, and information. It involves the
use of hardware devices, such as routers, switches, and hubs, as well as
software protocols, such as TCP/IP and HTTP, to establish communication
between the connected computers.
Networking allows computers to share information and resources, such as
printers, scanners, files, and internet access, among others. It enables
individuals and organizations to collaborate and work together more
efficiently, and also facilitates the transmission of data across long distances.
Some of the key benefits of computer networking include:
 Resource sharing: Networking allows users to share hardware and
software resources, such as printers, scanners, and software
applications.
 Increased efficiency: By enabling multiple users to work together on
the same project, networking can help improve productivity and
efficiency.
 Enhanced communication: Networking enables individuals and
organizations to communicate more easily and effectively, through
email, instant messaging, and other tools.
 Data backup and recovery: Networking allows for centralized data
storage and backup, which can help protect against data loss and
facilitate data recovery in the event of a disaster.
Computer networking has become an essential part of modern computing,
and plays a critical role in enabling businesses, organizations, and
individuals to connect and collaborate in a digital world.

Advantages of Networking

Facility of Technical Support

Because of having computer networking, a person sitting in the United States
of America provides technical support to a person sitting in a remote part of
India.
Easy Sharing of Data
With the help of networking, it is very simple to share all formats of digital data
from one computer system to another (irrespective of their geographic location).
Easy Sharing of Hardware Resource
With the help of networking, it has now become very simple to share the
expensive resources including storage space, processor, fax, etc.
Easy Sharing of Software
Through the networking system, it is easy to share and install the software
from one computer system to another computer system.
Easy to Decentralize Data Processing
Through the networking system, it is very simple to decentralize the data
processing system. It ultimately helps to control, secure, and manage the
important data.
Easy to Communicate
With the help of networking, the communication system has now become
highly efficient, frugal, and fast. The different modes of communication are text
chatting, video chatting, emails, etc.

Types of Networks
There are several types of computer networks, each designed to serve a specific
purpose.

Here are some of the most common types of networks:

1. Local Area Network (LAN): A LAN is a network that is used to connect
computers and devices within a small geographical area, such as an
office or a home. LANs typically use Ethernet cables or Wi-Fi to connect
devices, and are often used for resource sharing, such as printers or
files.
2. Wide Area Network (WAN): A WAN is a network that spans a large
geographic area, often connecting multiple LANs together. WANs are
typically used for long-distance communication, such as connecting
remote offices or connecting to the internet.
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): A MAN is a network that spans a
metropolitan area, such as a city or a town. MANs typically use high-
speed fiber-optic cables to connect devices.
4. Personal Area Network (PAN): A PAN is a network that connects devices
within a personal space, such as a smartphone, tablet, or wearable
device.
These are just a few examples of the different types of computer networks.
Each type of network is designed to meet specific requirements, depending on
the size, scope, and purpose of the network.

LAN(Local Area Network)

o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a
small area such as building, office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a
communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
 o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs,
network adapters, and ethernet cables.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
o Local Area Network provides higher security.

PAN(Personal Area Network)

o Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual
person, typically within a range of 10 meters.
o Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of
personal use is known as Personal Area Network.
o Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of
the Personal Area Network.
o Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
o Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area
network are the laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic
area by interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private
industries.
o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone
exchange line.
o The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM,
ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.
o It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

WAN(Wide Area Network)

o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical
area such as states or countries.
o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over
a large geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or
satellite links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government,
and education.
Types of connections in computer networks can be categorized according to
their size as well as their purpose
PAN is a computer network which generally consists of a computer, mobile, or
personal digital assistant
LAN (Local Area Network) is a group of computer and peripheral devices which
are connected in a limited area
WAN (Wide Area Network) is another important computer network that which is
spread across a large geographical area
A metropolitan area network or MAN is consisting of a computer network
across an entire city, college campus, or a small region

Network Topology / Network Connection

Network topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of the nodes and
connections in a computer network. The topology can have a significant impact
on the performance, reliability, and scalability of a network. Here are some of
the most common types of network topologies:
Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are
interconnected to each other. There are two types of topology: physical and
logical topology.
Types of Network Topology
Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network.
There are six types of network topology which are Bus Topology, Ring Topology,
Tree Topology, Star Topology, Mesh Topology, and Hybrid Topology.

1) Bus Topology

The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are
connected through a single cable known as a backbone cable. Each node is
either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly connected
to the backbone cable. When a node wants to send a message over the
network, it puts a message over the network. All the stations available in the
network will receive the message whether it has been addressed or not.

The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the

message is broadcast to all the stations.
Advantages of Bus topology:
o Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the
cable without passing through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost of
installation is low.
o Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in
bus-based networks that support upto 10 Mbps.
o Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the
installation and troubleshooting techniques are well known, and
hardware components are easily available.
o Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other
nodes.

Disadvantages of Bus topology:

o Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a
lot of cabling.
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to
determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would
disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
o Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously,
then the signals of both the nodes collide with each other.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would
slow down the network.
o Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication
issues. Repeaters are used to regenerate the signal.

2) Ring Topology
 Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends. The node that
receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit to the next
node. The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.

The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.

It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and
having no termination point.

The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.

The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.

Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is

passed from one node to another node.

Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

Working of Token passing

o A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to
computer until it reaches the destination.
o The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the
data.
o The data is passed from one device to another device until the
destination address matches. Once the token received by the destination
device, then it sends the acknowledgment to the sender.
o In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.

Advantages of Ring topology:

o Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the network
without bringing the network down.
o Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network
operation and monitoring are available.
o Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore,
the installation cost is very low.
o Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication
system is not dependent on the single host computer.

Disadvantages of Ring topology:

o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to
determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would
disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
 o Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall
network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would
slow down the network.
o Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of
nodes. Adding new devices increases the communication delay.

3) Star Topology

Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is

connected to the central hub, switch or a central computer. The central
computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached to the
server are known as clients.

Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star

topology.

Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.

Advantages of Star topology

o Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star
topology as compared to bus topology. In a bus topology, the manager
has to inspect the kilometers of cable. In a star topology, all the stations
are connected to the centralized network. Therefore, the network
administrator has to go to the single station to troubleshoot the problem.
o Network control: Complex network control features can be easily
implemented in the star topology. Any changes made in the star topology
are automatically accommodated.
 o Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its
own cable, therefore failure in one cable will not affect the entire
network.
o Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools
are cost-effective.
o Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added
to the open ports on the hub.
o Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses
inexpensive coaxial cable.
o High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps.
Ethernet 100BaseT is one of the most popular Star topology networks.

Disadvantages of Star topology

o A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then
all the connected nodes will not be able to communicate with each other.
o Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant
amount of routing is required.

4) Tree topology

Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star

topology. A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers
are connected with each other in hierarchical fashion.

The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other
nodes are the descendants of the root node.

There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission.
Thus, it forms a parent-child hierarchy.
Advantages of Tree topology
o Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to
provide broadband transmission, i.e., signals are sent over long distances
without being attenuated.
o Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing network.
Therefore, we can say that tree topology is easily expandable.
o Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is divided into
segments known as star networks which can be easily managed and
maintained.
o Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy in a
tree topology.
o Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire
network.
o Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual
segments.

Disadvantages of Tree topology

o Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it
becomes difficult to troubleshoot the problem.
o High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
o Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in
main bus cable will damage the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes
difficult to reconfigure.

5) Mesh topology

Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are

interconnected with each other through various redundant connections.
 There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.

Advantages of Mesh topology:

Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link
breakdown will not affect the communication between connected computers.

Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.

Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the

communication between other devices.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

o Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices
such as a router and more transmission media than other topologies.
o Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to
maintain and manage. If the network is not monitored carefully, then the
communication link failure goes undetected.
o Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that
reduces the efficiency of the network.

6) Hybrid Topology
 The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid
topology.A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and
nodes to transfer the data.

When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as

Hybrid topology and if similar topologies are connected with each other will
not result in Hybrid topology. For example, if there exist a ring topology in
one branch of ICICI bank and bus topology in another branch of ICICI bank,
connecting these two topologies will result in Hybrid topology.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

o Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the
functioning of the rest of the network.
o Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new
devices without affecting the functionality of the existing network.
o Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to
the requirements of the organization.
o Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such
a way that the strength of the network is maximized and weakness of the
network is minimized.

Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

o Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the
design of the Hybrid network. It is very difficult to design the architecture
of the Hybrid network.
o Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as
these hubs are different from usual Hubs used in other topologies.
o Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid
network requires a lot of cabling, network devices, etc.

Network Devices

The hardware devices which are employed for establishing a connection of fax
machines, computers, printers, and other electronic equipment with that of the
network are termed as network devices.
Through network devices, the information can be transferred in a more quick
and exact approach across similar or various kinds of networks.

Hub

A Hub is used to connect devices together within a network. It is a Layer 1

device and operates by repeating any messages it receives on all its ports.
 This makes a Hub very inefficient and introduces congestion within the
network

Switches

A switch is a device that provides a central connection point for cables from
workstations, servers, and peripherals. In a star topology, twisted-pair wire is
run from each workstation to a central switch/hub. Most switches are active,
that is they electrically amplify the signal as it moves from one device to
another.

Repeaters

Since a signal loses strength as it passes along a cable, it is often necessary to

boost the signal with a device called a repeater. The repeater electrically
amplifies the signal it receives and rebroadcasts it. Repeaters can be separate
devices or they can be incorporated into a concentrator. They are used when
the total length of your network cable exceeds the standards set for the type of
cable being used.
A good example of the use of repeaters would be in a local area network using a
star topology with unshielded twisted-pair cabling. The length limit for
unshielded twisted-pair cable is 100 meters.

