ANCIENT INDIA

I. Ancient India : The beginning - 647 AD ( From Lithic(stone) period to

death of Harsha):
1. Pre- Historic Period : 30L BC - 600BC
2. Indus Civilization: 2500BC - 1750BC
3. Vedic Culture: 1500 BC - 600BC
4. Mahajanapada Period : 600 BC - 322BC
5. Maurya Period : 322 BC - 185 BC
6. Post- Maurya/Pre Gupta Period : 185BC -319BC
7. Gupta Period: 319 AD - 550 AD
8. Post Gupta /Harshavardhana period : 550 AD - 647 AD

II . Medieval India: 647 - 1757( from death of Harsha to Battle of Plassey):

1. Early Medieval period : 647 - 1206
2. Sultanate period : 1206 - 1526
3. Mughal period : 1526 - 1707

III . Modern India : 1757 - 1990( From battle of Plassey to Globalization):

• 1st Phase : The Mercantile Phase (1757 - 1813 = Ring Fence policy) =Monapoly of
Trade & Direct Appropriation of Revenue
• 2nd Phase : The Industrial Phase( 1813- 1858 = Subordinate Isolation Policy ) =
Period of LassezFair i.e., Free trade
• 3rd Phase : The Financial Phase (1860(Upto 1935 Subordinate Union policy)
- (1935- 47 Equal Federation Policy)1947 ) = Finance Imperialism (Period of
British capital investment in India)

IV. National Movement:

· 1st Phase of Congress : Moderate Phase (1885 - 1905)
· 2nd Phase of Congress : Extremist Phase (1905 - 1917)
· 3rd Phase of Congress : Gandhian Era(1917 - 1947)
 Historical Sources
* The sources that give information about the events of past time are known as
'Historical Sources'.

* There are two types of historical sources-

I. Literary Sources
II. Archaeological Sources.
* Compared to Literary sources Archeological sources are believed to be more reliable,
because it is almost impossible to change them. That's why, as historical evidence,
the archaeological sources take precedence over the literary sources.

* The Archeological sources are more important to the study of Ancient India.

Literary Sources
* Literary sources are divided into two categories
A. Indigenous & B. Foreign Sources

A. Indigenous Sources:
* Indigenous sources are divided into two categories—

i) Religious: Under Religious texts Brahmanic (Hindu) texts, Buddhist texts and
Jain texts are included.

ii) Secular: Under Secular texts Historical texts, Semi-Historical texts, Biographical
texts etc are included.
1) Brahmanic (Hindu) Texts: Under Brahmanic (Hindu) texts Shruti &
Smriti texts are included.
1. Shruti Texts:Samhitas or Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas & Upanishads.
* There are four Samhitas or Vedas-Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda & Atharva Veda.
- Rig Veda - 1,500 BC-1,000 BC - Sapta Saindhav region . Yajur, Sam & Atharva veda =
1,100 BC-600 BC = Kuru-Panchala region - Vedas throw more light on religious,
social & economic life and less light on political life of the Aryans.
- From point of view of history Rig Veda & Atharva Veda have more importance than
Yajur Veda & Sama Veda.
* The composing time of Brahmanas is 1,000 BC to 600 BC.
- Shatapatha Brahmana throws light on Gandhar, Shalya, Kekaya etc of NorthWest
region and Kuru- Panchala, Kosala, Videha states of East region of India. * The
composing time of Aranyakas is 1,000 BC to 600 BC. The historical importance of
Aranyakas is negligible.
* The composing time of Upanishads is 1,000 BC to 500 BC. The best learnings of
Upanishads is 'Para-vidya' i.e, Spiritual learning. The aim of life is merging the
individual's soul into world's soul which is known as Para-vidya * The combined study
of Brahmanas & Upanishads provides historical information from king Parikshit to
king Bimbisar.
2. Smriti Texts: Vedangas or Sutras, Smrities, Epics (Ramayana & Mahabharata) and
Puranas.
* The composing time of Vedangas is 600 BC to 200 AD. The Vedangas throw light on
ancient Indian history, civilization & culture.
* The composing time of Smritis is 600 BC to 600 AD. The Smritis provide the
knowledge of social organisations, their theories, customs, king's rights & duties,
king's relation with their subjects, etc. * The composing time of Epics (Ramayana and
Mahabharata) is 400 BC to 400 AD.

- The Ramayana (Valmiki) throws light on political, social and religious conditions of
India of that time. This book provides information about the origin & development of
Janapadas. Besides this, it mentions Yavanas (Greeks) & Sakas (Scythians).

- The Mahabharata (Ved Vyas) throws light on political, social & religious conditions of
India of that time. It is the extensive form of Mahabharata war which is fought around
950 BC between the Kauravas & Pandavas. The Mahabharata claims: "Yann Bharate
Tann Bharate" i.e, which is not in 'Mahabharata' that is not found in Bharat (India).
Girivraja, the capital of Magadha is mentioned in it.
- The Mahabharata informs us that the Panchala state was in existence from the
time of Mahabharata. Besides this, it mentions Huns along with Yavanas & Sakas.
* The composing time of Puranas is 400 BC to 400 AD.
- The Puranas throw light on the history of India from very beginning to Gupta period.
- Generally Purans have 5 segments
Sarga (Creation of the Universe),
Pratisarga (Re-creation),
Vamsa (Genealogy of the gods and the sages),
Manvantar (Epochs of Manu)
Vansanucharitam (narratives of ancient dynasties) in which only Vansanucharitam is
important from point of view of history.
- Unfortunately Vansanucharitam are not found in every Puranas. The only
Puranas that have
Vansanucharitams are Matsya, Bhagawat, Vishnu, Vayu, Brahma, Bhavishya & Garud
Puran.
- Garud Puran 'has genealogies of Purava, Ikshwaku & Brihadrath dynasties, but its
date is not definite.

2) Buddhist Texts:
* The Buddhist texts are divided into two categories
1. Pali texts
2. Anupali Texts.
* Among Pali texts 'Tripitaka', 'Deep Vansha' &
'Mahavansha', 'Milindpannaho' etc are important texts.

- The 'Tripitaka' is the earliest and the most important texts among Pali Texts.
- The Tripitaka' comprises
1. 'Vinaya Pitaka',
2. 'Sutta Pitaka' &
3. 'Abhidhamma Pitaka'.
- The 'Vinaya Pitaka' & the 'Sutta Pitaka' were compiled in the First Buddhist Council
(483 BC) held in Rajagriha (Bihar) while the 'Abhidhamma Pitaka' was compiled in the
 third Buddhist Council (250 BC) held in Pataliputra (Bihar). - The 'Tripitaka' throws
light on social and religious life of India of that time i.e; the centuries before Christ.

- Vinaya Pitaka' contains disciplinary rules & regulations for leading a monastic life.

- 'Sutta Pitaka' is the largest and the most important text among Tripitaka.
- 'Ambattha Sutta' of Digh Nikaya of Sutta Pitaka contains the description of the
special pride of Kshatriya for blood-purity.
- 'Anguttara Nikaya' of Sutta Pitaka contains the list of 16 Mahajanapadas. - Jataka' of
Khuddaka Nikaya of Sutta Pitaka contains 549 folk tales of the previous births of
Gautama Buddha.

- The compilation of 'Jataka' had begun in 1st Century BC.This fact is very clear from
the scenaries curved on the railings of Bahrauta & Sanchi Stupas. - The verse part of
Jataka is older than the prose part. The compilation of the verse part of the Jataka
had been completed up to 2nd Century AD. - Though Jataka' is a religious & cultural
text, it throws suffice light on social & economic conditions of that time.

- 'Abhidhamma Pitaka' deals with the doctrines of the Buddha in scholastic manner.

* 'Deep Vansha' (4th Century AD) & 'Maha Vansha' (5th Century AD) had been
compiled in Sri Lanka. Though these texts contain the history of Sri Lanka, they throw
in light on ancient Indian history, especially these are very helpful in constructing
Mauryan history.

* Originally 'Milindpannaho' i.e, Questions of Milind is a dialogue between Greek

king Milind (identified as Menander, the Indo-Greek ruler) and Buddhist monk
Nagasena (identified as Nagarjuna) on philosophical matter, but it throws suffice light
on religious, social & economic life of North-West India of 1st - 2nd century AD.
- The political condition of that time is mentioned occasionally in it.
- The foreign trade of India is lively described in it.

* Among Anupali Texts (i.e; Sanskrit Texts & other texts) 'Divyavadan',
'Aryamanjushrimulkalpa', 'Lalit Vistar' etc. are important texts.

- 'Divyavadan' contains the stories of later Mauryan kings & Shunga king (Pushyamitra
Shunga) and life of Gautam Buddha.
- Political events of Pre-Mauryan period to Vardhana period
(Harshavardhana) are described occasionally in 'Aryamanjushrimulkalpa', - Lalit
Vistar' contains the acts of Gautama Buddha along with religious and social conditions
of that time.

3) Jain Texts:
* The Jain Texts throw light on religious & social conditions of that time.
* The jain texts were eventually compiled in 6th century AD in 2nd Jain Mahasabha
held at Vallabhi in Gujarat.

* Among the Jain texts 12 Angas are important.

* The 'Acharanga Sutra' contains disciplinary rules & regulations for Jain monks.
* 'Bhagawati Sutra' throws light on the life of Mahavira and contains the list of 16
Mahajanapadas.
* 'Namadhamma Katha Sutra' contains the preachings of Mahavira.
* 'Antagada-dasao' & Anutarovavaiydasao' contain life stories of famous Jain monks.
* 'Vivagasuyam Sutra' contains discussion on Karma Phala i.e. fruits of actions.
* Bhadrabahu Charita' contains the life-sketch of Jain Acharya Bhadrabahu alongwith
the glimpses of the later the life of Mauryan king Chandragupta Maurya.

* From point of view of history, the 'Parishishtaparva' written by Jain Acharya

Hemchandra has the most important place among Jain Texts.

4) Historical Texts:
* Although there is no such text of ancient India that can be properly called historical
text, because almost every text had been written in a literary or religious colour, but
there are some certain texts in which some historical material are available in a
dispersed manner.

* Kautilya's 'Arthashashtra' was compiled in 4th century BC. It gives not only detailed
information about the system of administration, but also an idea of the social and
religious life of the people of that time. It is comparable with Aristotle's 'Politics' and
Machiavelli's 'Prince'.
* Kamandaka's 'Neetisar' (4th-6th century AD) throws some light on the monarchy of
Gupta Period.
* Shukra's 'Shukraneetisar' throws some light on the monarchy of that time.
* Somdev Suri's 'Neetisar Neetivakyamrita' gives information about state machinary of
that time.

* Brihaspati's 'Brahasapatya Arthashastra' is a text in Kautilya's 'Arthashashtra'

tradition.

* The best example of the earliest historical writing is provided by

'Rajatarangini' (i.e. the stream of kings) written by Kalhana in the 12th century AD.
- It is a string of biographies of the kings of Kashmir.
- It may be the first work to possess several characteristics of historical writing as it is
understood today.
- In the words of eminent historian R.C. Majumdar: "There is only one historical work,
properly so called, written by Kalhana in 12th Century A.D. This is 'Rajatarangini'
which deals
with the history of Kashmir from the earliest times up to the date of composition of
that work (i.e; 1148-50 AD). It assumes, however, a regular historical form only from
the 7th Century A.D. the earlier chapter being a medley of confused traditions and
fanciful imaginations".

* The chronicles of Gujarat-Prabandh (Rajashekhara), 'Hammir Mad Mardan' (Jai Singh)

"Tejpal Prashasti' (Vastupal), 'Prabandha Chintamani' (Meruttung) etc throw light on
the history of Gujarat.

* The most remarkable text among the chronicles of Sindh is 'Chachanama'.

- In 8th Century AD Qazi Ishamail, qazi of Alor appointed by Muhammad Bin
Qasim, wrote a
book namely 'Tarikh-i-Sind-wa-Hind' (i.e., History of Sind or Hind) in Arabic language
which is translated in Persian language by the name of 'Chachanama' by Ali Bin Hamid
Kufi in 1216 A.D. The 'Chachanama' is also known as 'Fatehnama-i-Sindh'. It provides
detailed description of Muhammad Bin Qasim's Sindh conquest (711-12 AD)
5) Semi-Historical Texts:
* Though Panini's 'Ashtadhyayi' is a grammar book, it throws suffice light on political
condition of Pre- Maurya & Maurya period.

* Sage Gargi's 'Gargi Samhita' is a part of 'Yug Puran'. It is basically a Jyotish text but it
also mentions Greek and Scythian invasions.

* Patanjali's 'Mahabhashya' is basically a commentry book on Panini's 'Ashtadhyayi',

but it also provide sample historical material regarding that time.

* Kalidasa's 'Malvikagnimitra' is a play (drama). It is the first play written by him. It

provides information about political condition of Shunga dynasty and previous royal
dynasties. It is called the mirror of interior life of royal dynasties.

* Vishakhadatta's 'Mudrarakshasa' is basically a drama, but it contains the description

of Chandragupta Maurya, his prime minister Chanakya and some contemporary
kings. It describes how Chandragupta Maurya got Chanakya's assistance and
overthrow the Nandas. Besides this, it gives an excellent account of the prevailling
socio-economic conditions of that time.

6) Biographical Texts:
* Biographical writers took lives of their royal patrons as the theme of their literary
works. So the biographical texts cannot be regarded as genuine history although
they contain some valuable historical information. Their main object was the
glorification of the king rather than giving a real picture of his life and times. That's
why these are called 'Prashasti Kavya' i.e eulogy verse.
* Banabhatta composed 'Harsha Charita' based on the life of his patron king
Harshavardhana in 620 AD. It is the earliest available biographical text in India. It is
written in Sanskrit language. It contains 8 Uchchhawas i.e. chapters. The first 3 chapters
contain the autobiography of Banabhatta and rest 5 chapters contain the life-story of
Harshavardhana. Though highly exaggerated, it gives us excellent idea of court life
under Harshavardhana and the social and religious life in his time.

* Vakpatiraj's 'Gaudvaho' (GaudVadhah) contains detailed description of victories

of Yashovarmana, the Chandra ruler of Kannauj in which the most important event
 described is killing (Vadha) of.Gaud king by King of Kannauj, Yashovarmana. *
Padmagupta Parimal's 'Navasahasanka Charita' describes the life-story of Vakpati
Munj, the Paramara ruler of Malwa * Ballal's 'Bhoja Prabandha' contains the life-story
of Bhoja, the Paramara ruler of Malwa,
* Bilhana's Vikramanka Charita' recounts the
achievements of his patron Vikramaditya-VI (Vikramanka), the
Chalukya King of Kalyani. It describes the circumstances in which
Vikramaditya-VI (Vikramanka) ascended the throne of Kalyani.
* Sandhyakar Nandin's 'Ramcharita' throws light on the history of Pala dynasty. Nandin
called himself 'Valmiki of Kali Yuga' and his patron Rampala as 'Rama'.

* Nandin wrote this book in an extraordinary style it simultaneously narrates the story
of Rama, the hero of 'Ramayana' and Rampala, the Pala king. Such style of verse
(poetry) is known as 'Dvvasraya Kavya' i.e. a verse with two bases (meanings).

* Hemachandra's Sanskrit-Prakrit text 'Kumarpala

Charita' describes Kumarapala, the Chauluhya Solanki ruler of Anihalwara. It is also a
'Dvyasraya Kavya'. It simultaneously narrates the story of the king Kumarapala and
rules of Sanskrit & Prakrit grammar.

* Jay Singh Suri's 'Kumarpala Bhupala Charita' describes Kumarpala, the Chaulukya
ruler of Anihalwara.

* Anand Bhatt's 'Ballalcharita' describes the history of Ballal Sena, the Sena ruler of
Bengal.
Chandbardai was a court poet and friend of Prithwiraja- III, the Chauhan ruler of
Shakambhari. He wrote 'Prithwiraja Raso'; the first epic of Hindi language. Prithwiraja
Raso' describes the life-account of Prithwiraja-III and conflict between Prithwiraja-III &
Muhammad Ghori.

* Jayanak's 'Prithwiraja Vijaya' contains poetic description of struggles of Prithwiraja-III,

the Chauhan ruler.

* Jayachandra's 'Hammir Kavya' describes the life-account of Hammir Dev, the

Chauhan ruler of Ranathambhore.
* Rajanath-II's 'Achyutarajabhyudaya' throws light on Achyutadeva Ray, the Tuluva
ruler of Vijayanagar.
Court Poets & Their Patron Kings(Dynasty) :

1. Banabhatta : Harshavardhana: 606-47 (Vardhana)

2. Vakpatiraja : Yashovarmana: 700-40 (Chandra)
3. Padmagupta Parimal : Vakpatimunj: 973-96 (Parmara)
4. Vallal : Bhoja: 1010-55 (Parmara)
5. Bilhana : Vikramaditya-VI 1076-1126 (Chalukya)
6. Sandhyakar Nandin : Ramapala: 1077-1120 (Pala)
7. Hemchandra : Kumarpala: 1088-1172 (Chaulukya/Solanki)
8. Jai Singh Suri : Kumar Pala: 1088-1172 (Chaulukya/Solanki)
9. Anand Bhatta : Balladsena: 1158-78 (Sena)
10. Chandbardai : Prithwiraja-III: 1178-92 (Chauhana)
11. Jayanak : Prithviraja-III: 1178-92 (Chauhana)
12. Jaychandra : Hammirdeva: 1283-1301 (Chauhana)
13. Rajanath-II : Achyutadeva Ray: 1529-42 (Tuluva)

B. Foreign Sources
* Foreign sources can be divided into four categories : Greek-Roman, Chinese, Tibetan
& Arabian (Arab).

1) Greek Writers:
* It is remarkable that Alexander's invasions find no mention in Indian sources and it is
totally on the basis of the Greek sources that we have to reconstruct the history of
his Indian invasions.
* The names of Greek writers of Pre-Alexandrian time are - Scylax, Hecataeus Milletus,
Herodotus & Ktesias.
* Scylax (6th Century BC) was the first Greek writer who wrote about India. He was the
Greek soldier of king Darius-I (550 BC-486 BC) of Persia (Iran). He was sent by the
king to discover the course of Indus river. He wrote his travel account but his
knowledge was limited to Indus valley.

* Hecataeus Milletus (549 BC-496 BC) was a Greek historian and geographer.
His knowledge about India was limited to Indus Valley.