Bridges

A bridge is a device that allows you to segment a large network into two
smaller, more efficient networks. If you are adding to an older wiring scheme
and want the new network to be up-to-date, a bridge can connect the two.

A bridge monitors the information traffic on both sides of the network so that it
can pass packets of information to the correct location. Most bridges can
"listen" to the network and automatically figure out the address of each
computer on both sides of the bridge. The bridge can inspect each message
and, if necessary, broadcast it on the other side of the network.

The bridge manages the traffic to maintain optimum performance on both sides
of the network. You might say that the bridge is like a traffic cop at a busy
intersection during rush hour. It keeps information flowing on both sides of the
network, but it does not allow unnecessary traffic through. Bridges can be used
to connect different types of cabling, or physical topologies. They must,
however, be used between networks with the same protocol.

Routers

Routers are the traffic directors of the global internet. All routers maintain
complex routing tables which allow them to determine appropriate paths for
packets destined for any address. Routers communicate with each other, and
forward network packets out of or into a network. Here's an example:
A router is sometimes connected to a modem at one side and many other
devices on the other side. Because the modem will only talk to the first
computer that talks to it, the router at the position serves like a dispatcher to
share the connection among all your devices. This enables all connected
computers to share one single Internet connection.

While bridges know the addresses of all computers on each side of the network,
routers know the addresses other routers which in turn know about their own
networks. Routers can even "listen" to entire networks to determine which
sections are busiest -- they can then redirect data around those sections until
traffic congestion clears.

So, routers are network gateways. They move network packets from one
network to another, and many can convert from one network protocol to
another as necessary. Routers select the best path to route a message, based
on the destination address of the packet. The router can direct traffic to
prevent head-on collisions, and is smart enough to know when to direct traffic
along back roads and shortcuts.

Firewalls

A firewall is a networking device that is installed at the entrance to a LAN when

connecting a networks together, particularly when connecting a private
network to a public network, such as the internet. The firewall uses rules to
filter traffic into and out of the private network, to protect the private network
users and data from malevolent hackers.

Firewalls are either hardware or software, depending on their intended use. A

firewall used to protect a network is a hardware device that should be installed
in the network between the router and the network. Almost all hardware
firewalls will have at least two ports, labeled "Trusted" and "Untrusted". These
terms imply the true nature of the firewall's responsibility to the private
network. The public network is connected to the untrusted network port, and
the private network is connected to the trusted port.

Software firewalls are commonly included in modern workstation and server

operating systems. They operate in a similar way as hardware firewalls, except
that they filter traffic in and out of the machine itself. These software firewalls
are typically unnoticed by machine users, and only need attention occasionslly
when an internet-connected application don't work as expected. The software
firewall should always be considered a "suspect" in such cases. The problem is
easily resolved, by setting an exception rule in the firewall for the software that
is attempting to communicate.

Computer Virus
A computer virus is a program which can harm our device and files and infect
them for no further use. When a virus program is executed, it replicates itself
by modifying other computer programs and instead enters its own coding. This
code infects a file or program and if it spreads massively, it may ultimately
result in crashing of the device.
Across the world, Computer viruses are a great issue of concern as they can
cause billions of dollars’ worth harm to the economy each year.
Since the computer virus only hits the programming of the device, it is not
visible. But there are certain indications which can help you analyse that a
device is virus-hit. Given below are such signs which may help you identify
computer viruses:

 Speed of the System – In case a virus is completely executed into your

device, the time taken to open applications may become longer and the
entire system processing may start working slowly
 Pop-up Windows – One may start getting too many pop up windows on
their screen which may be virus affected and harm the device even more
 Self Execution of Programs – Files or applications may start opening in
the background of the system by themselves and you may not even know
about them
 Log out from Accounts – In case of a virus attack, the probability of
accounts getting hacked increase and password protected sites may also
get hacked and you might get logged out from all of them
 Crashing of the Device – In most cases, if the virus spreads in
maximum files and programs, there are chances that the entire device
may crash and stop working
 Unit II

Introduction to Information Technology

Information technology (IT) is the use of any computers, storage, networking
and other physical devices, infrastructure and processes to create, process,
store, secure and exchange all forms of electronic data. T or information
technology refers to the development, maintenance, and use of computer
software, systems, and networks. It includes their use for the processing and
distribution of data. Data means information, facts, statistics, etc., gathered
together for reference, storage, or analysis.

The word technology on its own refers to the application of scientific know how
for practical purposes.

WWW
The World Wide Web (WWW), commonly known as the Web, is an information
system where documents and other web resources are identified by Uniform
Resource Locators, which may be interlinked by hypertext, and are accessible
over the Internet. World Wide Web was invented in 1989 by Tim Berners Lee.
The World Wide Web (abbreviated as the Web or WWW) is a system of Internet
servers that supports hypertext to access several Internet protocols on a single
interface.

World Wide Web has its own protocol: HyperText Transfer Protocol, or HTTP.

The World Wide Web consists of files, called pages or home pages, containing
links to documents and resources throughout the Internet. A web page is given
an online address called a Uniform Resource Locator (URL). A particular
collection of web pages that belong to a specific URL is called a website,
e.g., www.facebook.com, www.google.com, etc. So, the World Wide Web is like a
huge electronic book whose pages are stored on multiple servers across the
world.

Small websites store all of their WebPages on a single server, but big websites
or organizations place their WebPages on different servers in different countries
so that when users of a country search their site they could get the information
quickly from the nearest server.

Search Engine

A search engine is a software program that provides information according to

the user query. It finds various websites or web pages that are available on the
internet and gives related results according to the search.

Google, Yahoo, Bing are the most popular Search Engines.

Working
Search engines are generally working on three parts that are crawling,
indexing, and ranking
 1. Crawling: Search engines have a number of computers programs
that are responsible for finding information that is publicly
available on the internet. These programs scan the web and
create a list of all available websites. Then they visit each website
and by reading HTML code they try to understand the structure of
the page, the type of the content, the meaning of the content, and
when it was created or updated. Why crawling is important?
Because your first concern when optimizing your website for
search engines is to make sure that they can access it correctly. If
they cannot find your content you won’t get any ranking or search
engine traffic.

2. Indexing: Information identified by the crawler needs to be

organized, Sorted, and Stored so that it can be processed later by
the ranking algorithm. Search engines don’t store all the
information in your index, but they keep things like the Title and
description of the page, The type of content, Associated keywords
Number of incoming and outgoing links, and a lot of other
parameters that are needed by the ranking algorithm.

3. Ranking: Ranking is the position by which your website is listed

in any Search Engine. (There are three steps in which ranking
works).
 Step 1: Analyze user query – This step is to understand what kind of
information the user is looking for. To do that analyzes the user’s query by
breaking it down into a number of meaningful keywords. A keyword is a
word that has a specific meaning and purpose, for example when you type
how to make a chocolate cupcake search engines know that you are
looking for specific information so the results will contain recipes and step-
by-step instructions. They can also understand the meaning of how to
 change a light bulb is the same as how to replace a light bulb search
engines are clever enough to interpret spelling mistakes also.
 Step 2: Finding matching pages – This step is to look into their index and
find the best matching pages, for example, if you search dark wallpaper
then it gives you the result of images, not text.
 Step 3: Present the results to the users – A typical search results page
includes ten organic results in most cases it is enriched with other
elements like paid Ads, direct answers for specific queries, etc.

The result page of Google is called SERP (Search Engine Result Page)

Web Browser

The web browser is application software to explore www (World Wide Web). It
provides an interface between the server and the client and requests to the
server for web documents and services. It works as a compiler to render
HTML which is used to design a webpage. Whenever we search for anything
on the internet, the browser loads a web page written in HTML, including text,
links, images, and other items such as style sheets and JavaScript functions.
Google Chrome, Microsoft Edge, Mozilla Firefox, and Safari are examples of
web browsers.

History of the Web Browser

The first web browser World Wide Web was invented in the year of 1990 by
Tim Berners-Lee. Later, it becomes Nexus. In the year of 1993, a new browser
Mosaic was invented by Mark Andreessen and their team. It was the first
browser to display text and images at a time on the device screen. He also
invents another browser Netscape in 1994. Next year Microsoft launched a
web browser Internet Explorer which was already installed in the Windows
operating system. After this many browsers were invented with various
features like Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome, Safari, Opera, etc.

How does a Web Browser Work?

A web browser helps us find information anywhere on the internet. It is

installed on the client computer and requests information from the web server
such a type of working model is called a client-server model.
Some Popular Web Browsers

Here is a list of 7 popular web browsers:

 Google Chrome: Developed by Google, Chrome is one of the most widely-
used web browsers in the world, known for its speed and simplicity.
 Mozilla Firefox: Developed by the Mozilla Foundation, Firefox is an open-
source browser that is known for its privacy features and customization
options.
 Apple Safari: Developed by Apple, Safari is the default browser on Mac and
iOS devices and is known for its speed and integration with other Apple
products.
 Microsoft Edge: Developed by Microsoft, Edge is the default browser on
Windows 10 and is known for its integration with other Microsoft products
and services.
 Opera: Developed by Opera Software, Opera is a web browser that is
known for its speed and built-in VPN feature.

IP Addressing

An IP address is a unique address that identifies a device on the internet or a

local network. IP stands for "Internet Protocol," which is the set of rules
governing the format of data sent via the internet or local network.

In essence, IP addresses are the identifier that allows information to be sent

between devices on a network: they contain location information and make
devices accessible for communication. The internet needs a way to differentiate
between different computers, routers, and websites. IP addresses provide a way
of doing so and form an essential part of how the internet works.
An IP address is a string of numbers separated by periods. IP addresses are
expressed as a set of four numbers — an example address might be
192.158.1.38. Each number in the set can range from 0 to 255. So, the full IP
addressing range goes from 0.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255.

Types of IP addresses

There are different categories of IP addresses, and within each category,

different types.

Private IP addresses

Every device that connects to your internet network has a private IP address.
This includes computers, smart phones, and tablets but also any Bluetooth-
enabled devices like speakers, printers, or smart TVs. With the
growing Internet of Things, the number of private IP addresses you have at
home is probably growing. Your router needs a way to identify these items
separately, and many items need a way to recognize each other. Therefore, your
router generates private IP addresses that are unique identifiers for each device
that differentiate them on the network.

Public IP addresses

A public IP address is the primary address associated with your whole network.
While each connected device has its own IP address, they are also included
within the main IP address for your network. As described above, your public
IP address is provided to your router by your ISP. Typically, ISPs have a large
pool of IP addresses that they distribute to their customers. Your public IP
address is the address that all the devices outside your internet network will
use to recognize your network.

Dynamic IP addresses

Dynamic IP addresses change automatically and regularly. ISPs buy a large

pool of IP addresses and assign them automatically to their customers.
Periodically, they re-assign them and put the older IP addresses back into the
pool to be used for other customers. The rationale for this approach is to
generate cost savings for the ISP. Automating the regular movement of IP
addresses means they don’t have to carry out specific actions to re-establish a
customer's IP address if they move home, for example. There are security
benefits, too, because a changing IP address makes it harder for criminals to
hack into your network interface.

Static IP addresses

In contrast to dynamic IP addresses, static addresses remain consistent. Once

the network assigns an IP address, it remains the same. Most individuals and
businesses do not need a static IP address, but for businesses that plan to host
their own server, it is crucial to have one. This is because a static IP address
ensures that websites and email addresses tied to it will have a consistent IP
address — vital if you want other devices to be able to find them consistently
on the web.

Web Hosting & Web Publishing

Web Hosting: Web Hosting, as the name suggests, is a type of internet

hosting that allows one to make their website available to users through
WWW using the internet. It simply provides space to the website on a web
server so that files or data of the website can be stored. It is the best way to
increase the growth of business and user experience.

Web hosting is an online service that allows you to publish your website files
onto the internet. So, anyone who has access to the internet has access to
your website. A web hosting service is a type of Internet hosting service that
allows individuals and organizations to make their website accessible via the
World Wide Web. Web hosts are companies that provide space on a server
owned or leased for use by clients, as well as providing Internet connectivity,
typically in a data center.

There are few popular free Web Hosting Platforms are Hostinger, Bluehost,
etc.

Web Publishing: Web Publishing, as the name suggests, is the process of

creating a website and placing it on the web server, and published content
may include text, images, videos, and other types of media. Its main aim is to
facilitate communication simply by adding context through style, emotion,
and space. It is also known as online publishing.
Web publishing is the process of publishing original content on the Internet.
The process includes building and uploading websites, updating the
associated webpages, and posting content to these webpages online. Web
publishing comprises of personal, business, and community websites in
addition to e-books and blogs.

The content meant for web publishing can include text, videos, digital images,
artwork, and other forms of media.
Publishers must possess a web server, a web publishing software, and an
Internet connection to carry out web publishing.
Web publishing is also known as online publishing.

Web Hosting vs Web Publishing

Web Hosting Web Publishing

It is a process of publishing or
It is a process of using server to host uploading original content on
website. Internet.

Its process includes uploading

Its process includes proving space in files, updating web pages,
server to store web pages, make it posting blogs, posting content to
available for viewing online, etc. web pages, etc.

It allows customization from

It allows for advanced level of beginner to advanced levels
customization. depending on platform.

It makes website available to view

It provides space in internet for website. on your domain.

It provides ready-made themes to

It does not come with premade website. develop website.

It allows for one-click installs and endless It is limited to WordPress and

customization of self-hosted WordPress, NYU-approved theme and
Scalar, and Omeka. plugins.
 Web Hosting Web Publishing

Its main aim is to provide storage space for

website or application on server on Its main aim is to communicate
internet so that it can be accessed by other ideas and concepts between
computers connected to internet. people.

Its component includes domain

name planning and registration,
Its component includes Web Browser, FTP web hosting, web design and
Client, Database Server, FTP Server, etc. development, etc.

It allows one to store website online, It allows one to include colorful

provide technical support, data designs, photographs, and text in
management, more security, etc. webpage for less cost.

It’s simple to find a reliable web hosting platform on which to host your
website or launch a company.

Applications of Internet in Business

The Internet has paved the way for the evolution of new technologies, new
businesses’ birth, and new ways of doing business. The Internet is a rapidly
growing network of millions of business education and research and network
connecting hundreds of millions of computers and they are users in over two
hundred countries. It is a network of global exchanges – including private,
public, business, academic and government networks – connected by guided,
wireless and fiber-optic technologies.
Here are the following uses of the internet for business mention below

1. Ecommerce
The Internet provides a perfect market place wherein customers access the

website of ecommerce vendors and order the product they want to buy online,

and make the payment through the gateway. The goods ordered are delivered

to the customers within the agreed number of days from the warehouse of the

vendor.

There are renowned Ecommerce vendors like Amazon, Flipkart, Myntra and

Snapdeal, etc., in India. There are also service vendors like Ola, Oyo, Uber, and

Swiggy who offer taxi, room, and food delivery services.

While Flipkart, Snapdeal are selling products of third-party vendors, Individual

organizations can also develop and host their websites to sell their own

products and services online.

2. Website
The Internet offers a perfect medium for businesses to reach out to their

customers and the common public on their website’s products and services.

Financial results, Performance details and other achievements of the company

are also posted on this site. This media site provides good visibility, publicity,

and branding to the company.

3. Social Media
The organization keeps tabs on social media sites like Facebook, Linked in to

track the posting of the common public on their products, services and any
other matter related to the company. The company will use the postings

gathered from these social media to improve its product/services, correct the

processes and manage situations.

4. Customer Relationship Management (CRM)

The Internet enables the organization to connect with all its customers and

build a strong network with its customers. New customer leads can be

generated through this CRM portal and converted into prospect and order with

a systematic follow-up.

This portal enables to create of visibility on the marketing campaign and

service programs conducted by the organization. Customer feedback and their

inputs on the company are used to improve the efficiency of the operations and

take the company to the next level.

5. Supplier Management
Information on supplier’s purchase orders, amendments to purchase orders,

supply schedules, receipts, rejections and performance details are shared with

suppliers on this site, hosted on the internet. Suppliers create shipment notice

on their supplies in this site, and it is visible to the company to plan their

production accordingly. The Internet enables the organization to do

collaborative design and suppliers by sharing design details through this site

and cutting short design life cycle time.

6. Employee Productivity enhancement

Employees are connected to their office through the internet, enabling them

to work from home and avoid commuting hassles. Employees are trained
 online at their own pace. Youtube, blogs, and content on the internet

provide inputs to employees to enhance their skills. Productivity

enhancement in employees leads to business growth and prosperity.

7. Video conferencing
Video conferencing facilities offered through the internet helps the organization

to hold meetings, conferences with participants from multiple remote locations.

It saves travel costs and speeds up the decision making process.

8. Market Research
Information on any products/services, market requirements, demand from

various geographies for a product, competitor’s business data and other

market-related data are available on the internet. These data will be useful in

market research and arrive at the marketing strategy.

9. Cloud hosting
Business can host their applications in the cloud to save costs and achieve

agile operations, and users can access the application over the internet.

Access to the cloud is made hassle-free by internet connectivity, and the user

feels no difference between on-premises access and cloud access.

10. Advertisement / Marketing

Advertising through Youtube and other popular sites will help the business to

improve its sales. Marketing of products can be done as videos, blogs, Vlogs,

articles etc.on Instagram, Facebook, Twitter, Youtube etc.

Applications of Internet in Education

has made a significant contribution to the education of students by improving

their ability to study and gain knowledge, right from their homes. They use the
internet for a variety of purposes, including online lectures, research, latest

information, and more.

Below are the advantages of internet for students –

1 – Relevant information present on the internet

Students can easily search for the relevant information they require on the
internet. Before the spread of the internet, students had to go through many
books to find the information they needed, which was a time taking process.
Things are now faster and easier because there are numerous websites that
provide important information that can help students with their academic work
and assignments. This also helps students remain up to date with the latest

information.

2 – Online education through internet

Almost every student is now aware of the terms online education and distance
learning, both of which have been the most significant benefits of the internet
during the pandemic. They can learn a wide variety of things from the internet
while at home, in a comfortable atmosphere. Students can easily access
lectures or classes on various academic subjects to clear all of their doubts.
Different institutions, such as colleges, universities, and schools, have started

to offer online programmes and courses to anyone in any part of the world.

3 – Developing communication and connectivity

Having good communication and connectivity with others has proven to be

beneficial. The internet has made it easy for students to connect with their
classmates and teachers using different mediums from any part of the world.
They can easily discuss study material and clear doubts with the teacher in
order to fully understand any topic. This can also help students in coming up

with new ideas and enhancing their knowledge.

4 – Career planning

Choosing the right path and developing a good career plan is critical for the
future, and it can be difficult for students to do so without proper guidance.
The internet has lots of resources for the students to seek proper career
guidance and achieve future goals. To make a better career decision, they can

consult with experts and attend career counseling sessions.