* Herodotus (484 BC-425 BC) is called 'the father of history'. He, in his famous text
'Historics', gives us suffice information about Persian (Iranian) and Greek invasion
and Indo-Persian/Iranian relations. - Although he never visited India, he tells us about
the political condition of North-West India in his time.
- The land region of Northern India, 20th satrapy (i.e. province) of Darius's empire,
paid him the huge annual tribute of 360 talents gold dust. - He writes that Indians
wear clothes, made of wool, which grows on tree. It proves that, long before the
christian era, Indians were familiar with the cultivation of cotton, and made use of the
cotton fibre to weave their clothes when Greeks knew nothing about it.

* Ktesias (416 BC-398 BC) was a Greek physician at the court of Persian emperor
Artaxaxes Mhemon. He had every opportunity of knowing the stories about India; but
he has left an account titled 'Persica' which is full of lies and exaggerations. It has
survived only in the form of an abridgement.
The names of Greek writers of Alexandrian time are-Nearchus, Onesicritus &
Aristobulus.

* Nearchus was the classmate and Admiral of navel fleet of Alexander the Great.
He was sent by Alexander to discover the coastal area between Persian Gulf and
Indus.
- His original book has been lost, but the later writers like Strabo, Arrian etc.
quoted passages from the original book.
HS - 2
* Onesicritus was the Pilot of naval fleet of Alexander the Great. He took part in the
expedition of Nearchus and wrote a book about India. He also wrote the biography
of Alexander the Great.

* Aristobulus was a geographer. Alexander gave him some responsibilities.

He described his own experiences in the book 'the History of War'. Later
Greek writer Arrian has utilised his account in the 'Anabasis of Alexander'.
The names of Greek writers of Post - Alexandarian time are -
Megasthenese, Deimachus, Dionysios, Patrocles,Timosthene, Aelian, Diodorus,
Strabo, Plutarch, anonymous Greek writer of 'Periplus', Arrian & Kosmos/Cosmas
Indicopleustes.

* Megasthenese (350 BC-290 BC) was a Greek ambassador (envoy) sent by

Seleucus Nicator, the Greek king of Persia (Iran) & Babylonia, to the court of
Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of Maurya Dynasty where he resided up to 6 years
(302 BC-296 BC).
- He wrote a book on India called 'Indica'.
- The original book has been lost but later writers like Diodorus, Strabo, Pliny (Roman),
Arrian, Justin etc preserved the passages from the original book and those passages
have been collected
to give an idea as to what Megasthenese thought about India. Those passage have
been translated into English by McCrindle.
- The information given by Megasthenese is quite detailed on certain points.
- Among other things, he described- (a) The geographical features of India,
(b) The fertility of the country,
(c) Patliputra, the capital of Chandragupta Maurya,
(d) The absence of slavery in India,
(e) The 7 castes of the Indians,
(f) The rare occurance of theft in their country,
(g) Indian Philosophers, and
(h) The part played by Dionysus and Herakles in India.

- Scholars have differed in their estimate of Megasthenese's veracity (truthfulness).

- 'Indica' was the first book through which ancient Europe knew about India.
- Megasthenese was the first ambassador who is mentioned in Indian history, *
Deimachus was a Greek ambassador sent by Antiochus-I, the ruler of Syria, to the
court of Bindusara, the second Maurayan ruler. His original work has been lost, but
later writers preserved passages from the original book. *Dionysios was a Greek
ambassadorsentby Philadelphus (Ptolemy-II), the ruler of Egypt, to the court of
Bindusara, the second Mauryan ruler. His original book is lost, only passages have
survived in the writing of later Greek writers.

* Patrocles (250 BC) was a Greek governor of the Province that lies between Caspian
Sea & Indus river under the rulership of Seleucus & Antiochus-I. He described India
and other countries in his book.

* Timosthene was the naval admiral of Philadelphus (Ptolemy-II).

* Aelian (100 BC) was a Greek historian. His book 'A Collection of
Miscellaneous History' contains the description of North-West Province.

* Diodorus (died-36 BC) was a famous Greek historian. He is known for 'Bibliotheca
Historica'. He wrote about India on the basis of description found in Megasthenese.
His book gives suffice information regarding Alexander's invasion and India.

* Strabo (64 BC-19 BC) was a Greek historian and geographer. His text 'Geographia'
has an important place in History along with Geography. He described geographical
condition alongwith social, religious, economic conditions of India. He mentions the
marital relationship between Seleucus Nicator & Sandrokottus (identified as
Chandragupta Maurya). He mentions women bodyguards of Sandrokottus
(Chandragupta Maurya).

* Plutarch (45-125 AD)'s book contains the description of the life of

Alexander the Great and general introduction of India. He wrote: "When
Androkottus (identified as Chandragupta Maurya) was young, he met Alexander the
Great".
* The anonymous Greek writer of Periplus of the Erythrean Sea/Periphus Maris
Erythraei' i.e, sailing
around the Red Sea (80-115 AD) made a voyage to the Indian coast about 80 AD and
he has left a record of its ports, harbours and merchandise.
- 'Periplus' gives an idea of the maritime activities of ancient Indians.

- This text is known as 'a guide of sea trade'.

- The unknown author of the 'Periplus' claims that Hippalus, a mariner, was
knowledgable about the monsoon winds that shorten the trip from Red Sea to India
and India to the Red Sea.
- It is an important foreign source for Sangam period of South India. - It contains the
detailed description of trade between Roman empire and the regions of South India
during 1st Century AD.

* Arrian (130-172 AD) was a famous Greek historian. He wrote two books 'Indica' &
'Anabasis of Alexander' (history of Alexander's compaigns). The account of Arrian has
been regarded as the most reliable and authentic account among the accounts of
Greek writers concerned with India.
- In this account Chandragupta Maurya is mentioned as Androkottus.
* Kosmos/Cosmos Indicopleustes (537-547 AD) was a Greek merchant who later
turned to a Buddhist monk.

- He sailed down Mediterranian Sea, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Sri Lanka & India during
537-547 AD. Around 550 AD he wrote 'Christian Topography of the Universe' which
contains valuable information about trade between India with Sri Lanka and other
countries situated in Western Sea coast.

2) Roman/Latin Writers:
* Pliny (23-99 AD): He was a Roman historian.
- He was the contemporary of Kushana ruler Kanishka.
- He wrote an encyclopedic text Naturulis Historica' i.e. Natural History. He gives the
descriptions of India which is based on informations received from Greeks and other
Western merchants.
- His text contains the detailed description about
animals, plants and minerals of India alongwith the trade relation between Rome (Italy)
and India.

* Curtius (1st Century AD): He was a Roman historian.

- He was the contemporary of Roman emperor Claudius (41-54 AD).
- His book contains suffice information about Alexander the Great.

* Ptolemy (2nd Century AD) He was a Roman geographer & historian. - His popular
text "Geography contains information about ancient geography and trade between
India and Rome (Italy).

* Justin (2nd Century AD): He was a Roman historian.

- He wrote a text namely 'Epitome' ie, summary of a written work.
- His text is based on Greek accounts. His text contains the description of the
Indian campaign of Alexander the Great alongwith power-seizing by Chandragupta
Maurya.
- Justin wrote about the role of Chandragupta Maurya in uprooting Greek power from
North-West India: "India after the death of Alexander had shaken, as it were, the
yoke of
servitude from its neck and put his governors to death. The author of this liberation
was Sandrocottus". (Sandrocottus is identified as Chandragupta Maurya)

3) Chinese Writers:
* Suma Chien (145 BC-85 BC) was the first Chinese writer who wrote about India in his
text 'Historical Memoirs'.

* Pan Kou & Fanye (378-445 AD):

- 'Annals of the Earlier. Hans 'written by Pan Kou & 'Annals of the Later Hans' written
by Fanye contain valuable information about Kushan rulers Kujul Kadphises and Vem
Kadphises.

* Fa-hien (399-414 AD) came to India in 399 AD during the reign of Gupta ruler
Chandragupta-II 'Vikramaditya'.
- He stayed in India for 15-16 years (399-414). He came to India basically to cover
an original copy of 'Vinaya Pitaka'. - After return to China he wrote his travel account
namely 'Fo-Kyuo-Ki'i.e Records of Buddhist Countries.
- This book is still available in the original form. It throws suffice light on history,
civilization & culture of Gupta period. It is written from Buddhist (religious) point of
view, so there is a lack of scientific temper.

* Sung Yun (518-22 AD) came to India in quest of Buddhist texts and return to
China with 170 Mahayana texts.

* Hiuen Tsang (629-45 AD) came to India in 629 AD in the reign of

Harshavardhana, the ruler of Vardhana dynasty.
- He stayed in India for 13-14 years (629-45).

- He studied Yogachar doctrine in Nalanda Mahavihara for 5 years.

- In 641 AD he reached Kanchi in the reign
of Narsingh Varmana-I 'Mammal', the Pallava ruler of Kanchi and stayed there for a
long time.
- He wrote a travel account 'Si-Yu-Ki' (i.e, Buddhist Records of the Western World).
The account contains detailed information about history and culture of the country,
especially the life of Harshavardhana and his activities, administration, religious,
educational system of that time. It is truely a gazetteer. His account is really a store-
house of informations that helps to connect the descrete sequences of historic
events of India.
- He also writes about the Huna ruler Mihirkula (a contemporary of Gupta ruler
Baladitya, Budhagupta and some others who patronized the Nalanda Mahavihara).
- He is known as the 'King or Prince of Pilgrims'.

* Hwui Li wrote a biography of his friend Hiuen Tsang namely 'life of Hiuen Tsang'. It
throws some light on Indian history.

*Itsing (673-95 AD) came to India through a sea route via Sumatra. He stayed in
Nalanda Mahavihara for 10 years and studied Sanskrit texts and Buddhist texts. He
wrote a travel account 'A Record of the Buddhistic Religion as Practised in India and
Malay Archipelago'. This text does not give much information about political history of
India, but it contains precious information about Sanskrit literature and history of
Buddhist religion.
- Itsing's 'Autobiographies of Famous Buddhist Monks' contains detailed
information about social, economic and cultural life of India of that time.
- Itsing refers to Sri gupta, who is generally believed to have been the first ruler of
the Gupta dynasty.

* Hui-Cho (727 AD) refers to the doings of Muktapida of Kashmir and

Yashovarmana of Kannauj.
* Matwa Lin (13th Century AD) gives the information about a eastern campaign of
Harshavardhana, the Vardhana ruler.

* Mohaan (15th Century AD) came to India in 1406 AD. He visited Bengal. He was
very impressed to see such an enriched region of India. He praised the manufactured
things of Bengal.

4) Tibetan Writers:
* Taranath (12th Century AD) was a popular Tibetan historian. He wrote 'Kangyur'
& 'Tangyur'. These texts give us information about ancient period of India.

* Dharmaswamy (13th Century AD) came to India and studied in Nalanda

Mahavihara for 3 years (1234-36 AD).

5) Arabian/Arab Writers:
* Sulaiman (851 AD) was an Arab merchant. He was the first Arab traveller whose
travel account is available.
- He sailed to all coastal areas of India.
- He came to India in 851 AD during the reign of the Pratihar king Mihir Bhoja-I (836-
85 AD). He stayed at the court of Amoghavarsha (815-77 AD), the Rashtrakuta ruler
and was very impressed with his might and prosperity.
- He wrote a book namely 'Silsila--ut-Tawarikh'. He described the conditions of earlier
half of 9th Century.
- He gives an interesting account of Pala, Pratihara & Rashtrakuta kings.
- He called the Pala empire 'Ruhama' (i.e, Dharma
or Dharmapala).
- He called the Gurjar Pratihara 'Jurz'.He wrote that the Jurz had the finest horses.
- He called the king of Deccan 'Balhara' (identified as Vallabharaja).

- He called Hind Mahasagar (Indian Ocean) 'Dariya-i-Hargand'.

* Ibn Khurdadhbih (864 AD) was an Arab geographer.

- He wrote a book namely 'Kitab-al-Masalik-wa-. Mamalik' i.e. the Book
of Roads and Kingdoms. In
this book he gives important information about inter-communication system of the
9th Century.
- He was the first person among Arab geographers who speaks about
the seven castes of Hindus.

* Al Biladuri (died-892 AD) wrote 'Futuh-ul-Buldan'. It describes the Sindh conquest by

Arabs (Muhammad bin Qasim).

* Al Masudi (died-956 AD) was an Arab traveller.

- He visited India in 915 AD during the reign of Gurjar Pratihara king Malipala-I.
- He called the Gurjar dynasty 'Al Gujar' and their rulers 'Barua'.
- He wrote 'Muruz-ul-Jahab'. In this text, he described horses and camels of Mahipala-
I, the Pratihara king. He described 'Paan' (beetal leaf) in detail. He gives a fairly good
account of Arab principalities of Multan and Mansura.

* Ibn Hawkal (943-79 AD) was a merchant of Baghdad.

- He came from Baghdad to India via different regions of Europe and Africa.
- He visited the state of Rashtrakutas.
- He wrote 'Askal-al-vilad'.
- He made a cartographic map of Sindh.
- He was the first person among Arab geographers who attempted to define the
length and breadth of India. This was the first attempt by any foreigner to define the
boundaries of India.
* Alberuni (973-1048 AD): His full name was Abu
Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmed Alberuni, but he was popularly known as 'Alberuni'
meaning 'Ustad' (i.e, Teacher/Master).
- He was born in Khwarizm (modern Khiwa) of Uzbekistan.
- He was captivated by Mahmud Ghaznavi, the sultan of Ghazni during Khiwa battle
(1017 AD). Mahmud Ghaznavi brought him Ghazni and was very impressed by his
multifarious talent.

- So, Mahmud Ghazanavi appointed him 'Najumi' (court-astrologer).

- In 1019 AD Alberuni came to India with his patron Mahmud Ghazanavi and stayed in
Punjab for many years. He learnt Sanskrit language and studied many books
concerned with Philosophy and other subjects.
- He was given the title 'Vidyasagar' (i.e, the ocean of knowledge) by Hindus. - After his
return to Ghazani, he compiled a book in Arabic language 'Tehqiqi-Hind (i.e, Enquiry
into India or Reality of India) in 1029-30 AD. This book is also called 'Tarikh-i-Hind'
(i.e, History of India) or, 'Kitab- ul-Hind (i.e, The Book of India). Like an encyclopedia
this book contains detailed information about Indian society and culture and other
fields of knowledge. It is believed that this is the best foreign account of India.

- Such extensive and authentic study of Indian society and culture had not been done
before.
- Therefore, Alberuni is called 'First Real Indologist'.
- He was given the title 'The Real founder of Indology'. (Note: Megasthenese was
believed to be the 'Beginner of Indology'.)
- There are two shortcomings of this book- firstly, Alberuni says practically nothing
about the political condition of India during his own times and secondly, he wrote
from what he read and not from what he saw.
- His information is not based on his personal knowledge but on what he read in
books. This book has been translated into English namely 'Alberuni's India' by Edward
C. Sachau.
- In the words of Jarret: "This book is a magic island of quite impartial research in the
midst of a world of clashing swords, burning towns and plundered temples".
*Ibn Batuta (1304-69 AD): The full name of Ibn
Batuta was Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Abdullah Lawal-ut-Tangi ibn Batuta.
- He was born in 1304 AD at Tangier in Morocco of Africa.
- He was a Moroccan (African) traveller. In 1333 AD, he came to India in the reign of
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, the Sultan of Delhi Sultanate.
- Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq welcomed him and appointed Qazi (ie Judge) of Delhi, Ibn
Batuta held this post up till 1342 AD when he was sent to China as an ambassador of
Delhi Sultanate, but unfortunately he did not reach China due to shipreck.
- He wrote a travel account of India in which he gives valuable information about life
and period of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq.
- He described the reasons and the circumstances of transfer of capital from Delhi to
Devagiri (Daulatabad).
- In 1345 AD he stayed in the court of Gayasuddin Muhammad Damghan Shah, the
Sultan of Madurai.
- In 1353 AD he returned to his native place Tangiers in Morocco.
- In 1355 AD he wrote a book in Arabic language 'Rihla' (i.e. Travel).
- He died in 1369 AD.
* Sihab al Dinumari (1348 AD) was a resident of Dymascus (Syria).
- He had never come to India, but on the basis of
informations received by the India-returned persons he wrote a book 'Masalika Absari
Mamalika Asar' in 1348 AD. It throws light on the socioeconomic conditions.
* Abdurrazzaq (1413-82 AD) was born in Herat (Afghanistan) in 1413
AD.
- He was a Qazi at the court of Shaharukh, the son of Timur Lang and Sultan of
Samarkand (Persia). He was sent by Shaharukh as an ambassador to the Zamorin of
Calicut in 1442 AD.

- In April 1443 AD, he visited Vijayanagara during the reign of Devaraya-II. He

stayed in the capital city of Vijayanagara for 6 months.
- He was overawed with the size and grandeur of the city of Vijayanagara. - He
says: "The city is such that the eye has not seen nor the ear heard of any place
resembling it upon the whole earth".

- He gives valuable information on the topography, administration and social life

of Vijayanagara.
- Besides this, his text 'Malta-us-Sadan-wa-Mazama-ul-Bahrain' (i.e, the rising of
two pious stars and conjuncture of two seas) describes the maritime trade through
Hind Mahasagar (Indian Ocean) during 14th-15th centuries.

ARCHEOLOGICAL SOURCES
* In India Archeology was started by Europeans
* Sir William Jones founded the Asiatic society of Bengal (Calcutta) in 1784 A.D.
* James Princep deciphered the inscriptions which are found in Script. He was a
minister of Asiatic society
*Alexandar Cunningham is the father of Indian Archeology & he was appointed
Archaeological Surveyer at the Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi.
* The discovery of Indus Civilization was made in 1924 by John Marshall.
* Now India was placed on Global map because it had antique civilization like
Iraq(Mesopotamian Civilization), Egypt (Egyptian Civilization), China (Chinese
Civilization)

Kinds of Archaeological Sources:

* Archaeological sources are categorized into three categories-Inscriptions, Coins &
Monuments.
* The study of inscriptions is known as 'Epigraphy and the person who studies it as
'Epigraphist'.
* The study of coins is known as 'Numismatics' and the person who studies it as
'Numismatist'. The Numismatics Society of India was founded in Allahabad in 1910
AD.
 A) Inscriptions
* Inscriptions are divided into two groups-Foreign and Indigenous.
Foreign Inscriptions:
1. Boghazkoi Inscription (1380 BC): Description between Hittani and mittani
states and it mentions 4 guard deities - Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Nasatya(Ashwini
Kumar)

2. Behistun Inscription (520-18 BC) & Naqsh-i-Rustam Inscription (515 BC):*

These two inscriptions are concerned with the reign of Persian/Iranian emperor Darius-
I. These are found from Behistun & Naqsh-i- Rustam.
* According to Behistun Inscription, Darius-I
annexed the 'Gadar' (i.e. Gandhar) and the 'Shatagu' (i.e. Saptsindhu) and after
annexation he constitued this area in 20th Strapi (i.e. province) of his empire.