5 – Getting up to date information

The internet has been the best source to get up to date information in the
quickest possible way. Different websites and social media platforms play an
important role in bringing the most recent news or information to people’s
attention. Students can gather the latest information related to their academics
that can help them in their studies. There are also media websites where

students can share their thoughts and the most recent facts.

6 – Self study

The internet has established itself as a vital tool for self-study. Google, bing
and yahoo helps in learning and discovering various sources to get the latest
information. Students can carry out research on any topic to improve their
knowledge and get necessary study materials, which can be crucial for their

academics. Youtube and other platforms also provide free classes and courses

for students.

7- . Cost Effective and Affordable Education

One of the largest barriers to education is high cost. The Internet improves

the quality of education, which is one of the pillars of sustainable development

of a nation. It provides education through Videos (like youtube tutorial videos)

and web tutorials which is affordable to everyone and cost-effective.

The internet is one of the most powerful information tools present in the world
today. There are numerous benefits to using the internet for students, and it
has proven to be one of the best places to learn. It has changed the lives of
students and made several things easier for them. Many students are
now enrolled in online education, which is changing the face of academic

education. Nowadays, most assignments are completed on computers with the

use of the internet. The internet has many benefits, but it also has some

drawbacks, so it is essential to teach students how to use it responsibly.

Use of Computers in Offices

Computers have revolutionized the world in every possible dimension. In this

post, let’s see the uses of computers in the office/working environment.

Data Storage
The data storage and retrieval capacity of computers are greater and more
advanced as technology improves. Files are easily retrievable through search
functions, and hard drives can hold extraordinary volumes of files and data.
For offices with large databases this data storage and retrieval function
provides unparalleled advantages over traditional paper file storage, such as
the ease and speed of information retrieval, the ease of changing data records
and the ease of tracking changes made to a customer record.

Communication
Internal and external communication is much easier with the use of e-mail and
internal messaging systems on computers. Office staffs are able to pass
information throughout the office quickly and effectively, as most office setups
have an alert system on individual computers when a message or e-mail is
received.

Networking
File sharing is one of the key benefits of networking computers in an office
environment. Office networking or the creation of an office intranet means that
a common database of files is accessible to all users. This also applies to
software and management of computers, which significantly reduces costs for
offices, as they can purchase one networkable software product instead of
having to purchase multiple copies for individual computers. Networking also
provides communal access to printers,
fax machines and copiers.

Productivity

Computers in the office environment significantly enhance productivity.

Computers in the office increase productivity not only in areas such as word
processing, data management and information access but also in information
creation, collation and ultimately storage.

Improving Efficiency
Computers can increase the speed and accuracy of many work processes,
which improves overall worker efficiency. Documents can be written and edited
much more quickly with the aid of a word processing program, and procedures,
such as billing and accounting, can also occur more rapidly and with fewer
errors. Computers can produce reports with great speed and allow for the easy
insertion of enhancements, such as charts, graphs and pictures if desired.
Computers also help companies in administrative tasks, such as keeping up-
to-date and accurate records.

Use of Computers in Health care

Our generation is living in an advanced age of healthcare. With the surge in

technological innovation, computers have infiltrated every aspect of human
activity. Presently, the progress is so great that computers have become a
widespread tool in every industry, and the healthcare industry is not an
exception. For decades, computers were primarily used for official purposes in
the healthcare system. However, with technological progress, the scenario has
changed. Nowadays, computers assist physicians and medical researchers to
discover, test, and practice medical techniques. Additionally, computers are
used in a wide range of settings, from laboratories to patient bedsides, nurse
stations, and operating rooms. In fact, they have become an essential tool in
various areas of the healthcare industry. So, in this blog, we are specifying the
use of computers in the healthcare world.
1. Monitoring the patients
The computers even used for monitoring a patient. Hospitals attach patients to
machines that use necessary statistics monitoring software to record their
pulse, blood pressure, and oxygen levels. The monitoring computers are
customized to notify the staff when any of these statistics fluctuate from
particular limits.

2. X-rays and CT (Computed Tomography) scanning

Employs radiation to generate images of a patient’s internal structure to
monitor the injuries, deformities, illnesses, etc. X-rays authorize complete
scanning of the internal structure of the patient from one perspective.
Contrarily, CT scanning employs a computer to exert several X-ray images that
are 2-D cross-sections. After taking the single X-rays, medical professionals
use computer programming to merge them into a multi-dimensional image,
which accurately reassembles the structure that is internally damaged. Doctors
then use this image to make an analysis.

3. Surgery
If the doctor is absent during an emergency, medical professionals can employ
computerized robotics to conduct surgery on patients. Furthermore, they can
observe safe and accurate surgeries with the use of video networking and real-
time monitoring tools, which allows staff doctors and medical students to
enhance their medical skills. Furthermore, these robotics enable surgeons to
perform surgery without physically being present at the site, allowing doctors
to save the lives of patients located miles away. Overall, computer-controlled
surgeries have become a valuable tool in the healthcare industry.

4. Spectroscopy
Spectroscopy is a method used to examine a substance, such as a biopsy
tissue or suspected harmful substance. All substances absorb and reflect only
certain types of electromagnetic radiation. A computer analyzes the transmitted
radiation to see if any particular types of radiation are present or not. The
computer matches the pattern of radiation to a database of substances to
identify the substance involved. This helps doctors quickly determine if any
foreign substance is present, and based on the results, they can proceed with
appropriate treatment.

5. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Magnetic Resonance Imagining or MRI is the technique of using powerful
magnetic fields to draft the patient’s internal structure and activity. The entire
procedure and the output enables doctors to monitor the physical and
operational defects in patients without direct surgery. MRI is used for
generating detailed images of soft tissue in the body without using radiation.
The bio-electrical activity in the scanned body part is detected by the MRI
machine. The method further presents a 3-D image of electrical action in the
scanned portion.

6. Computers in Medical Research

Medical researchers use computing platforms to run simulations and search
for cures to diseases such as cancer, Alzheimer’s disease, AIDS, etc. This
computerized software enables millions of networks to connect mutually,
rapidly enhancing the speed at which potential remedies can be discovered.

7. Maintain and secure Data Storage

In the past, before the prominence of computers, healthcare providers kept
sensitive patient data in bulky, easily breakable closets. Nowadays, computer
technology enables medical experts to manage patients’ files and detailed data,
which are further secured with encryption systems. Computer systems even
enable the organizations to install the files off-site, for additional security and
substitute purposes.
8. Diagnostic Databases
Medicine involves a comprehensive field of science that is continually growing.
Computer databases enable doctors to store diagnostic information and make
them digitally accessible. This enables medical records from the former cases
and scrutinized documents to be promptly accessible to medical experts no
matter whenever and wherever they’re needed.

9. Video Consultation
Doctors and researchers often use personal computers for real-time
consultations and independent evaluations. This reduces the time needed for
the diagnosis process, which can lead to better lab results or life-saving
treatments. In addition, using small computing devices like personal digital
assistants (PDAs) or handheld smartphones allows doctors to practice in
remote areas where there is no hospital nearby.

10. Medical Practice Software Applications

Computer software is used to track and project virtually all aspects of medical
practice. Patient files, profit and loss statements, and billing and insurance
forms are all handled using computer software that traces the office work of
medical practice and allows doctors more time to spend with their patients.

11. Home Collection of Samples

Patients can order home collection of samples using computer based apps like
Dr. lal, SRL diagnostics etc.

12. Online Order of Medicines

Apps like tata 1mg, Pharmeasy etc allow patients to buy medicines that are
delivered at their door steps easily.

Advantages of Computer :

1. Multitasking- Multitasking is one among the main advantage of computer.

Person can do multiple task, multiple operation at a same time, calculate
numerical problems within few seconds. Computer can perform millions or
trillions of work in one second.
2. Speed – Now computer isn’t just a calculating device. Now a day’s
computer has vital role in human life. One of the most advantages of
computer is its incredible speed, which helps human to finish their task in
few seconds.
3. Cost/ Stores huge – Amount of knowledge it’s a coffee cost solution.
Person can save huge data within a coffee budget. Centralized database of
storing information is that the major advantage which will reduce cost.
4. Accuracy – One among the basis advantage of computer is which will
perform not only calculations but also with accuracy.
5. Data Security – Protecting digital data is understood as data security.
6. Task completer – Completes tasks that might be impossible for humans to
complete.
7. Communication – Computer helps the user in better understanding and
communication with the other devices.
8. Productivity – The level of productivity gets automatically doubled as the
computer can done the work at very fast.
9. Reduces work load – Information are often accessed by more than one
person with the necessity for work to be duplicated.
10. Reliability – Computers can perform same sort of work repeatedly
without throwing up errors thanks to tiredness or boredom, which are
quite common among humans.
11. Storage – The pc has an in-built memory where it can store an outsized
amount of knowledge . You can also store data in auxiliary storage devices.

Disadvantages of computers :

1. Virus and hacking attacks – Virus may be a worm and hacking is just an
unauthorized access over computer for a few illicit purpose. Virus can go to
other system from email attachment, viewing an infected website
advertisement, through removable device like USB etc.
2. Online Cyber Crimes – Online cyber-crime means computer and network
may have utilized in order to commit crime. Cyberstalking and fraud are
the points which comes under online cyber-crimes.
3. Reduction employed opportunity – Mainly past generation wasn’t used of
the pc or they need the knowledge of computer they faced an enormous
problem when computer came in field.
4. High cost – Computers are expensive. Even the foremost affordable
computers are still very expensive for the typical person in South Africa.
Since computers empower people.
5. Distractions/disruptions – If you’ve got ever spent hours browsing the
web or watching videos on YouTube, then you recognize how distracting
computers can be! Because of their high entertainment value.
6. Increases waste and impacts the environment – With the speed that
computers and other electronics get replaced, all of the old devices that get
thrown away have a big impact on the environment.
7. Health Problems: – Prolonged use of computers can lead to various health
Hazards. Too much sitting near the screen results in eye strain and drying
up of the eyes. Also, prolonged sitting leads to neck and back problems.
 UNIT III
DATA INFORMATION & TYPES

Data: Data is a raw and unorganized fact that is required to be processed to

make it meaningful. It can be considered as facts and statistics collected
together for reference or analysis. In other words, data is unprocessed form
of information.
Data are individual units of information. In analytical processes, data are
represented by variables. Data is always interpreted, by a human or machine,
to derive meaning. So, data is meaningless. Data contains numbers,
statements, and characters in a raw form.
Information: For data to become information, it must be contextualized,
categorized, calculated, and condensed. The information thus paints a bigger
picture; it is data with relevance and purpose. It may convey a trend in the
environment, or perhaps indicate a pattern of sales for a given period of time.
Data + Meaning = Information

Types of data: Data can be broadly classified as quantitative and qualitative.

Quantitative Data: It answers key questions such as “how many, “how

much” and “how often”. Quantitative data can be expressed as a number or
can be quantified. Simply put, it can be measured by numerical variables.

Continuous data: Continuous data is considered the complete opposite of

discrete data. It’s the type of numerical data that refers to the unspecified
number of possible measurements between two presumed points. The
numbers of continuous data are not always clean and integers, as they are
usually collected from very precise measurements. Measuring a particular
subject is allowing for creating a defined range to collect more data.
Variables in continuous data sets often carry decimal points, with the number
stretching out as far as possible. Typically, it changes over time. It can have
completely different values at different time intervals, which might not always
be whole numbers. Here are some examples:

• The weather temperature;

• The wind speed;
Discrete Data: Discrete data includes discrete variables that are finite,
numeric, countable, and non-negative integers. In many cases, discrete data
can be prefixed with “the number of”. For example:

• The number of students who have attended the class;

• The number of customers who have bought different products;
• The number of groceries people are purchasing every day;
This data type is mainly used for simple statistical analysis because it’s easy
to summarize and compute. In most of the practices, discrete data is displayed
by bar graphs, stem-and-leaf-plot and pie charts.

Quantitative data can be easily represented by a wide variety of graphs and

charts such as line, bar graph, scatter plot etc.
2. Qualitative data
Qualitative data can’t be expressed as a number and can’t be measured.
Qualitative data consist of words, pictures, and symbols, not numbers.
Qualitative data is also called categorical data because the information can
be sorted by category, not by number.
Qualitative data can answer questions such as “how this has happened” or
and “why this has happened”.

Nominal data: Nominal data is the data that can be expressed in words or in
numbers. But the data cannot be given a particular order. E.g. data from
types of colours, types of genders etc. is nominal data.

Ordinal data : Ordinal data is a kind of qualitative data that groups variables
into ordered categories, which have a natural order or rank based on some
hierarchal scale, like from high to low. E.g. Company asking customers for
Feedback, experience, or satisfaction on the scale

• 5 star- Very satisfied

• 4 star- Satisfied

• 3 star- Neutral

• 2 star- Dissatisfied

• 1 stra- Very dissatisfied

INFORMATION SYSTEM – An information system is a set of interrelated

components that works together to collect, process, store and breakdown the
information to support decision making. ”
Following are the DIMENSIONS of information system:
1.ORGANIZATIONAL DIMENSION : Information system are part of
organization. Information system will have the standard operating procedure
and culture of an organization embedded within them. This involves:
a)Functional specialties b)Business processes c)Culture d)Political interest
groups
2.MANAGEMENT DIMENSION : Managers perceive business challenges in
the environment. Information systems supply tools and information needed
by the managers to allocate,coordinate and monitor their work, make
decision,create new products and services and make long range strategic
decision.
Information Systems are classified by organisational levels, mode of data,
processing, system objectives and type of support provided.
Information systems (IS) refer to the collection of hardware, software, data,
people, and procedures used to gather, process, store, and disseminate
information in an organization or business. These systems are designed to
support the decision-making and operational activities of an organization, as
well as to manage and control its resources.
There are several types of information systems, including:

• Transaction processing systems (TPS): These systems are used to

process routine transactions such as orders, payments, and inventory
updates.
• Management information systems (MIS): These systems provide
managers with the information they need to make informed decisions.
They typically produce reports that summarize data from various
sources.
• Decision support systems (DSS): These systems are designed to help
managers make complex decisions. They use advanced analytical
techniques to analyze data and provide recommendations.
 • Executive information systems (EIS): These systems are designed to
provide executives with a high-level view of the organization. They
typically display key performance indicators (KPIs) and other metrics in
a dashboard format.
• Enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems: These systems
integrate all of an organization's business processes and functions,
including finance, human resources, and supply chain management,
into a single system.
Information systems play a critical role in the modern business environment,
and organizations that use them effectively can gain a competitive advantage.
However, implementing and managing information systems can be complex,
and requires careful planning, design, and execution.
MANGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM (MIS)
Management Information System is an implementation of the organizational
systems and procedures. A Management Information System (MIS) is a
computer-based system that provides managers with the tools and
information they need to make effective decisions. An MIS typically gathers
data from various sources, processes and analyzes it, and presents it to
managers in a format that is easy to understand.
The primary purpose of an MIS is to support managerial decision-making. It
provides managers with timely and accurate information about the
organization's performance, which enables them to make informed decisions.
Some common uses of MIS include:
1. Planning: An MIS can help managers develop plans and set goals based
on historical data and trends.
2. Control: An MIS can help managers monitor the organization's
performance and identify areas where improvements are needed.
3. Coordination: An MIS can help managers coordinate the activities of
different departments and ensure that everyone is working towards
common goals.
4. Analysis: An MIS can help managers analyze data and identify trends
and patterns that may not be immediately apparent.
An MIS typically consists of several components, including hardware,
software, data, procedures, and people. These components work together to
collect, process, and present information to managers. Some common types
of software used in MIS include database management systems, reporting
tools, and analytics software.
MIS can be a valuable tool for organizations looking to improve their decision-
making processes. By providing managers with timely and accurate
information, an MIS can help organizations stay competitive and adapt to

changing market conditions.

Management Information System or 'MIS' is a planned system of collecting,
storing, and disseminating data in the form of information needed to carry
out the functions of management.
Objectives of MIS
The goals of an MIS are to implement the organizational structure and
dynamics of the enterprise for the purpose of managing the organization in a
better way and capturing the potential of the information system for
competitive advantage.
Following are the basic objectives of an MIS −
Capturing Data − Capturing contextual data, or operational information that
will contribute in decision making from various internal and external sources
of organization.
Processing Data − The captured data is processed into information needed
for planning, organizing, coordinating, directing and controlling
functionalities at strategic, tactical and operational level. Processing data
means

• making calculations with the data

• sorting data
• classifying data and
• summarizing data
Information Storage − Information or processed data need to be stored for
future use.
Information Retrieval − The system should be able to retrieve this
information from the storage as and when required by various users.
Information Propagation − Information or the finished product of the MIS
should be circulated to its users periodically using the organizational
network.
Characteristics of MIS
Following are the characteristics of an MIS −
It should be based on a long-term planning.
It should provide a holistic view of the dynamics and the structure of the
organization.
It should work as a complete and comprehensive system covering all
interconnecting sub-systems within the organization.
It should be planned in a top-down way, as the decision makers or the
management should actively take part and provide clear direction at the
development stage of the MIS.
It should be based on need of strategic, operational and tactical information
of managers of an organization.
It should also take care of exceptional situations by reporting such situations.
It should be able to make forecasts and estimates, and generate advanced
information, thus providing a competitive advantage. Decision makers can
take actions on the basis of such predictions.
It should create linkage between all sub-systems within the organization, so
that the decision makers can take the right decision based on an integrated
view.
It should allow easy flow of information through various sub-systems, thus
avoiding redundancy and duplicity of data. It should simplify the operations
with as much practicability as possible.
Although the MIS is an integrated, complete system, it should be made in
such a flexible way that it could be easily split into smaller sub-systems as
and when required.
A central database is the backbone of a well-built MIS.

Characteristics of Computerized MIS

Following are the characteristics of a well-designed computerized MIS −

• It should be able to process data accurately and with high speed, using
various techniques like operations research, simulation, heuristics, etc.
• It should be able to collect, organize, manipulate, and update large
amount of raw data of both related and unrelated nature, coming from
various internal and external sources at different periods of time.
 • It should provide real time information on ongoing events without any
delay.
• It should support various output formats and follow latest rules and
regulations in practice.
• It should provide organized and relevant information for all levels of
management: strategic, operational, and tactical.
• It should aim at extreme flexibility in data storage and retrieval.

Transaction Processing system (TPS)

A transaction process system (TPS) is an information processing system for
business transactions involving the collection, modification and retrieval of all
transaction data. Characteristics of a TPS include performance, reliability and
consistency.

Transaction processing system meaning refers to an information processing

system that processes all transactions taking place within the business. Such
transactions include modification, collection, and retrieval of transaction
data. A TPS is highly consistent, efficient, and dependable. It is the same
system that online businesses utilize for e-commerce.

OBJECTIVE OF TPS

• Process data generated by and about transactions

• Maintain a high degree of accuracy

• Ensure data and information integrity and accuracy

• Produce timely documents and reports

• Increase labor efficiency

• Help provide increased and enhanced service

• Help build and maintain customer loyalty

• Achieve competitive advantage

A TPS has the following four components. One must understand them to know
how the system works.