* According to Naqsh-i-Rustam Inscription, Persian emperor Darius-I possessed the

'Hindu' (i.e. Sindhu) valley.

* Iranian inscriptions are written in Persian language and Cuneiform script.

* The earliest deciphered inscriptions are Iranian
Inscriptions that is Behistun & Naqsh-i-Rustam Inscription.

Indigenous Inscriptions:
* Some scholars believe that the tradition of Inscription- inscribing
(encarving) in India had began before coming of Mauryan King Ashoka. They present
two inscriptions as proof of their belief.
1. Piparahawa Buddhist Urn/Pot Inscription (Siddharthanagar district, Uttar Pradesh,
5th 4th Century BC).

2. Barli Inscription (Ajmer district, Rajasthan)

* While some other scholars think that the Inscription inscribing in India began with
Mauryan king Ashoka.
* Among Indigenous Inscriptions of India the first deciphered inscriptions are Ashokan
inscriptions which were deciphered in 1837 by James Princep, a civil servant in the
employ of the East India Company in Bengal.

I. North Indian Inscriptions: Mauryan

Inscriptions

* Ashokan Inscription:

1. Till date 40 Ashokan inscriptions have been found.

2. In Ashokan inscriptions only Karuwaki among his queens and only Teevar among
his children have been mentioned.
3. In Ashokan inscriptions the word 'Pasand for
Sampradaya i.e. community, 'Bambhan' for Brahmana and "Nigrath' for Nirgranth i.e.
Jain have used.
4. Bhabru inscription is the only Ashokan inscription in which
Boustrophendon (Bailmutti i.e. writing like piss of an ox) script is used. This script is a
bidirectional script i.e. from right to left and left to right in alternate line.
5. In Yerragudi inscription (Andhra Pradesh) the matter of inscription is written in
Brahmi script but right to left (Note-Brahmi script is written from left to right
direction only).
6. In four Ashokan inscriptions found from Maski, Gurjara, Nittur & Udegolam, the
word 'Ashoka' is used for him.
7. Bhabru inscription is the only Ashokan inscription in which Mauryan king Ashoka
called himself Magadhiraj' i.e. Raja of Magadh.
8. Ashokan Junagadh (Girnar) Major Rock Edict is the inscription on which later Saka
ruler Rudradaman (130-50 AD) and Gupta ruler Skandagupta (45567 AD) inscribed
their inscriptions.
9. Ashokan Allahabad Pillar Edict is the inscription on which the inscription of four
persons are inscribed- Ashoka, Karuwaki, Samudragupta & Jehangir.
10. The first discovered inscription of Ashoka is Meerut Delhi Pillar Edict which was
discovered in 1750 AD by Joseph Tiefenthaler an European Jesuit Missionary &
Geographer.
11. Ashokan inscriptions are generally written in Brahmi script and Prakrit language.
12. Though Prakrit was the language used in Ashokan inscription, the script varied
from region to region- Brahmi script in Eastern India, Kharosthi script in North-
Western India and Greek & Aramaik scripts in Western India.
13. In Manshera & Shahbajgadhi (both in Pakistan) Inscription Kharosthi script (Script
that is written from right to left) is used.
14. In Shara-i-Kuna (Kandhar, Afghanistan) Inscription Greek & Aramaik script is used.
15. Devdatta Ramkrishna (D.R.) Bhandarkar has written a book 'Ashoka'
(Published in 1925 AD) which is based only on the inscriptions of Ashoka. *
Dasharatha's Nagarjuni Cave Inscription (220 BC): This inscription is found in
Nagarjuni hills situated in Jehanabad district of Bihar state. This inscription is
written in Prakrit language and Brahmi script.
* According to the inscription, king Dasharatha (grandson of Ashoka) donated three
caves
namely Vapika, Gopika & Vadithika cave to Ajivika monks so that they could reside in
the rainy season.

Post-Mauryan Inscriptions:
* Heliodorus's Besnagar Garud Pillar Inscription (2nd half of 200 BC): This pillar
inscription is situated in Besnagar village (Bhilsa district, Madhya
Pradesh). This inscribed pillar was erected in front of the Vishnu Temple by
Heliodorus (an ambassador sent by Antiolcides (115 BC-110 BC), the IndoBactrian
ruler, to the court of Bhagabhadra, the Shung king).

* In this inscription Heliodorus called himself 'Bhagwat' that confirms he was the
follower of Bhagwat religion.
* This pillar was surmounted by a sculpture of Garud and was dedicated to the god
Vishnu.

* It confirms the religious impact of India on Greeks.

* Dhanadeo's Ayodhya Stone Inscription 1st Century BC):
* It is encarved on a stone-piece which is 1 km away from Ayodhyanagar in Basti
district of Uttar Pradesh state.

* It is written in Sanskrit language and Brahmi script. It is the earliest available

inscription written in Sanskrit language. * This was inscribed by Dhanadeo of
Shunga dynasty.
* It contains the information about Pushyamitra
Shung, founder of Shung dynasty, their capital Ayodhya, Ashwamedha Yajnas
performed twice by him, victory over the Greek etc.

* Kharavela's Hathigumpha Inscription (1st Century BC): This inscription is inscribed

on the upper part of Hathigumpha (Gumpha is an Odeshi synonym of Hindi word
Gupha i.e cave).
* It was inscribed by Kharavela, the Cheti/Chedi or Mahameghavahan ruler of Kalinga.
* It is written in Prakrit language and Brahmi
script. It throws light on the life of Kharavela, his acts and the events of his reign year
by year (from coronation to 13th years of his rule).
* It described the Kalinga ruler Kharavela and his queen as the patron of Jain religion.
* Kharavela was a follower of Jain religion and he took up the title 'Bhikshuraj'.
* This inscription describes how he invaded Magadh and made their king
Brihaspatimitra
(Shung dynasty) pay homage at his feet. He returned home (i.e. Kalinga) with the
statue and the foot-marks of the first Jina (i.e. Rishabhadeva) which had been carried
away three centuries ago by king Nanda.
* The important points among other details of the inscription are- Extension of the old
canal (excavated by king Nanda) up to the capital Kalinga from Tanasuliya;
Construction of Mahavijaya palace; Construction of a large temple at Bhubaneshwar
etc.
* In this inscription he called himself 'Chakravarti' ruler.
* This is the first inscription in which the word 'Bharatvarsha' is mentioned.

* Nagagnika's Nanaghat Cave Inscription (Second half of 1st Century BC):

This inscription is found from a cave of Nanaghat in Poona (Pune) district of
Maharashtra state.
* It is written in Prakrit language and Brahmi
script. It was inscribed by Satavahana ruler Shatakarni's wife Nagagnika who was a
daughter of Maharathi of Maharashtra.
* It throws light on the achievements of Shatakarni (20 BC...).
* In this Inscription Shatakarni is called 'Apratihatchakra' 'Dakshinadhipati',
'Dhan of
Simuk Vansha' etc.
* It mentions Yajnas (i.e sacrifices)- Ashwamedha Yajna (2 times), Rajasuya Yajna,
Agnadheya Yajna etc-performed by Shatakarni.
* It contains the information that at the time of death of Shatakarni both his sons-
Shaktishri & Vedashri-were minor, so their mother Naganika held the power in her
hand as regent.
* Gautami Balashri's Nasik Cave Prashasti Inscription (141 AD): It is found from a
cave of Nasiknagar of Maharashtra state.
* It throws light on Satavahana ruler Gautamiputra Shatakarni (106-130 AD).
* It was inscribed in 141 AD by his mother Gautami Balashri in the reign of
Vashishthiputra Pulumavi (130-154 AD). * Due to this reason, this inscription is
sometimes known as Vashishtriputra Pulmavi's Nasik Prashasti Inscription.
* This inscription throws light on victories of Gautamiputra Shatakarni and his
devotion towards the religion.
* According to the inscription, he took up the title of Khativa-dap-manmadanas',
'Saka-Yavan-
Palhay-Nisudanam', 'Khakharat - Vas - Niravases
Karas, "Satavahana - Kula Yas-Patithapan-Karas' etc.

* He also took up the title of Tri-Samudra-Toya-Pita-Vahana'i.e, one whose horses

drank the waters of three seas in the East, West and South (identified as the Bay of
Bengal, the Arabian Sea & the Indian Sea).
* Mathura Stone Pillar Inscription of Huwishka's Time (106 AD): It is inscribed on
the pillar found from a red well near Chaurasi Jain Temple at Mathura in Mathura
district of Uttar Pradesh state.
* At present this inscription is conserved in Mathura Museum.
* It is written in Prakrit language and Brahmi script.
* It was inscribed by a donor namely Sarakman of Kushan's ruler Huwishka's time.

* It states a chief who deposited money as a 'Akshaynivi' (i.e. permanent amount

whose interest only can be spend not the principal) to a guild of floor millers for the
maintenance of 100 Brahmanas out of the monthly interest on it.
* The last line of this inscription states that the pious fruit of this grant firstly goes to
the king
Huwishka-it displays the respect to the king in the minds of general people.

* Ushabhadata's Nasik Cave Inscription (1st Century AD) : It is inscribed in Dhasami

cave of Pandu Lena in Nasik city of Maharashtra state. It is written in Prakrit
language and Brahmi script.
* It was inscribed by Ushabhadata, son-in-law of Kshaharat strap ruler of Nasik
Nahpan.

* It defines the boundries of Nahpan state.

* It contains the information about the guild system of that time.

* According to the inscription, Ushabhdata deposited 3,000 Kahapana

(Karshapana) as a 'Akshayanivi' (ie, permanent amount) in which 2,000 Kahapana to
weaver's guild of Govardhana and 1,000 Kahapana other weavers' guild.
* The interest of this amount can be spend for clothes and other things of Bhikshus
who resided in the Dhasami Cave of Pandu Lena.

* Rudradaman's Junagadh/Girnar Incription (150 AD):

* It is inscribed on astone-piece which is situated at Girnar hills near Junagadh city of
Gujarat state.
* It is written in Sanskrit language and Brahmi script.
* It is the first long Sanskrit inscription of India.
* It was inscribed by Saka ruler Rudradaman.
* According to the inscription, Rudradaman defeated various kings and annexed their
states Akara (East Malwa), Avanti (West Malwa),
Anupa, Anart (North Kathiawar), Saurashtra (South Kathiawar), Subhra (the region on
the Sabarmati), Maru (Marwar), Kuccha (Cutch), Sindhu (East of the lower Indus), Suvira
(West of the lower Indus), Kukura, Aparant (North Konkan) & Nisbada (West Vindhya
& Aravali).
* From this inscription we get the history of Sudarsana Lake.
* According to this inscription, the Sudarsana Lake which existed from the time of
Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka (Pusyagupta, the provincial governor of
Chandragupta Maurya built the Sudarsana Lake and Yonraj Tusfak (Iranian), the
provincial governor of Ashoka repaired this lake) burst in time of Rudradaman.
* There was a lot of destruction. Sudarsana became Dudarsana.
* Rudradaman repaired this lake from his own pocket and had not imposed any tax on
the public.
* The repairing work was done under the supervision of Suvishakh, the provincial
governor of Rudradaman.
* This is the first inscription in which for the first time Laxmi alongwith Vishnu is
mentioned.

Inscriptions of Gupta Period:

* Samudragupta's Prayag (Allahabad) Prashasti Inscription (360 AD): This pillar
inscription stands inside the fort at Allahabad and not in its original place of Prayag
(Kosambi).
* The Prashasti(i.eeulogy) inscribed on it was composed by Harishena the
Mahasandhivigrahik
(the minister of peace and war) of Samudragupta.
* It is written in Sanskrit language and Brahmi script.
* The earlier part of the inscription is composed in verse while the later part of the
inscription is in prose.
* It throws light on the coronation of Samudragupta, his conquests in all directions
and his personality.
* There is a long sentence running into 33 lines in it.
*The content of 7th. 8th line-Announcement of Chandragupta-I at the court that
Samundragupta will be his successor, jealousy felt by Tulyakulajas' due to coronation
of Samudragupta;
* Content of 13th line-Victory over Achyut and
Nagasena, annexation of Pataliputra; Content of 17th.
* 18th line-Samudragupta described as 'one whose only ally was valour (Parakrama)
through the might of his own arm', 'whose body is covered with scar-marks caused
by various weapons'; Content of 19th-20th line-Victory over 12 rulers of
Dakshinapatha;
* Content of 21st line-defeating of 9 rulers of Naga dynasty at Kosambi;
* Content of 22nd line- Victory over Atawik,
subordination accepted by 5 states of Eastern border region;
* Content of 24th line-Subordination accepted
by Kider-Kushan ruler Devaputra Shahi Shahanushahi,Saka ruler Rudrasena-III,
Saka-Murund ruler, Sinhali (Sri Lankan) king Meghavarna, Jawa, Sumatra &
Malay islands;
* Content of 27th line-Samudragupta described
as 'Kaviraja' because he was so expert in music that Narad and Tumbaru were
ashamed;
* Content of 28th line-Samudragupta described as 'Patron of Scholars';
* Content of 29th 30th line-Samudragupta described as 'Lichchhawi Dauhitra',
'Maharajadhiraja', 'Avtar (incarnation) of Vishnu', 'Prachir (wall) bound with Dharma'
(religion) etc.
* Samudragupta's Eran Inscription: In this inscription Samudragupta is called
'Sarvarajochchheta' (i.e. uprooter of all kings).
* According to this inscription he was married with Datta Devi. It states that 'Erikini'
(i.e. Eran) was his 'Swabhoganagar (i.e. personal Jagir).

* Samudragupta's Nalanda Copper Plate Inscription:

* It is found from a 'Vihar' (i.e. monastery) in Nalanda of Bihar state.
* It is written in Sanskrit language and Brahmi script.
* This copper plate inscription of donative nature contains the conditions on which
'Agrahar' (i.e. land grant) had been given to Brahmanas by the donor. It contains the
Gupta genealogy (from Srigupta to Samudragupta). * Samudragupta's Gaya
Copper Plate Inscription: It is found from Gaya of Bihar state.
* The content of this inscription is similar to the content of his Nalanda copper plate
inscription.

* Chandragupta-II's Udaygiri Inscription: It is inscribed on two caves at Udaygiri hills

near Vidisha of Madhya Pradesh state. * The first cave was encarved by a feudatory
belonging to Sankanik region of Chandragupta-II
and the second cave by Veersen Shab, Sandhivigrhik (minister of peace and war) of
Chandragupta-II.
* This inscription throws light on victory over western region by Chandragupta-II.

* Chadra's Meharauli (Delhi) Iron Pillar Inscription: It is concerned with the king
named Chandra (identified as the Gupta ruler Chandragupta-II by scholars mostly).

* Kumargupta-I's Damodarpur Copper Plate Inscription:

* It is found from Damodarpur in Dinajpur district of Northern Bengal.
* It is written in Sanskrit language and Brahmi script.
*This inscription confirms that Northern Bengal was a part of Kumargupta-I's empire.
* It throws light on state organisation and administrative system of Gupta period.

* Kumargupta-I's Mandsore Stone inscription:* It is inscribed on a stonepiece of an

embankment at Sivana river in Mandsore of Madhya Pradesh.
* It throws light on decline of commerce and industries in Later Gupta Period.
* This inscription describes that a guild of silk- weavers migrated from Lat
(Southern Gujarat) to
Dashpur (Mandsore) due to the decline in silk industry.

* They settled in Dashpur (Mandsore) and constructed there a temple dedicated to

god Surya (i.e. the Sun).
* Skandagupta's Girnar/Junagadh Inscription:* It throws light on the provincial
administration of Skandagupta.

* It describes the appointment of 'Gopta' (i.e. Provincial Governor) and the qualities of
an ideal 'Gopta'.
* It contains the information that the embankment of Sudarsana Lake was damaged
once again and it was repaired by Chakrapalita [the Purapati (i.e. head of the city) of
Girar city and son of Parnadatta, the 'Gopta' of Saurashtra.
* In this inscription Kumargupta is described as 'Kalyankari Raja (i.e. benovolent king)
and Chakrapalita as 'Adarsh Nagar Rakshak' (i.e. Ideal city protector).

* Skandagupta's Bhitari Pillar inscription:

* It is inscribed on a pillar which is situated outside the Bhitari village in Ghazipur
district of Uttar Pradesh state.
* It is written in Sanskrit language and Brahmi script.
* It describes the erection of pillar, the construction of a temple in which the statue of
Bhagwan Sharngi (ie. God Vishnu) was established and donation of revenue received
from Bhitari village for the expenses of temple by Skandagupta.
* It contains the Gupta geneology (from Srigupta to Skandagupta). It mentions the
invasion of Huns.

* Skandagupta's Indore Copper Plate inscription:

* It contains the information about a Saur Sampradaya (ie. community concerned with
the Sun), Tailika Shreni (i.e. Guild of oil-millers) that worked like a bank and an
administrative unit named 'Antarvedi' and their administrator 'Sharvanaga

* Bhanugupta's Eran Stone Inscription (510 AD): It isfound from Eran in Sagar
district of Madhya Pradesh.

* It describes the battle between Bhanugupta and Hun invader Tormana. Goparaj, a
feudatory of Bhanugupta, was killed during the battle and his wife entered the mass
of fire (funeral pyre).
* This is the first archaeological evidence of Sati-Pratha (i.e. the custom of immolation
of a widow after the death of her husband) in ancient India.

* Tormana's Eran Varah Statue Inscription:

* It is inscribed on a statue of Varah found from Eran (Sagar district, Madhya Pradesh).
* It describes political achievements and religious interest of Hun ruler Tromana.

Later Inscriptions:
* Harshavardhana's Banskhera Copper-Plate Inscription:
* It is found in Banskhera in Shahjehanpur district of Uttar Pradesh.
* It throws light on the administration and economy of Harshavardhana.
* It gives account of the donation of taxfree village namely Markat (Vishaya- Angdiya,
Bhukti-Ahichhotra) to two Brahamanas by Harshavardhana.
* It contains the replica of signature of Harshavardhana that clarifies that he was a
good calligraphist.