1. Inputs: Inputs are original requests for payments or products outside

parties send to an organization’s TPS. Typically, inputs include bills,
coupons, custom orders, and invoices.
 2. Output: Outputs are the documents a TPS generates after it processes
all inputs, for example, the receipts stored by companies in their
records. Such documents help validate transactions and offer crucial
reference details for tax and multiple official purposes.
3. Storage: A TPS’s storage component is where organizations keep their
output and input data. Some businesses store the documents in a
database. This component ensures the security, accessibility, and
organization of all documents for late use.
4. Processing System: The processing system goes through every input
and establishes a useful output, for example, a receipt. It helps outline
the input data and defines what the outputs must be. One must
remember that the processing time varies depending on the type of TPS
an organization uses.

Features

The following are some crucial features of a TPS:

• Controlled Access: TPSs are powerful business tools. Hence, only

authorized employees can access it. In other words, it allows only
certain employees to control and process transactions.
• Connection With The External Environment: TPS establishes a
relationship with the external environment by distributing information
to suppliers and customers.
• Fast Response: This feature is crucial for a TPS as organizations
cannot afford to keep their customers waiting long before completing a
transaction.
• Inflexibility: A TPS processes all transactions in the same way,
irrespective of the time of day, user, or customer, to maximize efficiency.
• Reliability: A TPS must be reliable as customers do not tolerate errors;
it must have adequate security and safety measures.
• Distribution Of Details To Other Systems: A TPS produces and
distributes information to different systems. For instance, sales
processing systems provide information to general ledger systems.

Types

TPSs are of two types. Let us look at them.

Batch Processing

A TPS interprets batches or sets of data by categorizing items by similarities

via batch processing. This can cause delays as it involves reviewing various
data sets simultaneously. However, the delay is acceptable as the TPS does
not interpret the sets regularly.

Businesses may customize the batches according to their requirement. For

example, a company may want to process its workers’ wages once every two
weeks.
Real-Time Processing

This type of TPS processes transactions with immediate effect, thus

preventing delays. This is an ideal technique when businesses deal with
singular transactions.

Advantages And Disadvantages

Let us look at the benefits and limitations of a TPS:

Advantages

• A TPS helps organizations save funds by minimizing their need to

improve their system or utilize multiple systems to fulfill demand.
• Companies can use a TPS to process transactions accurately and
quickly.
• A TPS automates a significant part of a company’s revenue
management and internal resources. Because of this, employees can
review transactions faster. Moreover, this gives them more time to focus
on critical thinking tasks.
• It allows businesses to carry out operations in multiple segments by
working remotely. This enables organizations to explore new markets
that are full of opportunities.

Disadvantages

• A TPS does not have a standard format.

• Companies have to incur a high set-up cost initially for TPS.
• Sometimes, hardware and software have compatibility issues.
• A TPS may stop working or slow down due to many transactions.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TPS,MIS AND ESS

The TPS is the major source of data for other systems in an organization.
Since they record daily routine transactions in an organization, they aid
managers in monitoring the status of the operations and thus help in
structured decision-making. MIS usually receive and utilize the data they get
from the TPS. The ESS is the major recipient of data from the lower-level
systems which is mainly used in unstructured decision-making.
Office Automation System

Office automation systems (OAS) are systems that are designed to increase
the productivity of clerical workers and knowledge workers and enhance
communication in the workplace.
Example:
- OAS are word processing, desktop publishing, voice mail, e-mail,
videoconferencing, and multimedia systems.

Office automation systems (OAS), also referred to as office information

systems are computer-based information systems whose primary purpose is
to facilitate oral and written communication. Such a system is a set of tools
that gather, process, store, retrieve, and disseminate information between
individual workers, team of workers, and business entities, both inside and
outside the organization.
Typical office automation systems handle and manage documents through
word processing, desktop publishing, document imaging, and digital filing,
scheduling through electronic calendars, and communication through
electronic mail, voice mail, or video conferencing.

Office automation is a way of dealing with tedious and repetitive work with
the help of technology. No sector in an organization is left untouched by
automation.

Digitization has now become an integral part of an organization. The optimal

use of automation strengthens your overall business workflow.

The success rate of running mission-critical processes relies on many

different aspects of your organization, like the workers and procurement,
schedule and budget, reporting and management, network and security, plus
other vital infrastructure.

Office automation benefits in the following ways:

1. Eliminates human error.

2. Saves time and increases work efficiency.
3. Provides timely analysis and reporting of performance metrics.
4. Integrates your office database, and creates a secure, centralized
data access platform.
5. Quick on identifying any potential issues and serves you with a
sound business solution.
6. It gives you an overall perspective of ongoing processes and office
workflow.
7. Reduced labor on a single task, making extra room for undertaking
multiple projects simultaneously.
8. Helps offices with data backup and recovery solutions, and provides
security from any internal or external threats.

Decision Support System (DSS)

A decision support system (DSS) is an information system that aids a

business in decision-making activities that require judgment, determination,
and a sequence of actions. The information system assists the mid- and high-
level management of an organization by analyzing huge volumes of
unstructured data and accumulating information that can help to solve
problems and help in decision-making. A DSS is either human-powered,
automated, or a combination of both.

Objectives of a Decision Support System

A decision support system produces detailed information reports by gathering

and analyzing data. Hence, a DSS is different from a normal operations
application, whose goal is to collect data and not analyze it.

In an organization, a DSS is used by the planning departments – such as the

operations department – which collects data and creates a report that can be
used by managers for decision-making. Mainly, a DSS is used in sales
projection, for inventory and operations-related data, and to present
information to customers in an easy-to-understand manner.

Theoretically, a DSS can be employed in various knowledge domains from an

organization to forest management and the medical field. One of the main
applications of a DSS in an organization is real-time reporting. It can be very
helpful for organizations that take part in just-in-time (JIT) inventory
management.

Components of a Decision Support System

The three main components of a DSS framework are:

1. Model Management System

The model management system S=stores models that managers can use in
their decision-making. The models are used in decision-making regarding the
financial health of the organization and forecasting demand for a good or
service.

2. User Interface

The user interface includes tools that help the end-user of a DSS to navigate
through the system.

3. Knowledge Base

The knowledge base includes information from internal sources (information

collected in a transaction process system) and external sources (newspapers
and online databases).
Types of Decision Support Systems

• Communication-driven: Allows companies to support tasks that

require more than one person to work on the task. It includes integrated
tools such as Microsoft SharePoint Workspace and Google Docs.
• Model-driven: Allows access to and the management of financial,
organizational, and statistical models. Data is collected, and
parameters are determined using the information provided by users.
The information is created into a decision-making model to analyze
situations. An example of a model-driven DSS is Dicodess – an open-
source model-driven DSS.
• Knowledge-driven: Provides factual and specialized solutions to
situations using stored facts, procedures, rules, or interactive decision-
making structures like flowcharts.
• Document-driven: Manages unstructured information in different
electronic formats.
• Data-driven: Helps companies to store and analyze internal and
external data.
Advantages of a Decision Support System

• A decision support system increases the speed and efficiency of

decision-making activities. It is possible, as a DSS can collect and
analyze real-time data.
• It promotes training within the organization, as specific skills must be
developed to implement and run a DSS within an organization.
• It automates monotonous managerial processes, which means more of
the manager’s time can be spent on decision-making.
• It improves interpersonal communication within the organization.
Disadvantages of a Decision Support System

• The cost to develop and implement a DSS is a huge capital investment,

which makes it less accessible to smaller organizations.
• A company can develop a dependence on a DSS, as it is integrated into
daily decision-making processes to improve efficiency and speed.
However, managers tend to rely on the system too much, which takes
away the subjectivity aspect of decision-making.
• A DSS may lead to information overload because an information system
tends to consider all aspects of a problem. It creates a dilemma for end-
users, as they are left with multiple choices.
• Implementation of a DSS can cause fear and backlash from lower-level
employees. Many of them are not comfortable with new technology and
are afraid of losing their jobs to technology.
Expert Systems

An expert system is the highest form of automation of the management

computing office which allows document communication and manipulation.
Decision support systems help with problem-solving by allowing data and
model manipulation. Expert systems go beyond conventional manipulation
of this kind, as they allow experts to 'teach' computers about their fields so
that fewer expert decision-makers can support the system more of the
decision-making process.

Expert systems are one of the most cutting-edge information technology

facts. That is, in some of the most complex and least-understood human
information handling tasks, i.e. decision-making, problem-solving, diagnosis
and learning, they help people. We do this by holding a large amount of factual
information on a subject area, along with lines of reasoning employed in that
field by human experts.

Expert System Components

The key components of Expert System are as followings,

1. UserInterface:
It contains a computerized system between the user and the machine
for friendly communication. This system provides an interface to the
user in a graphical way.
2. InterferenceEngine:
It regains & determines the data process. It performs this task to deduce
new facts which are subsequently used to draw further conclusions.
This component is associated with an expert system as the brain of the
expert system.
3. KnowledgeBase:
This is the most important element of an expert system because it holds
 the expert's knowledge of problem-solving. It is here that the expert's
elicited knowledge is stored. It contains the rules, facts and object
descriptions, etc. The knowledge base is always stored in the data with
the newest expert system products. The knowledgebase information is
all that is needed to understand & formulate the problem, and then
solve it.
4. DataAcquisitionSubsystem:
The specialist has to learn the information reflected in the knowledge
base. Information acquisition software is used by a person who has
problem experience to build, incorporate or modify the base of
knowledge. Potential knowledge sources include human experts,
research reports, textbooks, databases and the experience of the user
himself.