* Yashodharmana's Mandsore Stone Pillar Inscription:

* It was inscribed by Malwa ruler Yashodharmana.
* According to this inscription, he defeated Hun ruler Mihirkula and annexed Malwa.

* Mihirbhoja's Gwaliar Prashasti Inscription:* It was inscribed by Pratihara King

Mihirbhoja.
* In the inscription, Mihirbhoja is described as a great conqueror, comptent
administrator and benevolent ruler.

* Parmara Bhoja's Dhara Prashasti Inscription:

* It throws light on political and cultural achievements of Bhoja of Parmara Dynasty.

* Vijayasen's Devpara Prashasti Inscription:* It describes the events that occured

during the reign of Vijayasen, the founder of Sen dynasty.

AS - 2
II. South Indian Inscriptions:
* Pulkeshin-II's Aihole Prashasti Inscription:
* It is inscribed in Vishnu temple at Aihole in Bagalkot district of Karnataka state.
* It is an eulogy and written by the court poet of Pulkeshin-II and Jain follower
Ravikriti.
* It throws light on the successes of Pulkeshin-II, the Chalukya ruler of Vatapi/Badami.
* This inscription begins with an invocation to Jinendra (lord of the Jinas) * According
to the inscription, Pulkeshin-II defeated Harshavardhana on the bank of Narmda and
checked Harsha's campaign to conquer Deccan.
* On this occasion, Pulkeshin-II took up the title 'Parameshwar'.
* In this inscription Ravikriti discribes himself as the equal of Kalidasa and Bhasa.
* According to the inscription, the Mahabharat war was fought in 3101 BC.
* Narsinghvarmana's Mallikarjuna Temple Stone Inscription:
* It contains the conquest of Pallava ruler Narsinghvarmana over Chalukya ruler of
Badami Pulkeshin-II.
* On this occasion Narsinghvarmana took up the title 'Mahamalla'.

* Dantidung's Allora Cave Inscription: It is inscribed in Dashavtar Temple of Allora. It

describes the conquests of Rashtrakuta ruler Dantidurg over Kalinga, Koshal, Kanchi
Malaw, Lat, Tank etc.
* Rajaraja's Tanjore Inscription: It throws light on the successes of Chola king
Rajaraja. (Note-Rajaraja was the first Indian king who conceived the idea of
Inscription begin with historical preface/introduction).
- According to the Inscription Rajaraja defeated Chera in the battle of Kandaloor.
- He annexed Northern Sri Lanka.
* Rajendra-T's Tiruvalangar Copper Inscription:
- It describes the victories of Chola ruler Rajendra-I.
- According to the inscription, Rajendra-1 defeated Sumatra ruler Vijayottung
Varmana.
- It contains the information about the revenue system of Cholas.
* Uttarmerur Inscription of Parantaka time:
- It contains the details about local government prevalent during Chola period.
 Coins
* Coins help us a great deal to know the history of ancient India.
* These coins confirm, revise, change or extend the facts received from literary sources.
* Coins are of various metals - copper, silver, gold and others.
* For convenience of study, coins are divided into two categories - Indigenous &
Foreign.

(i) Indigenous Coins:

(a) Early Punch-Marked Coins

* Early coins of India are Punch-marked coins.

* They are called punch-marked because pieces of metal were punched with certain
marks/symbols, such as a hill, tree, fish, bull, elephant, crescent etc.

* Punch-marked coins have no inscribation, but only marks.

* The earliest punch-marked coins were made largely of silver, though a few copper
coins also existed.

* The punch-marked coins were made largely in quadrilateral shape.

* The punch-marked coins (ie. coins made of metal) appear first in the 6th Century BC.
* These coins were in circulation for around four centuries-from 6th Century to 2nd
Century BC (i.e. from Mahajanapadas period to Shunga period). * The Punch-marked
coins were issued first by the Guilds of merchants, later by States.
(b) Indo-Bactrian Coins:

* The practice of writing the names of kings and the figures of the rulers, deities
etc was started by the Indo-Bacterian kings, the rulers of NorthWestern India.

* The writings on the coins included the names of the kings, their titles, their
personal interests, religious beliefs etc.
* The figures of the kings were encarved on the front side of the coins while the
figures of the deities were encarved on the back side of the coins. * Actually these
were the coins that enabled us to construct the complete history of Indo-Bactrian
rulers.

* The classical writers refer to only four or five Indo- Bactrian rulers and in the
absence of these coins, the names of other Indo-Bactrian rulers would have remained
absolutely unknown.

* Besides this, it was the Indo-Bactrian rulers who first of all issued the gold coin.

* The Indo-Bactrian coins possess a high degree of excellence in many ways and
ultimately had a tremendous influence on Indian coinage.
(c) Scythian (Saka), Parthian (Pahlava) & Kushana Coins:

* After Indo-Bactrians, Scythian (Saka), Parthian

(Pahlava) and Kushana rulers had ruled over North- Western India.
* They issued coins in the analogy of Indo-Bactrian coins.
* These coins played key-role in constructing the history of Scythian (Saka), Parthian
(Pahlava) & Kushana rulers.

* The existence of the Malavas, Yaudheyas and the Mitra rulers of Panchala is known
only from the coins.

* First of all, Saka Strap Rudradaman (130-50 AD) issued dated coins in Sanskrit.
* The Satavahana rulers issued their coins in lead (mainly), copper, bronze & potin.
* The Kushana ruler were the first rulers in India who issued gold coins regularly and
on a large scale.
* Among gold coins of ancient rulers of India the gold coins of Kushan rulers contain
the most purity.
(d) Gupta Coins:

* The Gupta rulers issued the largest number of gold coins.

* Among Gupta rulers Chandragupta-I was the first ruler who first of all issued the gold
coins.
* He issued only one type of gold coins - King-Queen type or ChandraguptaKumardevi
type.
* Original types of gold coins of Samundragupta-
Garud type, Dhanurdhari i.e, Archer type, Axe type, Ashvamedha type, Vyaghrahanan
i.e, Tiger-killing type & Veenavadan i.e, flute playing type; * Original types of gold
coins of Chandragupta-II, Vikramaditya' Ashvarohi type, Chhatradhari type & Chakra -
Vikram type;
* Original type of gold coins of Kumargupta-I-
Khadagadhari type, Gajarohi type, Gajarohi
Sinhnihanta type, Khang-nihanta i.e, rhinoceros-slayer type, Kartikeya type & Apratigh-
mudra type.

* Among the Guptarulers, Chandragupta-II 'Vikramaditya' was the first ruler who
issued silver coins.

* Among the Gupta rulers, Ramgupta was the first and only one ruler who issued
copper coins

* The gold coins of Gupta rulers is known as 'Dinars' where as the silver coins of Gupta
rulers as 'Rupak

* After decline of the Guptas and before the foundation of Delhi Sultunate, Indian
currency have suffered a bad phase.
* It is evident that we get few coins of the succeeding dynasties in the North India as
well as South India.

II. Foreign Coins:

* The gold and silver coins of Roman emperors are found from various parts of South
India especially in Arikmendu (near Pondicherry), Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh & Tamil
Nadu.
* These coins are of the period of Roman emperor Augustus (27 BC-14 AD) & Tiberius
(14-37 AD).

*It throws light on the trade relation between India and Roman Empire.
 Monuments
*Under the Monuments are included all the artistic works concerned with Architecture,
Sculpture, Painting, Artifacts etc..

* Artifacts: Pattery, tools of stone, metal (like Copper, Iron etc) objects are all in
the class of things made by man, which are therefore called 'artifacts'. * Through the
study of monuments we know the history of development of
Art.

* Besides this, it throws light on religious, socio-economic conditions of

concerned time.

I. Indigenous Monuments:
* The excavations of Harappa, Mohanjodaro etc reveal around 5 millenium years old
Indus Civilization.
* It is after the discovery of the Indus civilization that we began to talk of a civilization
in India prior to that of the Vedic Aryans.

* The excavations of Ataranjikhera etc indicate that in the Gangetic valley of India the
use of iron began in 1000 BC.

* The excavations of various sites of South India show miscellaneous information viz.
close trade relation between South India and Rome. * The earliest temple found in
India-Dashavtar Temple Deogarh (Lalitpur district, Uttar Pradesh) of Gupta Period. It
is the temple of Nagara (Shikhar) style.

* The best example of temple of Nagar style- Lingaraj Temple, Bhubaneshwar, Odisha
(in 11th Century AD built by the Kesari king).

* The best example of temple of Dravid style-

Brihadishwar/Rajarajeshwar Temple, Tanjore (in 1000 AD built by the Chola ruler
Rajaraja-I). The earliest statues found in India-Statues found from the sites of Indus
civilization viz, stone statue of a dancer found from Harappa, bronze statue of nude
women dancer found from Mohenjodaro etc.
* The earliest samples of paintings found in India-cave paintings found from the sites
of Lithic (the stone) Period viz, paintings in Bhimbetaka cave (Raisen district, Madhya
Pradesh).

II. Foreign Monuments:

* Besides India, some such monuments are found in the countries of SouthEast Asia
which throw light on the history of ancient India.

* These monuments found mainly from Indonesia (Java, Sumatara, Bali, Borneo etc
islands), Malaya (Malaysia), Kambuj (Cambodia), Syam (Thailand), Champa (Vietnam),
Suvarnabhumi (Burma) etc.

* Among these monuments some notable monuments are- (a) Buddhist Temple of
Borobodur (Java island, Indonesia):

* It was built by the ruler of Shailendra dynasty who belonged to Shrivijaya empire of
Java-Sumatra in 8th century AD.
* It is the largest Buddhist temple in the world.
(b) Vaishnava Temple of Angkor-Vat (Cambodia): It was built by Suryavarma
(1113-45 AD), the ruler of Kaundinya dynasty of Kambuj in 12th Century AD.
(c) Anand Pagoda (Buddhist Temple) of Pagan of Burma(Myanmar): It was built
by Kyanzittha (Tribhuvanaditya), the successor of Pagan ruler Aniruddha, in 11th-12th
century AD.

AGES
I. Lithic / Stone Age : (30L BC - 1K BC):* Paleolithic Age :
- old stone age, Hunters and food gatherers ; Chopper, Chopping(Sohan culture), Hand
Axe ( Madrasian culture),Cleaver, Flake and blade tools( by using chert , zaspite, flint)
made by quarzite stone are implements, Disposal of dead persons, clothes(skins), food,
dwelling.

* Mesolithic Age:- Middle stone Age; Hunters and herders ; Microlith

Implements Taming/ Domestication of Animals(dog ,sheep, goat, cow/buffalo, wild
horse etc..), Burial of dead( along with body food stuff, tools-weapons placed in the
grave and also domestic animal will also be graved) ; zasper , chert, Agate used to
make stone implements in the place of Quarzite.
* Neolithic Age :- New stone Age; food- producers ; Polished implements ; Crop
cultivation (agriculture like wheat,barley,paddy, millets & vegetables), Animal
husbandry (Dog,sheep-goat,Horse etc) & fixed abode/habitat.(catching fish & taming
sheep goat, hunting animals) - Mehargarh( bolan district, Baluchistan province,
Pakistan) is called earliest known village site of Indian subcontinent.
- earliest evidence of cotton in the world found in Mehargarh (bolan dis, Pakistan).
India is the 1st country in the world whose people learnt the art of spinning &
weaving of cloth.
- Houses - pit dwelling means they digged the ground in circular or oval shape & they
made niches as Clair stairs to climb.
- pottery
Burial process
1. North ( complete= in digged circular pit the body flated on back, partial=
selected bones were buried ) along vth pet
2. South( Complete=the corpse of old male female were burried in the ground &
Corpses of small babies in pot burial symbol of return to womb ;
Partial= selected bones)
- stone implements are pecked, ground & polished. other than quarzite used like
hatcher,chisel,pestle,arrow-head, saw etc...

II. Chalco-Lithic / Copper Age:(3500-1000BC) (Harappan

Age)
- Begining copper was used after it was mixed vth other metals such as tin, zinc,
lead to make a new metal alloy called bronze. they used gold &silver at last Iron
- Harappan/Indus/Indus-saraswati civilization was the civilization of Copper Age

III. Iron Age(1000-500BC) :

- The early Aryans of Vedic(rigvedic) period did not know about Iron. they using Ayas
means metal but not iron metal - The later Aryans had knowledge of iron.
Lohit Ayas = Copper metal
Krishna(shyama) Ayas = Iron Metal
- Krishna Yajurveda (Taittariya Samhita)speaks of oxen yoked to the plough( made of
iron) & It is also mentioned in Atharva veda
- Shatapatha brahmanamental iron relation with peasantry class & also it speaks about
ploughing rituals
- The heating & cooling of ploughshare us described in Buddhist text suttanipata, a
part of khuddaka Nikaya of Suttapitaka
- iron using cultures
1. Paint Grey Ware culture ;
2. Northern Black Polished Ware culture ;
3. Mega(huge)lith(stone) Culture:
Burial practice:
1. fractional/partial: selected bones buried and flesh were eaten by birds
&animals
2. Complete/extensive: corpses are placed in East-west order. old malefemale were
buried that were dug in the ground. Small babies are placed in
Urn/Pot then buried
- Types of Graves/memorials made by large stone pieces:
a. Mehir/Nadu-kal : A large of column size is erected on grave
b. Hood stone/ Kudai kal : Round shaped stone obversely placed on the grave
c. Umbrella stone: A large stone of column size is erected on the grave & then upon
this an umbrella shaped stone is placed
d. Dolmen: means Table of stone . It is look like a rectangular stone table from long
distance
e. Cairn Circle/ Nidai Kal Teddi : The pieces of stones are set in circular shape around
the grave f. Rock -cut caves/Tadi : Firstly laterite rocks of hills are cut in the form of
a cave & after that the corpse of the dead person is placed in cave & finally the
mouth of the cave is closed
- Black Red pottery
- dravidian culture
- 33 types of iron implements are - Flat axes, spades, sickles, chisels, hatchers, knives,
bridles (of horse), horse shoes, tridents, swords,daggers etc..
- the earliest evidence of pottery(made of clay) is from
Chopanimando(Allahabad dis, UP)
- The name of Ochre Coloured Pottery -OCP culture is added vth Copper
Hoard culture -CHC. the biggest CH are found from Gungeria (balaghat dis,
MP)

Harappan/Indus/Indus-saraswati civilization:
(2500BC -1750BC)
* 1st discovered site & primarily urban
* it belongs to protohistoric period (Chalco-Lithic /Bronze Age) *it spreads over Sindh,
Baluchistan,Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Western UP, Northern Maharashtra.
* John Marshall was 1st used the term Indus Civilization
* Harappa-Ghaggar-Mohenjadaro axis represents The Heartland of Indus
Civilization
* Capital cities: Harappa, Mohenjodaro
* port Cities: Lothal, sutkagendor , Allahdino, Balakot, kuntasi
* Harappa - Ravi river- Punjab(pak)
Mohenjodaro - Indus - Sindh(pak)
(Nakhlistan i.e. Oasis of Sindh)
Chanhudaro - Indus - Sindh(pak)
Lothal - Bhogava river - Gujarat (India)
Kalibanga - Ghaggar - Rajasthan (India)
(the bangles of black colour)
Banawali - Ghaggar- Haryana(India)
Dholavira -Luni - Gujarat (India)
Surkatoda -Kuttch district - Gujarat
Daimabad -Pravara dis- Maharashtra
* Mohenjodaro= Largest site of Indus Civilization
Rakhigarhi = The largest Indian site of Indus Civilization.
* Town planning - Grid system, Burnt Bricks, Underground Drainage system(giant water
reservoirs in Dholavira), Fortified Citadel(exception
Chanhudaro)
* Main Crops : wheat,barley, cultivation of rice other: Dates,mustard,sesamum,cotton
etc...
* Indus people were the 1st to produce cotton in the world.( it was called
Sindon by the Greeks)
* Animals: sheep, oxen(ox&cow), Humped & humpless bull ,buffalo,boar,dog,cat,pig,
fowl,deer,tortoise, elephant,camel, rhinoceros,tiger etc.
*Iron & Lion was not known
* Foreign trade with Mesopotamia or Sumerian(Modern Iraq),Bahrain etc. flourished
* Imports : Gold, silver, jade, copper, tin, Lapis Lazauli & Sapphire, Statute,Amethyst,
Agate, Chalcedonies & Carnelians.
* Exports : Agricultural products, Cotton goods, terracota figurines ,pottery,
Certain beads( Chanhudaro), Conch- shell (Lothal), Ivory products, Copper etc..
* Meluha name given by Sumerian texts to Indus region
* Susa & ur are mesapotamian places where Harappan seals found.
* no evidence of coins , barter is assumed to exchange of goods
* Lothal - Ancient port
* They didn't worship their gods in temple. no temple is there.
* Statues & figurines are found.
*Mother goddess- Matridevi /Shakthi. there is evidence of prevalence of
Yoni(female sex organ) worship
* Male diety - Pasupati Mahadeva (lord of animals)(proto-shiva) represented seals as
sitting in yogic posture he is surrounded by 4 animals(elephant, tiger, rhino, buffalo)
& 2 deer at his feet. There was a prevalence of Phallic(Lingam) worship
* Shiva-shakti worship( Humped bull is comparable to Nandi bull, the ride of lord
Shiva, trident/trishul)
* Animal & tree(peepal) worship is there
* Evidence of pictographic script found mainly on seals. Kalibanga shows that writing
was boustrophendon or from right to left & from left to right in alternate lines. it has
been reffered to as proto-dravidian
* Oldest script in Indian subcontinent is Harappan script but the oldest deciphered
script is brahmi script known from 5th cen BC . most of the later Indian scripts
derived from brahmi.
* Steatite mainly used in manufacture of seals
* Humpless bull is represented in most of Indus seals
* Inhumation or complete burial used
* The origin of swasthika symbol is found at this place
* Indra is accused of causing the decline of Indus Civilization..... M.Wheeler
* The rigveda speaks of battle at a place named Hathiyumpia (Harappa)
* Scholars believed dravidian people make this civilization
* Contemporary civilizations - Mesopotamia, Egypt, China

VEDIC CIVILIZATION (1500BC - 600BC)

* Aryans are native / migrated(central Asia)
* Boghazkai Inscription which mentions the 4 Vedic gods Indra, Varuna,Mitra &
Nasatyas, Proves Central Asian theory being their homeland.
* they are settled in present frontier province & the punjab- then called Sapta Sindhu
i.e. Region of 7 rivers. next they settled in the valleys of Ganges and the Yamuna

VEDIC LITERATURE

* Rigveda was composed while the Aryans were still in the punjab. This
Literature is called Shruti(to hear) I. The
Samhitas/Vedas :
Vedas are called Apaurasheya i.e. not created by man but God gifted & Nitya i.e.
existing in all eternity. 4 Vedas..
1. Rigveda : (Collection of Lyrics) oldest text in world. 1028 hymns & 10580 verses
divided in two 10 mandalas ( 2nd to 7th are called Gotra Vamsha Mandalas(Kula
granth) & 1st ,10th Mandalas are added later . 10th contains the famous Purushasukta
which explains the 4 varnas - Brahmanas, kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudra. the hymns were
recited by hotri.
2. Yajurveda: (book of sacrificial prayers) is a ritual veda . it's hymns were recited
by Adhvaryus. divide in to 2 parts - Krishna Yajurveda, shukla
Yajurveda
3. Sama Veda( Book of chants) 1549 verses. The hymns were recited by Udgatri. it
is imp for Indian music.
4. Atharva veda( Book of magical formulae). it contains charms & spells to ward off
evils & diseases. for a very long time it is not included in Vedas . II. Brahmanas : it
explains about the hymns of the Vedas. Brahma means sacrifice. Vedas has several
Brahmanas attached to it.
1. Rigveda: Aitareya & Kaushitiki/Sankhyan
2. Shatapatha : (oldest& largest Brahmana) & taittariya 3. Samveda :
Panchvisha(Tandya maha Brahmana), Shadvinsh, Chhandogya,& Jaiminaya.
4. Atharvaveda: Gopatha
III. Aranyaka: means forest. these are the concluding portions of the Brahmanas.
IV. Upanishads: are philosophical texts . they are called Vedanta , as they came
towards the end of veda . there are 108 upanishads. Vrihadaranyaka is the oldest
Upanishada.

LITERATURE OF VEDIC TRADITION(600BC - 600AD)

* Smriti i.e. rememberance literature contains I.

Vedangas/Sutras :

1. Shiksha(phonetics) : Pratishakya oldest text

2. Kalpa sutras(rituals):

- Shrauta sutras /Shulva sutras = Deal with sacrifices

- Grihya S = deal with family ceremonies

- Dharma sutras = Deal with varnas, Ashramas etc..

3. Vyakarana (Grammar) : Ashtadhyayi(panini) the oldest grammar in world

4.Nirukta(Etymology) : Nirukta(oldest dictionary in world based on Nighantu

(kashyap)( oldest word collection in the world)

5. Chhanda(metrics) : Chhandasutras(pingal) famous text

6. Jyotisha(astronomy) : 'Vedangas Jyotishya' (lagadh muni) oldest text

II. Smritis Dharmashastras:

1. Mani smrithi(pre-gupta period)(oldest)

2. Yajnavalkya smrithi(pre-gupta period)

3. Narad Smrithi(Gupta period)

4. Parashara smrithi(G-p)

5. Brihaspati smrithi(G-p) 6. Katyayana Smrithi (G-p)

III. Mahakavyas(Epics):

1. The Ramayana(valmiki) : it is known as Adikavya(oldest epic in world).

consists 24000 shlokas i.e. verses (1st 6k...12k...next 24k) in 7 kandas i.e. sections . 1st
&7th are last added

2. The Mahabharata(ved vyasa): Longest epic of world. it consists of 1 lakh shlokas i.e.
verses in 18 parvans i.e. chapters. Bhagavad Gita is extracted from bhishma parvan
of Mahabharata. Shanti parvan is the largest parvan.

IV. Puranas: (old)18 famous puranas, The Matsya Purana is the oldest text. other imp are
Bhagavata, The Vishnu, The Vayu, The brahmananda. it says 5 subjects

1. Sarga: Creation of creation of the word

2. prati sarga : recreation after the dissolution of the word

3. Wamsha: Geneologies of gods & rishis

4. Manvantara: The reigns of manus - the 1st humans
5. Wamshanucharita: Geneologies of various royal dynasties
V. The Upavedas : (The auxiliary vedas were traditionally associated with Vedas:

1. Ayurveda(Medicine) - rigveda

2. Gandharvaveda(music) - samaveda

3. Dhanurveda(Archery) - Yajurveda

4. Shipveda/Arthaveda ( The science of craft /Wealth(vishwakarma) -

Atharvaveda

VI . Shad Dharshanas : 6 schools of Indian philosophy is called . Sankya

Darshana, yoga, Nyaya, Vaishesika , Mimansa/purvahMimansa,
Vedanta/Uttara- Mimansa by Himavanth (Himalaya), Munjavant(Hindukush)

* Rigvedic/ Early Vedic period (1500 bc -1000bc)

* rigveda mentions 40 rivers .in these nadisukta hymns mentions 21 rivers including
Ganges in the east& kubha(kabul) in the west.(Afganistan) * rigvedic people called
them as Aryans. area = Sapta Sindhu i.e. Land of 7 rivers= Sindhu (Indus, Punjab)
&their 5 tributaries - Vitasta(Jhelum,punjab),
Asikani(Chenab, punjab), Vipas(Beas,
punjab), parushni(Ravi, punjab)
& Sutuadri (Sutlej, punjab)
& Saraswati (Sarsuti, Rajasthan )
* In rigveda, Sindhu most mentioned, the most pious river- Saraswati,
Ganges-1 time, Yamuna-3 times
* The Dasrajan war(the Battle of 10 kings)blw Aryans
* kula(family)- Kulapa(Head)
Grama(the Vlg) - Gramani
Vis(the clan) - Vispati
Jana(the people)- Gopa/Gopati
Rashtra (the country) - Rajan
* The purohita/Domestic priest 1st ranking official
* next Senani(army chief) , Gramani(head of vlg)
* Rigveda speaks assemblies Sabha(Committee), Samiti, Vidath, Gana. - sabha & samiti
are popular assemblies later Sabha functioned as a court of justice
- Theft,burglary,Stealing of cattle & Cheating were some of the crimes
prevalent then
SOCIETY:
* Brahmanas -Teachers & priests
Kshatriyas - Administrators
Vaishyas - Merchants, Farmers, Bankers
Shudras - Artisans, Labourers
* People were followed this by their own ability & liking. not hereditary occupations.
later on it became hereditary. Members of family takes different professions &
belonged to different varnas
* No clarity of Child Marriage , Widow married his younger brother of deceased
husband.(Niyoga)
* properties inherited by son
* Right to property existed
* Home of the teacher was school
* Milk & it's products part of diet. Mentions grain cooked with milk
Kshirapakamodanam
* Meat of fish ,birds , animals was eaten
* Aghanya : cow is not to be killed
* Penalty of death /Expulsion from the kingdom to those who kill or injured cows
* Alcoholic drinks Sura & Soma were also consumed
* Aryans primarily Agricultural & pastoral people who keeps their wealth in the form of
cows
* One stanza in rigveda called Gamblers lament : ' My wife rejects me & her mother
hates me'
RELIGION:
* fire was sacred as it was regarded to be the intermediary between man &god.
* 33 gods .. later it classified into 3 categories:
1. Terrestrial (prithvisthana): Prithvi, Agni, Soma, Brihaspati & rivers (Sindhu river
goddess)
2. Aerial/Intermediate (Antarikshasthana):Indra, Rudra(God of Animals), Vayu-
vata, Parjanya. 3.Celestial(Dyusthana): Daus( oldestt god & father of world), Surya
[Surya(chariot driven by 7 horses), Savitri(god of light, famous for Gayatri mantra)
,Mitra( Solar god), Pushan (God of marriage, main function- guarding of
roads,herdsmen, straying cattle),Vishnu(god covered in
3 steps(upakarma)], Varuna, Aditi(grt mother of gods), Usha,
Asvin/Nastya(God of health,youth& immortality)
* Indra,Agni & Varuna are most popular dieties of rigvedic Aryans.
* Indra /purandara(destroyer of fort) : role of war lord & rain god.
Agni 2nd imp: intermediary between man and God
Varuna : personified water ; was supposed to uphold 'rita' or the natural
order(Ritasyagopa)
* Soma : a plant producing a potent drink during courses of Agnistoma sacrifice could
be hemp/Bhang called King of plants . The 9th mandala of rigveda is attributed to
Soma called Soma mandala.
* gods were visualised as animals but no Animal worship
* The nature of rigvedic is Henotheism (a belief in many gods).
* they worship host of gods with a simple ceremony called Yajna /Sacrifice. it consists
of offerings of milk ,ghee, ghee,grain,flesh,Soma.
ECONOMY:
*Animals were domesticated. tiger was not known but lion, elephant,boar were known
* very little trade there . Money & markets were not extensively used * cow & gold
ornaments of fixed value were media of exchange .
* coins were not known
* carpenters, smiths,tanners,weavers , potters , grinders of corn there
* art of healing wounds ,curing diseases & experts in surgery exists
* herbs &drugs charm & spells used to heal diseases * Ochre Coloured Pottery -OCP
culture (1800bc -1000bc)

LATER VEDIC PERIOD:

(1000BC -600BC)

* Aryans are shifted from Saraswati to Ganges (madya desa)

* rivers mentioned - narmada, Sadanira(modern Gandak), Chambal etc..
* they expansion of settlement towards east mentioned in Satapatha
Brahmana
* LvP mentions Vindhya mountain (southern mountain)
* territorial division:
Aryavarta(Northern India)
Madyadesa(Central India)
Dakshinapath(Southern India) POLITY:
* Taittariya Brahmana : theory of the divine of origin of kinship
*new civil functionaries = purohita
* The Bhagdudha(Collector of taxes)
The suta/Sarathi( The royal herald or Charioteer) the
Khasttri(Chamberlain) The Akshavapa(Courier)
* The Senani(The general)
The Gramani( head of vlg)
* Sthapati : Duty of Administering
* Satapati : Group of 100 v@lgs
Adhikritha : Vlg Official
Ugras : Police official
* control over the kingdom is done by Sabha & samithi. Vidatha is disappeared
* judiciary also grew. king administering criminal law
* The killing of embryo, Homicide ,The murder of a Brahmana, Stealing of gold ,
Drinking Sura were serious crimes. Treason was a capital offence SOCIETY :
* Yajnas learned men = Brahmanas
* Aryans expanded from East & south- Kshatriyas emerged to conquer
Territories & administer them
* Vaishyas this derived from vis= people
* 4th cls= shudras
* Gotra i.e. The clan appeared In LVC
* higher castes could marry vth lower but vth shudras not permitted
* 4 Ashramas(stages of life ): Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanprastha & Sanyasa. This
system was formed to attain 4 Purusharthas : Dharma,Artha, Kama, Moksha.
* The status of women was declined. Women were prohibited from attending political
assemblies
* according to Aitareya Brahmana: Daughter is a sources of misery but a son is the
protector of family.
* According to Maitrayani Samhita : there are 3evils : Liquor, women , Dice *
Monogamy(one wife) is ideal but Polygamy (more than one wife) was frequent
* Yajnavalkya- Gargi dialogue (vrihadaranyaka upanishada) indicates that some women
had got higher education.
* Types of Hindu mrgs:
1. Brahma vivaha- with dowry
2. Daiva - give to priest for his fees
3. Arsha - after accepting a bride price
4. Prajapatya - without demanding bride price
5. Gandharva - Love mrg
6. Asura - Purchased girl
7. Rakshasa - daughter of defeated King or kidnapped girl
8. Paisacha - After seducing or raping her
9. Anuloma - bridegroom uppercaste vth lower caste bride
10. pratiloma - reverse of Anuloma
RELIGION:
* Prajapati (creator of Universe/Brahma)= Supreme God
 Vishnu( Patron god of Aryans)
Rudra(God of Animals/ Shiva/Mahesha)
* Pushana= protector of cattle in EVP now become the god of Shudras.
*Vrihadaranyaka upanishada was 1st the work to give doctrine of
Transmigration (punarjanma/Samsarachakra) &deeds(Karma)
* 12 ratnins(Satapatha Brahmana)
1. Purohita - the priest
2. Mahishi - the queen
3. Yuvaraja - Crown prince
4. suta/Sarathi - The royal herald/The Charioteer
5. senani - the general
6. Gramani - head of the vlg
7. kshata - Gateman/Chamberlain
8. Sangrahitri- Treasurer
9. Bhagdudha - Collector of taxes
10. Akshavapa - courier
11. Palagala - Friend of king
12. Govikarta - Head of forest Dept
* Brahmanas sacrifices(yajnas) came into prominence:
1. Laghuyajnas(simple/pvt sacrifices ): performed by householder
2. Mahayajnas (Grand /Royal yajnas) :
performed by an aristocratic & wealthy man & the king
a. Rajasuya Yajna : Royal consecration (over a yr) replaced by abhisheka
b. Vajapeya Yajna : Drink of strength (17 days upto full 1 yr)
c. Asvamedha Yajna : Horse sacrifice (3 days)
d. Agnistoma Yajna : sacrifice of Animals dedicated to agni lasted for 1 day.
although Yajnika(performer of Yajna) & his wife spent ascetic life for 1yr before Yajna.
on that day Soma rasa was consumed.
ECONOMY:
* Land become more valuable than cows.
* Agriculture began to replace rearing of cattle
* Rice,barley,beans,sesame&wheat were cultivated
* production of goods & new occupations like fisherman, washerman, dyers,door
keepers &footmen
* Distinction= The chariot maker , The carpenter, the tanner , The hide dresser *
Knowledge of metals like tin,silver& iron was made apart from gold & ayas(either
copper or iron) in the rigveda
* evidence regarding organisation of merchants is into guilds because of reference to
corporations(Ganas) & Aldermen(shreshtins)
* PGW( paint grey ware) culture 1100BC -600BC

MAHAJANAPADA PERIOD (600BC - 325BC):

*The Buddhist literature Anguttara Nikaya gives a list of sixteen great kingdoms called
‘Sixteen Mahajanapadas’. They were Anga, Magadha, Kasi, Kosala, Vajji, Malla, Chedi,
Vatsa, Kuru, Panchala, Matsya, Surasena, Asmaka, Avanti, Gandhara and Kambhoja.
Finally in the mid 6th century B.C., only four kingdoms – Vatsa, Avanti,
Kosala and Magadha survived.
1. Vatsa:The Vatsa kingdom was situated on the banks of the river Yamuna.
Its capital was Kausambi near modern Allahabad. Its most popular ruler was Udayana.
He strengthened his position by entering into matrimonial alliances with Avanti, Anga
and Magadha. After his death, Vatsa was annexed to the Avanti kingdom.
2.Avanti:The capital of Avanti was Ujjain. The most important ruler of this kingdom
was Pradyota. He became powerful by marrying Vasavadatta, the daughter of
Udayana. He patronized Buddhism.
The successors of Pradyota were weak and later this kingdom was taken over by the
rulers of Magadha.
3.Kosala:Ayodhya was the capital of Kosala. King Prasenajit was its famous ruler. He
was highly educated. His position was further strengthened by the matrimonial alliance
with Magadha. His sister was married to Bimbisara and Kasi was given to her as dowry.
Subsequently there was a dispute with
Ajatasatru. After the end of the conflict, Prasenajit married the daughter of
Bimbisara. After the death of this powerful king, Kosala became part of the Magadha.
4. Magadha:Of all the kingdoms of north India, Magadha emerged powerful and
prosperous. It became the nerve centre of political activity in north India. Magadha was
endowed by nature with certain geographical and strategic advantages. These made her
to rise to imperial greatness. Her strategic position between the upper and lower part of
the Gangetic valley was a great advantage. It had a fertile soil. The iron ores in the hills
near Rajgir and copper and iron deposits near Gaya added to its natural assets. Her
location at the centre of the highways of trade of those days contributed to her wealth.
Rajagriha was the capital of
Magadha. During the reign of
Bimbisara and Ajatasatru, the prosperity of Magadha reached its zenith.
--- Bimbisara was a contemporary of both Vardhamana Mahavira and Gautama
Buddha. However, both religions claim him as their supporter and devotee. He
seems to have made numerous gifts to the Buddhist Sangha.
--- Buddhists and Jains both claim that Ajatasatru was a follower of their religion. But it
is generally believed that in the beginning he was a follower of
Jainism and subsequently embraced Buddhism. He is said to have met
Gautama Buddha. This scene is also depicted in the sculptures of Barhut. According to
the Mahavamsa, he constructed several chaityas and viharas. He was also instrumental
in convening the First Buddhist Council at Rajagriha soon after the death of the
Buddha
--- Haryanka Dynasty --> Shisunaga Dynasty --> Nanda Dynasty ( It was during this
time that Alexander invaded India)
* After Persian/Iranian Invasion (Darius Invasion) - kharosthi script was came written
from right to left like the Arabic & also bell shaped capitals... this also led to
Alexander Invasion
* Macedonian / Alexander Invasion : Alexander ascended the throne of
Macedonia after the death of his father Philip in 334 B.C. Battle of
Hydaspes ,In 327 B.C. Alexander crossed the Hindukush Mountains and spent nearly
ten months in fighting with the tribes.he crossed the river and won the famous battle
of Hydaspes
was fought on the plains of Karri with Porus. On his way he reached Babylon where he
fell seriously ill and died in 323 B.C. By opening up both the land & sea routes between
India &Europe it brought them close

EMERGENCE OF RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS IN 6TH CENTURY BC

BUDDHISM:

* Gautama Buddha founder ,born- 563BC on the vaisakha purnima day at

Lumbinivana (Rukmindehi (D), Nepal) in the Sakhya Kshatriya Clan

* Father - Sudhodhana was the republican king of Kapilvastu, Mother-

Mahamaya/Mayadevi princess of Kollia Republic

* he brought up by his stepmother &aunt Mahaprajapati Gautami.

* he married early age to Yasodhara (Gopa/Bimba) (princess of Shakya

Dynasty) &his son is Rahula

* 4 sights- an old man ,a diseased person , a dead body & an ascetic - proved to be a
turning point in his career.