Advantages of Expert System

Expert System (ES) gives clear responses for routine actions, procedures and
activities .

• Expert System (ES) retains significant levels of the knowledge base.

• Expert System (ES) supports organizations to explain the rationale of
their decision-making.

Disadvantages Expert System

• Expert System (ES) doesn't reply creatively as a human expert in

unusual ways.
• Expert System (ES) requires more technical aspects due to this difficult
in use.
• Highly costlier system.

Expert system comprises of four main components that include

• A user interface

• A knowledge base

• An interface engine

• A development Engine

Component of expert system

)

General type of expert system is a computer program, with a set of rules that

analyses information (usually supplied by the user of the system) about

special type of problems, and recommends one or more courses of user action.

The expert system may also provide mathematical analysis of the problem(s).

The expert system utilizes what appears to be reasoning capabilities to reach

conclusions. As a software program, the expert system incorporates a

searching and sorting program with a knowledge database. The particular

searching and sorting program for an expert system is called the inference

engine. The inference engine contains all the systematic processing rules and

logic associated with the problem or task at hand. Mathematical probabilities

often serve as the basis for many expert systems.

The second component the knowledge database stores required factual,

procedural, and experiential information representing expert knowledge.

Through a procedure of knowledge transfer, expertise (or those skills and

knowledge that sustain a much better than average performance) passes from

human expert to knowledge engineer. The knowledge engineer actually

creates and structures the knowledge database by completing certain logical,

physical, and psychosocial tasks. In this reference, expert systems are called
knowledge-based information systems. Through distributing human

expertise, businesses can get success in consistency, accuracy, and reliability

in problem-solving activities. Knowledge base is a natural extension of

database and information and decision support system.

Four interactive roles form the activities of the expert system:

1. Diagnosing

2. Interpreting

3. Predicting

4. Instructing

The systems undertake each of components by applying rules and logic

specified by the human expert during system creation or maintenance or

determined by the system itself based on analysis of historical precedents.

Instruction emerges as a result of the expert system's justification system.

Synthesizing feedback with various combinations of diagnostic, interpretative

and predictive programme, the expert system can become a finely tuned

personal tutor. Computer-aided instruction (CAI) succeeds as a field of inquiry

and development for businesses.

Executive Information System (EIS)

An Executive Information System (EIS) is a kind of decision support

system (DSS) used in organizations to help executives in decision making. It
does so by providing easy access to important data needed in an organization
to achieve strategic goals. An EIS usually has graphical displays on a user-
friendly interface.

Executive information systems can be used for monitoring company

performance in many different types of organizations as well as for identifying
opportunities and problems.

Early executive information systems were developed on mainframe computers

as computer-based programs to provide the description, sales performance
and/or market research data for senior executives of a company. Executives,
however, were not all literate or confident about the computers. Also, EIS data
endorsed only executive-level decisions that did not necessarily support the
entire company or enterprise.

Current EIS data is available on local area networks (LANs) throughout the
company or enterprise, facilitated by personal computers and workstations.
Employees can access company data to help make decisions in their
workplaces, departments, divisions, etc. This enables employees to provide
relevant information and ideas above and below the level of their company.

Executive support systems are intended to be used directly by senior

managers to support unscheduled strategic management decisions. Often
such information is external, unstructured and even uncertain. Often, the
exact scope and context of such information are not known in advance.

This information is based on data,

• Business intelligence
• Financial intelligence
• Data with technology support to analyze

Executive Information System-Key Characteristics

The below mentioned figure describes about key characterisitics of EIS,

• Detailed data – EIS provides absolute data from its existing database.
• Integrate external and internal data – EIS integrates integrate
external and internal data. The external data collected from various
sources.
• Presenting information – EIS represents available data in graphical
form which helps to analyze it easily.

Advantages of EIS

• Trend Analysis
• Improvement of corporate performance in the marketplace
• Development of managerial leadership skills
• Improves decision-making
• Simple to use by senior executives
 • Better reporting method
• Improved office efficiency

Disadvantage of EIS

• Due to technical functions, not easy to use by everyone

• Executives may encounter overload of information
• Difficult to manage database due to the large size of data
• Excessive costs for small business organizations
 UNIT IV

MULTIMEDIA APPLICATIONS IN BUSINESS

Multimedia is any content that uses a combination of different forms such

as text, audio, images, animations, video
and interactive content. Multimedia can be recorded and played, displayed,
interacted with or accessed by information content processing devices, such
as computerized and electronic devices. Multimedia platforms are the spaces
that you can use to make, share, or view this content. This means that
multimedia platforms offer an array of communication and education
applications to business audiences. Business presentations, blogs, wikis
and podcasts are all excellent examples of how multimedia platforms can get
the message across.

In simple words, multimedia means the combination of text, photo, video,

animated videos, and audio sounds.

Applications of multimedia in business:

In business, multimedia is mostly used for marketing such as Logo

designing, graphics designing, mass marketing messages, Create
advertisement videos, Poster on social media’s, digital advertising, printed
advertising, and mobile advertising. You can share your business updates in
the form of photos, Hosting videos and webcasting of your business with
your community. We can create content for the website. One of the most
common uses of multimedia platforms today is to create and deliver effective
business presentations. Although paper handouts, flip-charts, and props
are still used, they can fall short in several respects.

Handouts are typically paper-based and have two major shortcomings. First,
they tend to distract the audience, who try to read ahead instead of listening
to the presenter. Secondly, handouts carry the risk of falling into the wrong
hands, either unauthorized personnel or even competitors. Flip-charts are
also limited in several ways. First, to make an effective flip-chart graphic,
talent and professional tools and materials need to be used. Secondly, they
are cumbersome to transport and somewhat dated in their use. Props are
also considered to be dated and trite for today’s business presentations.

1. Presentations: Multimedia slides created by applications such as

PowerPoint, Keynote, Adobe Presenter, or Prezi can provide the basis
for effective presentations. These applications provide professional
colour, graphic and font capabilities, which help to better express the
presenter’s ideas. They can integrate video, audio and hyperlinks into
the presentation, providing a great vehicle for a successful meeting.
Different people process information in different ways. Multimedia
platforms allow for the same content to be presented in different ways.
Having a combination of text, images, and sound can help emphasize
your message and catch people’s attention at multiple points during
the presentation.
2. Blogs: Another multimedia platform to effectively communicate with
business audiences is the blog. A blog is really a website with journal-
style entries on topics designed to inform and invite comments. Blogs
are used in business to communicate with customers and employees.
For customers, blogs are a great vehicle for market research, public
relations, customer outreach and solicitation of feedback. Here is an
example of a Starbucks Stories blog and a Coca-Cola customer
relations blog that do an outstanding job of customer relations.
3. Wikis: A wiki is a web-based platform that usually serves as a
knowledge base. Wikis are composed of combined knowledge from an
online community of contributors. In a business environment, private
intranets are used to keep wikis within the company firewall as they
are the repository of sensitive company procedures and processes.
 Information such as travel expense policies, HR rules and forms,
internal contact directory, last quarter’s financial press release, etc.
can easily be accessed from all company locations including remote
employee offices.
4. Podcasts: In addition to presentations, blogs and wikis, podcasts are
another multimedia tool used for effective business communication.
Podcasts can take advantage of all the techniques we have discussed
above. Podcasts can be streamed live or can be recorded for repeated
use.

MULTIMEDIA IN ADVERTISING:

Multimedia advertising is the process by which a company conducts

an advertising campaign for its products or services over multiple media
outlets. These media outlets can include, but are not limited to, television,
radio, newspapers, magazines, internet websites and mobile digital devices,
and outdoor advertising like billboards. By using as many outlets that it has
at its disposal, a company can effectively reach all of its targeted audience.
Since it can be a costly process, multimedia advertising must be executed
with the idea of keeping a consistent message across all formats to maximize
the exposure to a company's brand.

Multimedia Ads are designed to combine the company’s own assets like
images, headlines, and descriptions with the power of machine-learning
technology, to deliver the best attention grabbing large visual ads. These ads
can be prominently featured on the right rail (right side of the page) of
facebook, Instagram and other social networking platforms and on google
search result page.

Multimedia applications have revolutionized the way advertising is done.

They allow advertisers to reach their target audience with more impactful
and engaging messages, increasing the chances of conversion and sales.
Here are some common multimedia applications used in advertising:

1. Video Ads: Video ads have become increasingly popular in recent

years. Advertisers can create short, compelling videos to promote their
products or services. Video ads can be used on various platforms like
YouTube, social media, and TV.
2. Interactive Ads: Interactive ads allow users to engage with the ad by
clicking, swiping, or tapping. This type of ad can be used on social
media platforms, websites, and mobile apps.
3. Virtual Reality Ads: Virtual reality ads give users a 360-degree view
of the product or service being advertised. This type of ad is
particularly useful for real estate, travel, and hospitality businesses.
4. Augmented Reality Ads: Augmented reality ads use a mobile device's
camera to overlay digital content onto the real world. This type of ad
can be used for product demonstrations, virtual try-ons, and more.
5. Audio Ads: Audio ads can be used on streaming platforms like
Spotify, Pandora, and iHeartRadio. Advertisers can create engaging
audio ads to reach their target audience while they are listening to
music or podcasts.
6. Banner Ads: Banner ads are the most common type of display ads.
They are static images that are placed on websites, blogs, and mobile
apps. Banner ads can be used for brand awareness, promoting a sale
or event, and more.
7. Creating Animations and engineering sounds of the ads to give it an
appropriate aesthetically appealing look and feel.
8. Editing for television commercials using tools like Apple cut pro
and Adobe Photoshop.
9. Creating 3D animations using software tools like Maya and 3DS
Max.
10. Using inpage software for designing print ads.