* age of 29 - he renounced home- Mahabhinishkramana(great gng forth)& became a

wandering ascetic

* 1st teacher - Alara kalama- he learnt technique for meditation. Next teacher
- Udraka Ramputra

GREAT EVENTS OF BUDDHA'S LIFE & SYMBOLS :

1. Janma(birth): Lotus & bull

2. Mahabhinishkramana (renunciation) : Horse

3. Nirvana / Sambodhi(Enlightenment) : Bodhi tree

4. Dharmachakra Pravartana(1st Sermon) : Wheel
5. Mahaparinirvana(Death) : Stupa

* Age of 35 - Under a pipal tree at Uruvella(Bodh Gaya) on the bank of river

Niranjana(modern name Falgu) he attained Nirvana(enlightenment) after days of
continuous meditation,now he was a fully enlightened (Buddha/Tathagat)

* Buddha delivered his 1st Sermon at sarnath (dear park) to his 5 disciples ,this is
known as Dharmachakra Pravartana (turning point of wheel of law)

* he died at the age of 80 in 483 BC at kushinagar (kusia(vlg), U.P) . This is known as

Mahaparinirvana (final blowing out)

* Kanthaka - Buddha's Horse

Channa - Buddha's Charioteer

Devadatta - Buddha's cousin

Sujata - the farmers daughter who gave him rice milk at Bodhgaya.

*Gautama(clan name), Siddhartha (childhood name), Shakya muni( final birth)

* Most of the Buddhist Sculptures were built in Gandhara style but the 1st
Buddha statue was probably constructed in the Mathura Art form

* most prominent followers : Bimbisara, Prasenjit, Udayan

* Evidence of Panchsheel Sermon given by Buddha is described in Chandogya

Upanishad.

* Buddhagosha's work ' Visudhamagga ' explains Buddhist Principles & Also known as
Path of Purification
DOCTRINE OF BUDDHISM :
* CHATWARI ARYA SATYANI( 4 NOBLE TRUTHS) : it is the essence of
Buddhism

1. Life is full of sorrow (Dukha): Sabbam Dukkam

2. there are causes of sorrow ( Dukha Samudaya) : Dwadash Nidan/Pratiya Samutpada.

3. This sorrow can be stopped (Dukha Nirodha) : Nirvana

4. There is a path leading to the cessation of sorrow ( Dukha Nirodha Gamini

pratipada) : Ashtangika Marga

NOTE:

1. Pratitya samutapada is also known as Hetuvada( theory of cause - effect) &

Kshanabhanga Vada( Theory of momen-tariness/Impermanence)

2. Desire is the root cause of sorrow

3. ultimate aim of life is to attain Nirvana , the eternity state of peace

&bliss ,which means liberation of the cycle of birth & death

4. Ashtangika Marga (8 fold path) : Right to Observation, Right Determination,

Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right exercise, Right memory, Right
meditation

5. Madhya Marga/Madhyama Pratipada (Middle path) : Man should avoid both

extremes, i.e. a life of comforts & luxury & life of severe asceticism

TRIRATNA( 3 JEWELS OF BUDDHISM) :

1. Buddha(the enlightened)

2. Dharma(doctrine)

3. Sangha (commune)
BUDDHIST COUNCILS:

* 1st B..C(483BC) - Saptaparni cave, Rajagriha - Ajathashatru(Haryanka Dynasty)

2nd BC (383BC): Chullavanga Vaishali - Kalashoka (shisunaga Dynasty)

3rd BC( 250 BC) : Ashokarama vihar, Patliputra - Ashoka(Maurya Dynasty)

4th BC ( 98AD) - KundalaVana, Kashmir - Kanishka (kushana Dynasty)

* Ashoka the greatest patron of Buddhism called 3rd BC & sent mission comprising his
son Mahendra & his daughter Sanghamitra to srilanka
* Kanishka called 4th BC & sent missions to china,korea& Japan

* Palas of Bengal & bihar were last great patrons of Buddhism

BUDDHIST LITERATURE:

I. Pali Texts:

* Tripitaka: pitaka means basket, it is written on palm leaves & kept in baskets

* Vinayapitaka: Monastic code

* Suttapitaka : Buddha's sayings.(it contains DigghaNikaya, Majhim Nikaya,

Sanyukta Nikaya,Anguttar Nikaya, Khuddak/Kshudraka Nikaya)

* Abhidhammapitaka: Religious discourses of Buddha

* Milindpannaho(i.e. questions of Milinda) - The dialogue between Milinda( Indo-greek

ruler Menander) & Budhist saint Nagasena.

* Dipavamsha & Mahavamsha- The great chronicles of srilanka.

II. Sanskrit Texts :

* Ashwagosha : Buddha charitha, Saundarananda, Sutralankar, Sariputra prakaran &
Vajrasuchi

* Vasumitra : Mahavibhasha shastra

* Buddhagosha : Visudhamagga, Atthakathayen & Sumangalvasini * Nagarjuna:

Madyamika karika & prajnaparimita karika- Nagarjuna etc...

SECTS OF BUDDHISM:

* HINAYANA(The Lesser Vehicle):

1. Its followers believed in original teaching of Buddha

2.They sought individual Salvation through Self- discipline & meditation

3. They did not believe in idol-worship

4. They favoured Pali Language

5. It is known as 'Southern Buddhist Religion ' , Because it prevailed to the south of
India. eg: srilanka, Burma(Myanmar), Syam(Thailand),Java etc..

6. 2 subsects: Vaibhasika & Sautantrika

* MAHAYANA(THE GREATER VEHICLE):

1.Its followers believed in the heavenliness of Buddha

2. They sought the salvation of all through the grace & help of Buddha & Bodhisatva

3. They believed in Idol- Worship

4. They favoured Sanskrit Language

5. It is known as Northern Buddhist Religion, because it prevailed North of India eg:

China,korea,Japan etc..
6. 2 subsects: Madyamika/Shunyavada (founder of Nagarjuna) &
Yogachar/Vijnanavada( Founder- Maitreyanath &his disciple Asanga)

* VAJRAYANA:
1. It's followers believed in that salvation could be best attained by acquiring the
magical power, which they called Vajra
2. The chief divinities of this new sect were The Taras
3. it became popular in Eastern India, particularly Bengal & Bihar * BODHISATTVAS:
1. Vajrapani: Like Indra ,he holds athunderbolt , for of sin &evil
2. Avlokitesvara(the lord who looks down) : also called padmapani(the lotus bearer):
Kind hearted
3. Manjushri(Stimulator of understanding) : He holds a book describing 10
paramitas(spiritual perfections)
4. Maitreya: The future Buddha
5. Kshirigriha : Guardian of Purgatories 6. Amitabha/Amitayusha : Buddha of Heaven
SACRED SHRINES:

* Lumbini,Bodhgaya,Sarnath & Kusinagar where the 4 principal events of Buddha's life-

birth, enlightenment, 1st Sermon, Death took place. Added to these 4 places Sravasti,
Rajagriha, Vaishali, Sankasya - 8 holy places (Ashtasthanas)

* Amaravati & Nagarjuna konda - A.P

Nalanda- Bihar

Junagadh & Vallabhi - Gujarat

Sanchi & Bahrut - M.P

Ajanta- Ellora - Maharashtra

Dhaulagiri - Orissa

Kannauj,Kaushambi & Mathura - UP

Jagadala & Somapuri - West Bengal

* Budhist Architecture developed in 3 forms :

1. Stupa - Relics of the Buddha or some prominent Buddhist monks are preserved

2. Chaitya - Prayer Hall

3. Vihara - Residence /Monasteries

4. BUDDHIST UNIVERSITIES:

1. Nalanda - Bihar - Kumaragupta 1

2. odantpuri - Bihar - Gopala(pala ruler)

3. Vikramshila - Bihar - Dharmapala(pala ruler)

4. Somapuri - North Bengal - Dharmapala( pala ruler)

5. Jagadal - Bengal - Ramapala(pala ruler) 6. Vallabhi - Gujarat - Bhattarka(Maitrak

ruler)
ROYAL PATRONS :

Bimbisara & Ajatashatru(Magadhan ruler)

prasenjit( kosala ruler) udayan( vatsa ruler)

pradyota (Avanti ruler)

Ashoka & Dasharatha( Mauryan ruler)

Milinda/Menander (Indo-greek ruler)

Kanishka(Kushana ruler)

Harshavardhana(Vardhana ruler)

Gopala, Dharmapala & Rampala(pala rulers)

JAINISM:
* 24 Thirthankaras(literally Ford Maker, across stream of existence) . 1st being
Rishabhadeva/Adinatha & 24th being Mahavira

* The Vishnu Purana & Bhagavata Purana describes Rishabha as an incarnation of

Narayana.

* 2 Jain Thirthankaras found in rigveda - Rishabha & Arishtanemi

* only 23rd & 24th Thirthankaras has proof

* parashwanath(23rd) was a prince of benaras who Abandoned throne & died at

sammet-shikar/Parashwanath (parasanath) hill at Giridih , Jharkhand

-- His 4 main teachings(Chaturthi)

1. Ahimsa (Non- Injury)

2. Satya ( Non-lying)

3. Asteya( Non-stealing)

4. Aparigraha( Non- Possession)

* Mahavira(24th) adopted all nd added one more is Brahmacharya (Chastity) to it
* Jainism is atheistic & believes in rebirth & karmavada

* followers kings - Udayan , Chandragupta maurya, Kalinga king kharavela,

Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha & chandela rulers

* Ahimsa is fundamental to Jainism

*kaivalya means complete understanding/Omniscience/ supreme wisdom

24 THIRTHANKARAS:

1. Rishabha - bull 2. Ajitnath -

Elephant

......

23. Parashwanath - Serpent

24. Mahavira - Lion

MAHAVIRA'S LIFE:

* He was born in 540BC in a Vlg Kundagrama near vaishali in Bihar.

* Father- Siddhartha head of Jnathrika Kshatriya Clan under bajji of vaishali &
Mother - Trishala sis of Chetaka king of vaishali
* He is also related to Bimbisara the ruler of magadha who had married chellana the
daughter of Chetaka
* He married to Yashoda(daughter of samarvira king) & daughter Anonya priyadarshini
&her husband Jamali became 1st disciple of Mahavira * Age of 30 - after the death of
his father he renounced his family became an ascetic & proceeded in search of truth.
He was accompanied by Makkhali
Gosala later he left him & founded Ajivika Sect
* At age of 42 - under a Sal tree at Jambhikagrama on the bank of river
Rijupalika. Mahavira attained kaivalya(supreme Knowledge)
* From now on wards he was called Kevalin (perfect learned), Jina or
Jitendriya(one who conquered his senses), Nirgrantha(free from all bonds)
Arhant(blessed one) & Mahavira(the brave) & his followers were named Jain
* He delivered his 1st Sermon at pava at his 11 disciples (known as 11
Gandharvas/Gandharas). Later he founded Jain Sangha(Jain commune) at pava.
* At age of 72 in 468BC he passed away pavapuri near biharsharif in Bihar.
Sudharma only one of 11 Gandharvas who survived after the death of Mahavira

DOCTRINES OF JAINISM:

* TRIRATNA(3 GEMS OF JAINISM):

Aim: The aim of existence is to attain through the triratna of

1. Samyak Shradha/Vishwas (Right in Faith) : Belief in Thirthankaras

2. Samyak Jnan(Right to Knowledge) : Knowledge of Jain creed

3. Samyak Karma/Acharana( Right action/Conduct) : Practice of the 5 VOWS of Jainism

* PANCHA MAHAVATARAS(5 VOWS OF JAINISM) 1st four by Parashwanath & 5th

by Mahavira

1. Ahimsa - Non injury

2. Satya - Non lying
3. Asteya - Non stealing
4. Aparigraha - Non possession
5. Brahmacharya - Chastity

* TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE:
1. Mati Jnana - activity of sense organs

2. ShrutaJnana - knowledge revealed by mind

3. Avadhi Jnana - Clair voyant perception

4. Manahparyaya Jnana - Telepathic Knowledge

5. Keval Jnana - Temporal Knowledge/Omniscience

* Syadvada i.e. The theory of maybe/Perhaps. It means 7 modes of prediction
(saptabhangi Nayavad). it is also known as Anekantavada i.e. The theory of
plurality/Multisidedness.

* PRINCIPLES OF JAINISM AS PREACHED BY MAHAVIRA:

1. Rejected the authority of the Vedas & Vedic rituals

2. Did not believe in the existence of God

3. Believed in karma & Transmigration of soul

4. Laid great emphasis on equality

JAINISM COUNCILS :

* 1st - 300BC - Patliputra - sthulabadra(chairman) - patron (Chandraguptamaurya)-

Compilation of 12 Angas

* 2nd - 512 AD - Vallabhi - Devarathi kshamasramana - Final compilation of

12 Angas & 12 upangas

JAIN LITERATURE:

* The sacred literature of svethambaras is written in a type of prakrit called

Ardhamagadhi Prakrit

1. 12 Angas, 2. 12 Upangas , 3. 10 Parikarnas

4. 6 Chhedasutras ,5. 4 Mulasutras ,

6. 2 sutra- Granthas

NOTE : 14 PARVAS. it is the part of 12 Angas & the oldest sacred Jain text of
Mahavira's preachings completed at 1st Jain council

* Imp Jain texts :

1. Kalpasutra(in Sanskrit)- Bhadrabahu

2. Bhadrabahu charita, 3. Parishista parvan (an appendix of Trishashthishalaka purush) -

Hemachandra
SECTS OF JAINISM:

* In 298Bc , in magadha (southam bihar) many Jain monks along with

Bhadrabahu & Chandraguptamaurya leading to the Deccan & south India. After 12 yrs
they returned back then the leader of group sthulabadra stayed in magadha.
* 2 sects :
1. svethambaras (white clad) - those who put on white robes - Sthulabadra
2. Digambaras (sky clad) - Those who were stark naked - Bhadrabahu

EXAMPLES OF JAIN ARCHITECTURE:

1. Statue Of Gomateshwar/Bahubali - shravanabelagola(Karnataka)- built by a minister

& commander of chamundaraya of ganga Dynasty king in 10th cen AD.
2. Jain temples were built at khajuraho by chandela rulers
3. Mathura was a famous Jain centre in post Mauryan era
4. Biographies of Jain Thirthankaras mentioned in kalpasutra composed by
Bhadrabahu
5. Prabhasgiri is a Jain pilgrimage site located in Kaushambi at Uttarpradesh. this site
related to 6th Jain Thirthankara called Padmaprabhu