USE OF MULTIMEDIA CONTENT IN ADVERTISING:

Multimedia content in advertising is used to grab the attention of the

target audience and convey the advertiser's message in a more engaging
and memorable way. Here are some ways that multimedia content is
used in advertising:

1. Grabbing Attention: Multimedia content, such as videos or interactive

ads, can quickly capture the attention of the viewer. This is particularly
 useful in an era where people are exposed to numerous ads daily.
Advertisers can use multimedia content to break through the clutter and
capture the viewer's attention.

2. Creating Emotional Connections: Multimedia content can be used to

create emotional connections with the viewer. For example, a heart-
warming video that showcases the benefits of a product or service can
create a positive emotional connection with the viewer.

3. Demonstrating Products or Services: Multimedia content, such as

virtual reality or augmented reality, can be used to demonstrate the
features and benefits of a product or service. This can be particularly
effective in industries such as real estate, where prospective buyers can
view properties in a virtual environment.

4. Promoting Brand Awareness: Multimedia content can be used to

promote brand awareness and recognition. For example, a well-crafted
video ad that showcases the brand's unique selling proposition can help
create a lasting impression on the viewer.

5. Driving Sales: Multimedia content can be used to drive sales by

showcasing the benefits of a product or service and providing a clear call
to action. For example, a video ad that showcases a limited-time discount
offer can encourage viewers to take immediate action.

MULTIMEDIA IN MARKETING:

Multimedia applications have become an integral part of marketing in today's

digital age. They enable marketers to create more engaging and interactive
content that can reach a wider audience. Multimedia marketing is a strategy
that combines multiple mediums—such as social media, online platforms,
print advertising, and television advertising—to form one clear, concise image
about a business and their services or products. It uses all types of content,
including mobile marketing, live casting and podcasting, digital photos, and
video and file sharing. Multimedia marketing is invaluable to modern
businesses. Here are some common multimedia applications used in
marketing:

1. Social-media: Social media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram,

Twitter, and LinkedIn are ideal platforms for multimedia marketing.
Marketers can use images, videos, and GIFs to grab the attention of their
target audience and convey their message in a more engaging way.

2. Infographics: Infographics are a visual representation of data and

information. They are a popular form of multimedia content in marketing as
they can quickly convey complex information in a visually appealing and easy-
to-understand format.

3. Podcasts: Podcasts are audio recordings that can be downloaded or

streamed online. They are becoming increasingly popular in marketing as they
provide a unique opportunity to connect with the audience on a more personal
level. Marketers can create podcasts that provide value to the audience while
promoting their brand or product.

4. Webinars: Webinars are online events where a presenter shares

information or educates the audience on a particular topic. They are a popular
form of multimedia content in marketing as they allow marketers to connect
with a large audience in real-time while providing valuable information.

5. Video Marketing: Video marketing has become increasingly popular in

recent years. Marketers can create short, engaging videos that
showcase their product or service and provide value to the audience.
Videos can be used on various platforms, including social media,
YouTube, and the company website.

Advantages of Using Multimedia Marketing:

The average person consumes media at an impressive rate, and not just
across one platform, but across multiple. In earlier days, we were confined
to a smaller pool of marketing platforms, such as the newspaper and radio.
Today, people can gather their information quicky and easily from any
number of sources, whether that’s a televised advertisement, a digital
article, or their Twitter feed.

Here are some other benefits of multimedia marketing:

1. Improves Engagement: Humans are visual creatures, and it shows.

Content with some type of imagery, whether that’s a picture or video,
tends to receive more customer engagement than plain old text. By
incorporating high-quality, informative visuals into your marketing
content, you can improve your engagement and sales rate.

2. Overshadows Competitors: Another benefit of using multimedia for

business marketing is that it can help you overshadow the
competition. By marketing on multiple platforms, you’re showing
customers your business is innovative and adaptable. It can change
its strategies to adapt to shifts in society, and it knows how to
effectively advertise to different demographics. Chances are, your close
competitors are only sticking to a few different mediums for their
advertising. If they’re not using social media but you are, you’ll be one
step ahead of the crowd.

3. Reaches a Wider Audience: If you’re only marketing on one platform,

you’re missing out on potential customers or even on entire
demographics. By extending your reach to other platforms, you’ll be
able to bring in more customers and increase your business’s sales. If
you normally focus on print media, try starting a few social media
accounts. They’re free and easy to run.

With the rise of the World Wide Web, commercial marketing has changed on
multiple levels. Gone are the days when businesses manually promoted
products and services. With the help of modern technologies, the focus is on
providing seamless and omnichannel user experiences across various online
and offline channels.

In commercial multimedia, it is vital to have a brand positioning strategy. To

do that, you need to establish brand assets and use them consistently
across all online and offline channels.

Precisely because of that, you need to sit down with your marketing team or
agency and choose your brand elements, such as typography, font sizes,
logo usage, colour palette, etc. Then, create your brand style guide and
make it available to everyone.

When building your brand style guide, focus on company values and
missions. Make sure brand elements can be used across all multimedia
channels you use.
STEPS TO USE MARKETING:

1. Set Clear Communications Objectives: You have already done

extensive market research and know what your target customers
prefer. Your brand book is thorough, dictating a strict and consistent
use of your brand elements. Next, you want to determine what you are
going to say to your customers. With any multimedia marketing
campaign, it is vital to first set your communication objectives. Once
you determine what action you want users to take, it is easier to tailor
your tone of voice and deliver consistent messaging across all
marketing channels.

2. Be Customer-Centric: Today, one-size-fits-all marketing campaigns

do not resonate with customers. Modern consumers are highly
demanding. No matter if they sign up for your email list, watch your
in-store LED projector or purchase from your online store, they expect
you to provide highly personalized user experiences.

3. Choose your Channels Wisely: You can use multiple channels to

reach your target customers. However, to succeed, you need to pick
the ones that matter to your target audiences.
4. Test your Multimedia Marketing Strategy: With so many advanced
marketing analytics solutions, you can effectively test both traditional
and online marketing campaigns. Analyze all marketing channels you
use to determine their performance.

WEB APPLICATIONS OF MULTIMEDIA:

Web applications of multimedia refer to the use of multimedia content on

websites and web-based applications.

Web application of Multimedia includes computerized method of presenting

information combining textual data, audio, visuals (video), graphics and animations.
For examples: E-Mail, Yahoo Messenger, Video Conferencing, and Multimedia
Message Service (MMS).
Multimedia as name suggests is the combination of Multi and Media that is many
types of media (hardware/software) used for communication of information.
Here are some common web applications of multimedia:

1. Website Design: Multimedia elements such as images, videos, and

animations are commonly used in website design to create a visually
appealing and engaging user experience.

2. E-Learning: Multimedia is widely used in e-learning to create interactive

and engaging courses. E-learning platforms can include multimedia elements
such as videos, animations, infographics, and interactive quizzes to make
learning more engaging and effective.

3. Online Gaming: Online gaming relies heavily on multimedia elements such

as graphics, sound, and video to create an immersive experience for the user.
Online games can include 3D graphics, realistic sound effects, and interactive
gameplay to engage the user and keep them entertained.

4. Digital Marketing: Multimedia content such as videos, images, and

infographics are widely used in digital marketing campaigns. Marketers can
create engaging and visually appealing multimedia content to promote their
brand or product and reach a wider audience through social media, email
marketing, and other digital channels.

5. Virtual and Augmented Reality: Virtual and augmented reality

technologies are increasingly being used on the web. Web-based virtual and
augmented reality applications can provide users with an immersive
experience without requiring them to download an app or software.

Multimedia has many web applications, including website design, e-learning,

online gaming, digital marketing, and virtual and augmented reality. Web
developers and marketers should carefully consider their target audience and
goals when selecting multimedia elements for their web applications.

MULTIMEDIA TOOLS TECHNOLOGIES:

There are various tools and technologies available for creating and working
with multimedia.

Here are some of the most commonly used tools and technologies for
multimedia:
1. Adobe Creative Cloud: Adobe Creative Cloud is a suite of applications that
includes tools for creating and editing multimedia content such as Photoshop,
Illustrator, Premiere Pro, After Effects, and Audition.

2. Canva: Canva is a popular web-based design tool that allows users to

create graphics, posters, presentations, and other visual content. It includes
a library of templates, stock images, and other design elements that can be
used to create professional-looking designs.

3. Unity: Unity is a game engine that can be used to create 3D and 2D games
and interactive experiences. It includes tools for creating graphics,
animations, and sound effects, as well as a scripting language for creating
interactive gameplay.

4. HTML5: HTML5 is a markup language used for creating web content,

including multimedia. HTML5 includes new features that allow for the
creation of multimedia content such as video and audio, without the need for
plugins such as Flash.

5. Hootsuite: Hootsuite is a social media management tool that can be used

to schedule and publish multimedia content on social media platforms such
as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram.

6. Final Cut Pro: Final Cut Pro is a professional video editing software used
by filmmakers, video editors, and other multimedia professionals. It includes
advanced editing tools, color grading, and audio mixing features.

7. Maya: Maya is a 3D modeling and animation software used in the film,

television, and video game industries. It includes tools for creating realistic
3D graphics and animations.

The choice of tool or technology depends on the type of multimedia content

being created, the intended audience, and the budget and skill level of the
creator or team.