6. Mahamastakabhisheka , an imp ritual in Jainism is held at shravanabelagola

Karnataka for every 12 yrs

7. Dilwara temple : Vimalavamshi temple, Tejapala temple -Mount

Abu(rajastan)
 MAURYAN PERIOD:
LITERARY SOURCES:
* Kautilyas Athasastra written in Sanskrit . he is a contemporary of Chandragupta
Maurya. Kautilya was also called ‘Indian Machiavelli’. it contains Socio & political
conditions of maurya period
*Megasthenes’ Indica : Megasthenes was the Greek ambassador of selecus nikator in
the court of Chandragupta Maurya. it gives information about Mauryan Administration
7 - caste system, Absence of Slavery etc.. *Visakadatta’s Mudrarakshasa is a drama in
Sanskrit. Although written during the Gupta period, it describes how Chandragupta
with the assistance of Kautilya overthrew the Nandas.
* The Ceylonese Chronicles Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa throw light on the role Asoka
in spreading Buddhism in Sri Lanka.
ARCHEOLOGICAL SOURCES:
* The inscriptions of Asoka were first deciphered by James Princep in 1837. * Though
Prakrit was the language used in them ,the script varied from region to region
(kharosthi in the North West, Aramaic & Greek in the west , Brahmi script in the east
of India)
* Ashokan Edicts & Inscriptions:
* The puranas described them as Shudras . According to Mudrarakshasa =
Vrishal/Kulhina (low clan). According to Junagarh Rock Inscription of
rudradaman(150AD) =Vaishya origin. According to Buddhist works = Sakya kshatriya
clan which Buddha belonged
* Mauryas came was full of peacocks( mor) ... Moriyas . They are belonged to
Moriya tribe(low caste)
1. Chandraguptamaurya: he marched against Selukas Niketar, who was Alexander’s
General controlling the northwestern India. Chandragupta Maurya defeated him and
a treaty was signed. By this treaty, Selukas Niketar ceded the trans-Indus territories –
namely Aria, Arakosia and Gedrosia – to the Mauryan Empire. He also gave his
daughter in marriage to the Mauryan prince. Chandragupta made a gift of 500
elephants to Selukas. Megasthenes was sent to the Mauryan court as Greek
ambassador.
2. Bindusara:
*He is known to the Greeks as Amitrichates.
* He asked Antiochus I of Syria to send some sweet wine ,dried figs & a sophist.
Antiochus I sent went & figs but politely replied that Greek Philosophers are not
for sale. * Bindusara patronised Ajivikas
3. Ashoka :
*He acted as Governor of Ujjain and also suppressed a revolt in Taxila during his father
Bindusara’s reign
* The Ceylonese Chronicles, Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa state that Asoka captured
power usurped the throne after killing his 99 brothers & spared Tissa, the youngest
one. Radhagupta, a minister of bindusara helped him in fratricidal struggle. crowned
throne in 269BC .
*Ashoka fought the Kalinga war in 261 BC. Bherighosa was replaced by Dhammaghosa.
*Another most important effect of the Kalinga war was that Asoka embraced
Buddhism under the influence of Buddhist monk, Upagupta.
*According some scholars, his conversion to Buddhism was gradual and not
immediate. About 261 B.C. Asoka became a Sakya Upasaka (lay disciple) and two and a
half years later, a Bikshu (monk). Then he gave up hunting, visited Bodh-Gaya, and
organized missions. He appointed special officers called Dharma Mahamatras to
speed up the progress of Dhamma. In 241 B.C., he visited the birth place of Buddha,
the Lumbini Garden, near Kapilavastu. He also visited other holy places of Buddhism
like Sarnath, Sravasti and
Kusinagara. He sent a mission to Sri Lanka under his son Mahendra and daughter
Sangamitra who planted there the branch of the original Bodhi tree. Asoka convened
the Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra in 240 B.C. in order to strengthen the
Sangha. It was presided over by Moggaliputta Tissa. *The concept of non-violence and
other similar ideas of Asoka’s Dhamma are identical with the teachings of Buddha. But
he did not equate Dhamma with Buddhist teachings. Buddhism remained his personal
belief *Asoka was “the greatest of kings” surpassing Alexander the Great and Julius
Caesar and other renowned Emperors of the world.
*The western part was ruled by Kunala, son of Asoka and the eastern part by
Dasaratha, one of the grand sons of Asoka. Due to the Bactrian invasions, the western
part of the empire collapsed. . The last Mauryan king was Brihatratha, who was
assassinated by Pushyamitra Sunga.
MAURYAN ADMINISTRATION:
I. CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION:
* It was a central bureaucracy - Nucleus was king. According to
Kautilya/Chanakya there are 7 elements of states (Saptanga Theory):
1. Raja- The king(soul)
2. Amatya- The secretary
3. Janapada - Territory
4. Durg - Fort
5. Kosha - Treasure
6. Sena - Army
7. Mitra - Friend
* MANTRI PARISHAD: with king
1. The yuvaraja (crown prince)
2. The purohita ( the chief priest)
3. The senapati ( The commander-in-chief)
4. a few other ministers
* Imp OFFICIALS:
1. Sannidhata - Chief treasury officer
2. Samaharta - The collector of general revenue
3. Vyavaharika/Dharmastha - Chief Justice of Dharmasthiya Nyayalaya(civil court)
4. Pradeshta - Chief justice of Kantakashidan Nyayalaya (criminal courtl
5. Dhamma Mahamatra - care taker of Dhamma created this by Ashoka
6. Rashtra pala/Kumara - Province Viceroys
7. Pradesika - Modern District Magistrate
8. Rajukas - later day Patwaris (Surveying & assessing the land)
9. Yukta - Subordinate Revenue officer of district Level.
10. Sthanika - collecting officer under control of pradeshika
11. Gopa - responsible for Accounts
12. Nagaraka - Charge of city Administration
13. Akshapatala - Accountant General
14. Sutaadhyaksha - Supervised Agriculture
15. Panyadhyaksha - Superintendent of Commerce
16. Samsthaadhyaksha - Superintendent of Market
17. Navaadhyaksha - Superintendent of Ship
18. Akaradhyaksha - Superintendent of Mines
19. Lohadhyaksha - Superintendent of Iron
II. PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION:
* Uttarapatha(Northern Province) - Taxila(capital)
Avantirashtra( Western) - Ujjain
Prachi (Eastern & central) - Patliputra
Kalinga ( Eastern) - Toshali
Dakshinapatha(Southern) - Suvarnagiri
* Chakra(province) - Rashtrapala/Kumara
Ahar/Vishaya(District) - Pradeshika (Administrative) & Rajukas(Land Revenue)
Sangrahana(A group of 10 Vlgs) - Gopa
Gram (Vlg) - Gramika
III. MUNICIPAL ADMINISTRATION:
* Kautilya devotes afukk chapter to the rules of Nagaram ( City
Superintendent)= to maintain Law & order
* Megasthanese's Account of the system : 6 Committees of 5 members each
& their functions
1st - Industrial Arts
2nd - Entertainment Foreigners
3rd - Registration of Births & deaths
4th - Trade & Commerce
5th - Public sale & Manufactured Goods
6th - Collection of taxes on the articles sold (1/10th of Purchase Price)
IV. ARMY:
* maintained Huge Army & Also a Navy
* According to Megasthanese the administration of Army was carried out by a board of
30 officers divided into 6 committees (5mem in each)
1. Infantry
2. Cavalry
3. Elephant
4. Chariots
5. Navy
6. Transport
* 2 types of Gudhapurushas(detectives) - Sansthan ( Stationary) & Sanchari
(Wandering)
ECONOMY:
* The punch marked coins (mostly silver) were the common units of transactions
* Tax was collected from peasants varied from 1/4 to 1/6 of produce
*It also provides Irrigation Facilities (setubandha) & Charged Water - tax * The
state enjoyed in monopoly in Mining , Forest, salt, sale of liquor, manufacture of
arms etc
* Sohagaura(Gorakhpur dis, UP) Copper plate Inscription &
Mahasthana(Bhogara district, Bangladesh) Inscription deal with the relief measures to
be adopted during a famine.
* Imp ports : Bharukachch/Bharoch & supara (Western coast), Tamraliptu in
Bengal(eastern coast)
SOCIETY:
* Kautilya's Arthashastra says they were shudras as an Aryan community
* Reduction Gap between the Vaishyas & shudras
* Megasthanese states that Indian society : 7 classes
1. Philosophers , 2. Farmers, 3. Soldiers,
4. Herdsmen, 5. Artisans, 6. Magistrates,
7. councillors
* No slavery in Mauryan reign
* women occupied high position & enjoy freedom
* according to kautilya, Women were permitted to have divorce or remarry. * Women
were employed as personal bodyguards of the king ,Spies & in other diverse jobs.
MAURYAN ART:
* Anand Coomaraswamy classified Mauryan art in 2 types :
1. Royal/Court Art: Royal palace of Chandraguptamaurya (kumarahar,Patna), city of
Patliputra, Ashokan pillars, caves,stupas etc..
2. Folk/Popular Art :
I. Figure culture of Yaksha-Yakshini
eg : Yaksha of Parkham(Mathura), Yaksha of Besnagar/Vidisha (MP), Yaksha of
Didarganj (Patna)
II. Terracota objects
III. Inscribed stone portrait of emperor Ashoka/Broken relief Sculpture of
Ashoka (Kanaganhalli, Karnataka)
* Fragments of stone pillars , Wooden floor& ceiling indicating of an 80 pillared hall
have been discovered at kumhrar,Patna. By seeing this Fahein remarks: " These
palaces are so beautiful & excellent that they appear to be the creation of God rather
than men"
* Each pillar is made of single piece of sandstone, only their capitals in form of Lion or
bulls are joined with top of pillar
* 4 LION CAPITAL AT SARNATH & SANCHI. LION CAPITAL OF SARNATH
WAS ADOPTED AS NATIONAL EMBLEM OF INDIA ON 26TH JAN 1950
* Single lion capital at Rampurva & Lauriya Nandangarh
* single bull capital at Rampurva
* A carved elephant at Dhauli & engraved elephant at kalsi
* The Mauryan artisans hewing out caves from rocks for monks to live in eg: Barabar
caves in Jehanabad(Ashokan)
Nagarjuni caves in Gayatri(Dasharath)
* stupas were built throughout the empire to enshrined the relics of Buddha . famous
are at Sanchi & Bharhuta.

POST MAURYAN/PRE GUPTA PERIOD (185BC-319BC):

I. SUNGA DYNASTY(185BC-73BC): pushyamitra sunga

* Budhist Stupa at Bharhuta(MP) was built during Sungas

* His son Agnimitra, The hero of Kalidasa's 'Malvikagnimitra'

* The fine Gateway railing which surrounds sanchi stupa built by Ashoka during the
reign of Sungas.

* Example of sunga art : Vihar, Chaitya,Stupa of Bhaja(poona), Amaravati Stupa, Nasika

Chaitya etc...

II.KANVA DYNASTY(73BC -28BC)

III. SATAVAHANA DYNASTY(60BC- 225AD)

IV. CHETI/CHEDI DYNASTY(100BC)

* Kharavela was a liberal patron of Jain monks ,he constructed cave s on the udayagiri
hill (bhubaneswar, Orissa)

FOREIGN SUCCESSORS OF MAURYA'S:

I. THE INDO-GREEKS/Bactrian(200BC)

*Bactrian Greeks 1st foreign rulers of N-W India

* famous ruler Menander/Milinda converted to Buddhism by Nagasena

/Nagarjuna

*1st rulers to introduce coins & issue gold coins

* They introduced Hellenic i.e. Greek features in art giving rise to Gandhar school
in N-W India

II. THE SAKAS/Scythians (100BC -400AD)

III. THE PARTHIANS/Pahlvas(100BC - 100AD)

IV. THE KUSHANS(100AD - 300AD)

* They replaced PARTHIANS in N-W India.

* The 1st Kushan Dynasty was founded by Kadphises I /Kujul Kadphises. the 2nd king
Kadphises II /Vema Kadphises issue Gold coins on a wide scale with high-sounding
ltitles like the ‘Lord of the Whole World’.

*The Kushanas were a branch of Yuchi tribe, whose original home was central
Asia.

* Kanishka famous kushan ruler son of Vema also known as '2nd Ashoka'. He started
saka era from 78AD & it is used by govt of India

* Host of scholars found patronage : parsva, Vasumitra,Asvagosha, Nagarjuna,Charak&

Mathara some of them

* According to Rabatak Inscription: Kanishka was the son of Vema . he extended the
kushan power over upper India . his capitals were at peshawar (Purushapura),
Mathura

FACTS ABOUT POST- MAURYAS:

* 3 schools of sculpture:
1. Amaravati school (150BC-400AD) -Satavahanas
2. Gandhar school (50BC-500AD)- Saka-Kushans
3. Mathura school (150AD -300AD)-
Saka-Kushans
Note: The influence of Greek sculpture is very evident in the Gandhar school,while the
Mathura school evolved an indigenous form
*" Bullion was flowing out of Rome to India" -- PLINY
*" Geographica" -- STRABO
* "Geography"-- PTOLEMY
* "Natural History "-- PLINY
* "Periplus of Erithryan sea" -- UNKNOWN
 THE SANGAM PERIOD (100AD-300AD)

* 3 Early Kingdoms:

1. The Chera -Bow(Emblem) -Vanjji(Capital) -Udiyangeral(1st ruler) - Senguttuvan

(Famous ruler).

2. The Chola- Tiger - Uraiaur- Elara- Karikala

3. The pandya - Fish- Madurai - Mudukudumi- Nendujeliyan

GUPTA PERIOD (319AD -540AD)
* Greater part of North India (not as large as mauryas) & they ruled upto 200 yrs
* This period is called as Classical Age or Golden Age of ancient India *
Devichandraguptam and the Mudhrakshasam written by Visakadatta provide
information regarding the rise of the Guptas.
* The Chinese traveler Fahien, who visited India during the reign of Chandragupta
II
*the Meherauli Iron Pillar Inscription refers to the achievements of Chandragupta I.
* The most important source for the reign of Samudragupta is the Prayaga
Prashasti/Allahabad Pillar inscription. It describes his personality and achievements.
This inscription is engraved on an Asokan pillar. It is written in classical Sanskrit, using
the Nagari script. It consists of 33 lines composed by Harisena. It
describes the circumstances of samudragupta’s accession, his
military campaigns in north India and the Deccan, his relationship with other
contemporary rulers, and his accomplishments as a poet and scholar. The coins issued
by Gupta kings contain legends and figures. These coins provide interesting details
about the titles and sacrifices performed by the Gupta monarchs.
1.Chandragupta I (319 – 334 A.D.):
The founder of the Gupta dynasty was Sri Gupta. He was succeeded by Ghatotkacha.
These two were called Maharajas. Much information was not available about their rule.
The next ruler was Chandragupta I and he was the first to be called Maharajadhiraja
(the great king of kings). This title indicates his extensive conquests. He strengthened
his position by a matrimonial alliance with the Licchavis. He married Kumaradevi, a
princess of that family.
This added to the power and prestige of the Gupta family. The Meherauli Iron Pillar
inscription mentions his extensive conquests. Chandragupta I is considered to be the
founder of the Gupta era which starts with his accession in A.D. 320.
* Original type of gold coins (dinaras) : Chandragupta I - Kumaradevi type
2. Samudragupta (335-380 A.D.)
* Samudragupta was the greatest of the rulers of the Gupta dynasty. The Allahabad
Pillar inscription provides a detailed account of his reign. It refers to three stages in his
military campaign:
1. Against some rulers of North India
2. His famous Dakshinapatha expedition against South Indian rulers
3. A second campaign against some other rulers of North India.
*In the first campaign Samudragupta defeated Achyuta and Nagasena. Achyuta was
probably a Naga ruler. Nagasena belonged to the Kota family which was ruling over
the upper Gangetic valley. They were defeated and their states were annexed
*He marched against the South Indian monarchs. The Allahabad Pillar inscription
mentions that he defeated twelve rulers in his South Indian Expedition.He did not
destroy and annex those kingdoms. Instead, he defeated the rulers but gave them
back their kingdoms. He only insisted on them to acknowledge his suzerainty.
*The third stage of Samudragupta’s campaign was to eliminate his remaining north
Indian rivals. He fought against nine kings, uprooted them and annexed their
territories.Most of these rulers were members of the Naga family, then ruling over
different parts of north India.
*After these military victories, Samudragupta performed the asvamedha sacrifice. He
issued gold and silver coins with the legend
‘restorer of the asvamedha’. It is because of his military achievements He was hailed as
‘Indian Napoleon’by V.A.Smith.
*The Allahabad Pillar inscription speaks of his magnanimity to his foes, his polished
intellect, his poetic skill and his proficiency in music. It calls him Kaviraja because of his
ability in composing verses. His image depicting him with Veena is found in the coins
issued by him.
*He was an ardent follower of Vaishnavism but was tolerant of other creeds.
He evinced keen interest in Buddhism and was the patron of the great Buddhist
scholar Vasubandu.
* Titles :
- Kaviraja i.e. king of poets(prayaga Prashasti)
-Param Bhagavata(Nalanda Copper plate )
- Ashvamedha parakrama i.e. Demonstrated by horse sacrifice (coin)
- Vikram i.e. prowess(coin)
- Sarva-raj-ochehhetta i.e. uprooter of all kings(coin) = The only Gupta ruler got these
* Original type of gold coins (dinaras) :
Garud type, Dhanurdhari i.e Archery type , Axe type, Ashvamedha type,Vyagrahanan
i.e. tiger killing type, Veenavadan i.e. Lute playing type. * According to Chinese writer
wang-hieun-tse , Meghavarna (Srilanka king) sent an embassy to himm for his
permission to build a monastery for pilgrims at Bodhgaya
3.Chandragupta II /Vikramaditya.(380-415 A.D.):
* According to Devi chandragupta (vishakadatta)the immediate successor of
Samudragupta was Ramagupta, the elder brother of Chandragupta II.
Ramagupta is only to issue copper coins.
*Through matrimonial alliances he strengthened his political power. He married
Kuberanaga, a Naga princess of central India. He gave his daughter Prabhavati in
marriage to the Vakataka prince Rudrasena II.
* the Vakatakas occupied a geographically strategic position in the Deccan. This
alliance served a useful purpose when Chandragupta-II undertook his campaign in
western India against the Sakas.He issues silver coins in the memory of victory over
sakas. He extended kis kingdom up to Arabian sea. * After this victory he performed
the horse sacrifice and assumed the title
Sakari, meaning, ‘destroyer of Sakas’. He also called himself Vikramaditya
*Titles: Sakari & Vikramaditya, Devagupta/Devaraja/Devashri, Parama
Bhagavata,Narendra Chandra,Sinh Vikram etc..
*The famous Chinese pilgrim, Fahien visited India & described what he saw in his
travelogue 'fo-gu-oji'
* Original type of gold coins (dinaras) :
Asvarohi type, Chhatradhari type, Chakra- Vikram type etc..
* NAVARATNA(i.e. 9 Gems) of Chandragupta-II :
1. Kalidasa(poetry- Ritusamhar, Meghadutam, Kumarsambhavam,
Raghuvamshama;
Dramas: Malvikagnimitra, Vikramorvashiyam, Abhijnan Shakuntalam)
2. Amarsinh(Amarsinhkosha)
3. Dhanavantri(Navanitakam- medicine text)
4. Varahamihira(panch siddhantaka,vrihatsamhita, vrihat jataka, Laghu jataka)
5. Araruchi(vartika- a comment on Ashtadhyayi)
6. Ghatakarna
7. Kshapranak
8. Velabhatt
9. Shanku
4. Kumaragupta I(415-455AD)
5. Skandagupta(455- 467AD)
* Last grt ruler & he defeated huns & assumed to be Vikramaditya (Bhitari pillar
inscription)
Titles : Devaraja (Aryamanjushrimulkalpa),
Vikramaditya & kramaditya(coins), Param Bhagavata( coins)
*ADMINISTRATION:
*centralized control was under mauryas
*Apointing Crown prince (Kumara) came in to vogue
* They were assisted by council of ministers (Mantriparishad/Mantrimandala m) .
In that they have sabhyas(members).
*Kumaramatya & Sandhivigrahika are special Among High officers * Kunaramatya
performed the chief cadre for recruiting high officials under the Guptas like Mantris,
Senapati, Mahadandanayaka(Minister of Justice), &
Sandhivigrahika (Minister of peace & war)
* The office of Sandhivigrahika 1st appears under samudragupta whose amatya
Harisena held this title.
*Other imp officials:
- Mahapratihari(The chief usher of royal palace)
- Dandapashika(Chief Officer of police dept)
- Vinayasthitisthapak(chief officer of religious affairs)
- Mahapilupati(Chief of Elephant Corps)
- Mahashvapati(chief of cavalry)
* The imp Bhuktis (provinces ) in Gupta period: Magadha, Barddhaman,
Pundra Vardhana, Teerbhukti(Northern bihar), Eastern Malwa, Western Malwa , &
Saurashtra.
* 1. Bhuktis/Bhoga(province) - Uparika/Bhogapati
2. Vishaya(district) - Vishayapati/Ayukta
3. Vithika/Nagar( City) - Nagarpati/Purapala
4. Gram (Village) - Gramika
* Administration of city is done by a Council ( Paura). it consists president of city
cooperation, the chief representative of the guild of merchants, a representative of
the artisans & the chief Accountant.
* where as under mauryas the city committee was appointed by Mauryan govt but in
Guptas ,it was comprised of local representatives
* Decentralisation of the administrative authority began during this period
* Vlg headman is imp role
* The Gupta military organisation was feudal by character ( Though the emperor had a
large standing army)
* In the Gupta period for the 1st time Civil & Criminal law were clearly defined &
demarcated.
* Gupta kings depended primarily on land revenue, Varying from 1/4th &1/6th of the
produce.
* During Gupta period the army was to be fed by the people whenever it passed
through the country side. this tax was called Senabhakta.
*The villager are subjected as forced Labourers called Vishti for serving royal army &
officials
* The Gupta period also experienced an excess of grant lands. Agrahara grants &
Devgrahara grants . Land grants included the transfer of royal rights over salt &
mines which were under the royal monopoly during maurya period
*SOCIETY:
* The pre-Gupta period in India witnessed a series of foreign invasions. Indian society
had given way to those foreigners who had become permanent residents here they
were referred as Kshatriyas. * The Brahmins were given enormous gifts by the rulers
as well as other wealthy people.
* The Acculturated tribes were absorbed into shudra varna .They were permitted to
listen to the epics & puranas & also worship a new god called
Krishna. The practice of untouchability had slowly begun during this period.
Katyayana,a smrithi writer 1st to use Asprasya ( Untouchable)
* The position of women also became miserable . Polygamy was common.
* Early mrgs was advocated & often pre-puberty marriages took place
* Sati Appears in Gupta time in 510 Ad in Eran in Madhyapradesh
( Bhanuguptas Eran Inscription)
* Women were denied any right to property except for stridhana in the form of
jewellery & garments
* Vaishnavism is very popular.
*Laxmi Devi got her association with Vishnu & Parvati Devi got her association with
Shiva
* This was the period of evolution of Vjrayanism & Buddhist tantric cults . * Idol
Worship become a common feature of Hinduism from Gupta period onwards
*ECONOMY:
* The most decisive argument of the exclusive state ownership of land is in the
Pahadpur Copper Plate Inscription of Buddhagupta * Classify of Land :
1. Kshetra Bhoomi - Cultivable land
2. Khila - Waste land
3. Vastu Bhoomi - Habitable Land
4. Charagah Bhoomi - Pastur land
5. Aprahata Bhoomi - Forest Land
* In the Gupta period land survey is evident from the poona plates of prabhavati gupta
Inscription & other
* An Officer Pustapala maintained records of all land transactions in the district
* The Guptas issued large no. of gold coins in Ancient India, but in gold content ,Gupta
coins are not as pure as kushana coins
* The also issued a good no.of silver coins for local exchange
1. BHAGA - 1/6th of produce paid to king by all cultivators
2. BHOGA- periodic supplies of fruits ,firewood,flowers etc ... the villagers sent to king
3. BALI- It is a Voluntary offering but after it became compulsory. It seems to be an
additional & oppressive tax
4. UPARIKARA- An extra tax levied on all subjects
* The gupta Copper coins are few compared kushanas which show that use of money
did not spread to common people
* Decline in long distance trade
* Trade with Roman Empire declined after 300AD
* Indian Merchants began to rely more heavily on South-east Asian trade
*CULTURE:
*the Gupta period occupies Both the Nagara and Dravidian styles of art
evolved during this period. *The temple at Deogarh near Jhansi
and the sculptures in the temple at Garhwas near Allahabad remain important
specimen of the Gupta art. There was no influence of Gandhara style. But the beautiful
statue of standing Buddha at Mathura reveals a little Greek style.
The Buddha statue unearthed at Saranath was unique piece of Gupta art. *The
paintings of the Gupta period are seen at Bagh caves near Gwalior. The mural
paintings of Ajantha mostly illustrate the life of the Buddha as depicted in the Jataka
stories. The paintings at Sigiriya in Sri Lanka were highly influenced by the Ajantha
style.
*Nagari script had evolved from the Brahmi script.
* Architecture:3 types
1. Rock - cut Caves :
- Ajanta & Ellora Group( Maharashtra)
- Bagh (Madhyapradesh)
2. Structural Temples:
- Dasavatara temple (Deogarh, Jhansi (D), UP) the oldest &the best
- Siva temple of Bhumra(Nagid,MP)
- Vishnu & Kankali temple( Tigawa, MP)
- Parvati temple of Nanchana- kuthwa(Panna (D), MP)
- Shiva temple of Khoh(Satna, Panna,MP)
- Krishna brick temple of Bhittargaon (Kanpur, UP)
- Laxman Temple of Sirpur (Rajput,MP) - Vishnu temple & Varah Temple of Eran (MP)
3. Stupas :
- Mirpur Khas(Sindh)
- Dhammrkh(Sarnath)
- Ratnagiri (Orissa)
* They used Nagara(Shikhar) Style . Shikhar shrine ,a Vaishnava Symbol, One of the
most characteristic features of temple architecture
* The temple architecture, with its garbha Grihastha (Shrine room) in which the image
of the god was placed ,began with the Guptas
* Dasavatara temple of Deogarh - most beautiful temple composed by gupta temple
building.
* The centres of the Gandhar Sculptures declined & their places were taken by benaras
, Patliputra & Mathura
* 1st time we get images of Vishnu ,Shiva & other Gods.
* A seated Buddha image of sarnath , which depicts of Buddha preaching the Dhamma.
* Of the brahmanical images perhaps the most impressive was the Great Boar (Varah)
carved in relief at the entrance of a cave at Udayagiri.
* The painting of this period are found in Bagh (Dhar (Dis), MP) & Ajanta (Aurangabad
(D), Maharashtra). The Frescoes of the Ajanta caves are the masterpieces of the
paintings of this age.
* Buddhist texts : Abhidharma Kosha(Dignaga), Vishudhimagga (Buddhghosa)
* Jain Texts : Nyayavartam(Sidhsena) * Secular Literature:
1. KALIDASA: Ritusamhar(1st poetry), Meghadutam, Kumarasambhavam,
Raghuvamsam, Malvikagnimitra (1st drama), Vikramorvashiyam , AbhijnanaShankun-
talam.
2. VISAKHADATTA -Mudrarakshasa & Devichhandraguptam
3. BHARAVI -Kiratarjuniya (conflict b/w Shiva &Arjuna)
4. DANDIN - Kavyadarsa, Dasakumara Charita
5. SUDRAKA - Mrichchhakatika
6. VISHNU SHARMA - Panchatantra
7. VASTYAYAN - Kamasutra
8. SUBHANDHU - Vasavadatta
* The Buddhist author Amarasimha compiled a lexicon called Amarakosa.
* ' Manusmriti ' was translated into English of ' Institutes of Hindoo Law' by
William Jones
* Kalidasa is known as ' The Shakespeare of India'
* ' Mrichchhakatika ' (the clay cart) , Love story of a poor brahman Charudatta
& the virtuous Courtesy Vasantasena
* Brahmasiddhanta was translated in Arabic under the title of 'Sind hind' *There are 18
Puranas. The most imp among them are the Bhagavatha, Vishnu, Vayu and Matsya
Puranas. The Mahabharatha and the Ramayana weregiven final touches and written
in the present form during this period. *Aryabhatta was a great mathematician and
astronomer wrote the book Aryabhatiya in 499 A.D. It deals with mathematics and
astronomy. It explains scientifically the occurrence of solar and lunar eclipses.
Aryabhatta was the first to declare that the earth was spherical in shape and that it
rotates on its own axis. However, these views were rejected by later astronomers like
Varahamihira and Brahmagupta.
*Varahamihira composed Pancha Siddhantika, the five astronomical systems. He was
also a great authority on astrology. His work Brihadsamhita is a great work in Sanskrit
literature. It deals with a variety of subjects like astronomy, astrology, geography,
architecture, weather, animals, marriage and omens.
His Brihadjataka is considered to be a standard work on astrology.
*In the field of medicine, Vagbhata lived during this period. He was the last of the
great medical trio of ancient India. The other two scholars Charaka and
Susruta lived before the Gupta age. Vagbhata was the author Ashtangasamgraha
(Summary of the eight branches of medicine).
* DECLINE:
1. Existence of too many feudatories ,
2. Absence of large central army & bureaucracy
3. Development feudal elements ( Increasing land grants ,serfdom, sub infeudation
etc..)
4. Decline of trade & guilds
5. Decline of urban centres
6. Increasing varna distinction & social disorder
7. Decline in status of women
POST-GUPTA PERIOD/VARDHANA/
PUSHYABHUTI (550- 647AD)
* the history of Harsha and his times are the Harshacharita(imp historical incidents of
harsha's reign), Kadambari( a poetic novel of great literary merit) written by
Banabhatta and Mayur written Mayur shataka & suryashataka written by
Mayurbhatta & the Travel accounts of Hiuen Tsang. *Banabhatta was the court poet
of Harsha. Hiuen Tsang was the Chinese traveler who visited India in the 700 A.D.
*Besides these two sources, the dramas written by Harsha, namely Ratnavali,
Nagananda and Priyardarsika(Sanskrit plays)also provide useful information.
* The Madhuben plate inscription and the Sonpat inscription are also helpful to know
the chronology of Harsha. The Banskhera inscription contains the signature of
Harsha.
* The founder of the family of Harsha was Pushyabhutis/Vardhanas. they were the
feudatories of the Guptas. After the Hun invasions they assumed independence. The
first imp king of Pushyabhuti dynasty was
Prabhakaravardhana. His capital was Thaneswar, north of Delhi. He assumed the title
Maharajadhiraja and Paramabhattaraka. After Prabhakaravardhana’s death, his elder
son Rajyavardhana came to the throne. He had to face problems right from the time of
his accession.
* His sister, Rajyasri had married the Maukhari ruler called Grihavarman. The ruler of
Malwa, Devagupta in league with Sasanka, the ruler of Bengal had killed
Grihavarman. Rajyavardhana marched against the king of Malwa and routed his army.
But before he could return to his capital, he was treacherously murdered by Sasanka.
In the meantime, Rajyasri escaped into forests. Harsha now succeeded his brother at
Thaneswar. His first responsibility was to rescue his sister and to avenge the killings
of his brother and brother-in-law. He first rescued his sister when she was gng to
throw herself in to fire.
Harshavardhana/Siladitya (606-647AD):
* 606AD Started Harsha Era
* the Aihole inscription of Pulakesin II (Vatapi/VadamiChalukya Dynasty) mentions the
defeat of Harsha by Pulakesin, who after this achievement assumed the title
Paramesvara. Hiuen Tsang’s accounts also confirm the victory of Pulakesin.
* Harsha was alord of the whole of Northern country(Sakalottarapatheshvara)
* Harsha was a devottee Saiva but later he became an ardent Hinayana Buddhist.
Hiuen Tsang converted him to Mahayana Buddhism. Harsha prohibited the use of
animal food in his kingdom and punished those who kill any living being.
*The position of women declined . Swayamvara declined.Dowry became a very
common practise.The practise of sati too existed.Remarriages of widows were not
permitted.
*In his early life, King Harshavardhana was a shaivite and later became an ardent
Hinayana Buddhist.The Chinese traveller Hieun Tsang converted him into a follower of
Mahayana Buddhism.Thousands of Stupas were erected by him during his reign.
*According to Hiuen Tsang ,Nalanda University meant for buddhist monks was
maintained by the revenue from 100 vlgs granted by him.
*He prohibited slaughtering of animals for food and severe punishments were
imposed for those who break the law.
*He convened an assembly at Kannauj (643AD) to honour Hieun Tsang and spread the
doctrines of Mahayana.
*Later he also conveyed a great assembly at Prayag, which was known as Allahabad
assembly(643AD- 644AD). In prayaga he used to celebrate religious festivals at the end
of every 5 yrs at the confluence of the Ganges ,The Yamuna, The Saraswati . It is known
as KUMBHA FAIR.
*The architecture during Harsha’s period was based on Gupta style primarily. Hiuen
Tsang refers to a 8 feet tall copper Buddha statue. He also talk of a multistory monastery
at Nalanda. In Chhattisgarh at Sirpur, a brick temple of Lakshman is surviving example of
architecture during Harsh’a period.
*the Hinayana University of Valabhi and the Mahayana University of Nalanda. Hiuen
Tsang gives a very valuable account of the Nalanda University. The term Nalanda
means “giver of knowledge”. It was founded by Kumaragupta I during the Gupta
period. It was patronised by his successors and later by Harsha
* He maintained diplomatic relations with China in 641 AD he sent an envoy to Tai -
tsung, the tang emperor of China.
3 Chinese missions visited his court. Hiuen - Tsang visited.

CHALUKYAS:

* the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi and the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani. Pulakesin I was
the founder of the Chalukya dynasty. He established a small kingdom with Vatapi or
Badami as its capital.

*The earliest dynasty, known as the "Badami Chalukyas", ruled from Vatapi
(modern Badami) from the middle of the 6th century.(543-755AD)
*After the death of Pulakeshin II, the Eastern Chalukyas became an independent
kingdom in the eastern Deccan. They ruled from Vengi until about the 11th century

*In the western Deccan, the rise of the Rashtrakutas in the middle of the 8th century
eclipsed the Chalukyas of Badami before being revived by their descendants, the
Western Chalukyas, in the late 10th century. These Western Chalukyas ruled from
Kalyani (modern Basavakalyan) until the end of the 12th century.

* The Chalukya Dynasty reigned over sizable portions of central and southern India
.Beginning in the middle of the sixth century, the Chalukyas governed from Vatapi
(modern-day Badami). Under Pulakeshin II’s rule. The Chalukyas’ first king was named
Jayasimha.Pulakesin I, however, was the true founder of the Chalukyan empire. (543–
566 CE).

* After Pulakeshin II’s demise, the Eastern Chalukyas established a sovereign state in
the eastern Deccan. Till the 11th century, they held power in Vengi.
The Chalukyas of Vengi split off from the Chalukyas of Badami. Pulakeshin II (609–642
AD) appointed his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana as the ruler of the recently annexed
eastern Deccan in 624 A.D..

*The Kalyani Chalukya Empire is another name for the Western Chalukya
Empire. This kingdom was founded by Tailapa-II, a Rashtrakuta feudatory.
They battled the Cholas and the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi for 200 years....

BADAMI CHALUKYAS (543-755AD) &

PALLAVAS OF KANCHI

(575 - 897AD)

* Eventually by the beginning of 700AD the Pallavas of kanchi ,Chalukyas of

Badami , & the Pandyas of Madurai = 3 major states

* The vakataka power was followed by Chalukyas. Around 200 yrs they ruled
& overthrowed by their feudatories Rashtrakutas

*Chalukyas established their capital at Vatapi/Badami in the district of Balakot in

Karnataka.

* Pulakesin II (609-42AD) was able to check Harsha's design to conquer Deccan .

* Aihole Inscription is an eulogy written by his court poet Ravikriti.

* He sent an ambassador to the Persian king Khusrau II IN 625AD & also received one
from him

*the Chinese piligrim Hiuen Tsang visited his Kingdom

* Pallava ruler Narasimhavarman 'Mammala' invaded the chalukya Kingdom, killed

Pulakesin II & captured Vatapi. he adopted the title Vatapikonda (The conqueror of
Vatapi)

* In 757 AD Chalukyas was overthrowed by their feudatories,Rashtrakutas

* In chalukyan rural affairs were managed by vlg elders called Mahajana.

Art & Architecture :

*Chalukyas began the vesara style /Deccan style in building structural Temples,they
reached highest point only under the Rashtrakutas & the hoyasalas.
* The structural temples of the Chalukyas exist at Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal. Cave
temple architecture was also famous under the Chalukyas. Their cave temples are
found in Ajanta, Ellora and Nasik.

*The best specimens of Chalukya paintings can be seen in the Badami cave temple
and in the Ajanta caves. The reception given to a Persian embassy by Pulakesin II is
depicted in a painting at Ajantha.
*The Chalukya temples may be divided into two stages. The first stage is represented
by the temples at Aihole and Badami.
*Among the seventy temples found at Aihole, four are important.
1. Ladh Khan temple is a low, flat-roofed structure consisting of a pillared hall.
2. Durga temple resembles a Buddha Chaitya.
3. Huchimalligudi temple.
4. The Jain temple at Meguti.
*Among the temples at Badami, the Muktheeswara temple and the Melagutti Sivalaya
are notable for their architectural beauty. A group of four rock-cut temples at Badami
are marked by high workmanship. The walls and pillared halls are adorned by
beautiful images of gods and human beings.
*The second stage is represented by the temples at Pattadakal. There are ten temples
here, four in the northern style and the remaining six in the Dravidian style.
* The Papanatha temple is the most notable in the northern style. The
Sangamesvara temple and the Virupaksha temple are famous for their
Dravidian style. The Virupaksha temple is built on the model of the
Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram. It was built by one of the queens of
Vikramaditya II. Sculptors brought from Kanchi were employed in its construction.

* SPECIMENS OF CHALUKYAN TEMPLES:

1. Vesar style :

-Jitendra temple/Meguti temple- Aihole(Ravikriti)

- Vishnu temple -Aihole

-Ladh Khan temple(attributed to God Surya)- Aihole

- Durga temple -Aihole

=> Aihole is called a town of Temples because it contains about 70 temples

2. Nagara Style :

- Papanatha temple - pattadakal

3. Dravida style :
- Virupaksha temple & sangameshvara temple - pattadakal *

Pallavas:

* The Ikshvakus were replaced by the Pallavas( it means a creeper /branch)(& it is also
means robber)is a Sanskrit word. Tamil word Tondai. They are the tribes established
their authority in the TondaiNadu or the land of creepers.
They established southern Andhra & Northern Tamilnadu .

* They were orthodox brahmanical Hindus & their capital was kanchi

* Both Chalukyas & Pallavas tried to establish their supremacy over the land b/w
Krishna & Tungabhadra.
*The pallava type of Shikhara is to be found in the temples of Java,Combodia
&Annam

Conflict b/w Pallavas & Chalukyas:

*In Ravikriti 's Aihole Inscription mentions, Pulakesin II (609 - 642AD) was famous ruler.
He overthrowed Kadamba capital at Banvasi & compelled the
Gangas of Mysore to acknowledge his suzerainity. He also defeated Harsha's Army on
the Narmada . Next he almost reached the pallava capital but he failed .

* However Pulakesin II 2nd invasion of the pallava territory ended in failure.

* The pallava king Narasimhavarman assumed the Title of Vatapikonda. he is also

defeated Cholas, cheras , Pandyas, kalabhras
* The chalukya King Vikramaditya II (733- 745 AD) Completely defeated the
Pallavas in 740AD. after they overthrowed by Rashtrakutas in 757AD

* it was necessary to make over some share croppers & weavers to the Brahmanas is
known as pallava grant .

* 3 types of vlgs in south India:

1. Ur : mainly found in Tamilnadu

-it was usual type of vlg inhabited by peasant castes who perhaps held their land in
common

- it was the responsibility of vlg headman to collect & pay taxes on their behalf.

2. Sabha:
- a vlg consisted of brahmadeya vlgs or this who granted to the Brahmanas & of
agrahara vlgs

3. Nagaram :

- A vlg consisted of the vlgs settled & dominated by combinations of traders &
merchants

- This happened possibly because trade declined & merchants moved to vlgs

Administration of the Pallavas

*The Pallavas had a well organized administrative system. The Pallava state was divided
into Kottams.
* The Kottamwas administered by officers appointed by the king. * The king was at the
centre of administration in which he was assisted by able ministers.
* He was the fountain of justice. He maintained a well-trained army. * He provided
land-grants to the temples known as Devadhana and also to the Brahmans known as
Brahmadeya. It was also the responsibility of the central government to provide
irrigation facilities to the lands.
* A number of irrigation tanks were dug by the Pallava kings. The irrigation tanks at
Mahendravadi and Mamandoor were dug during the reign of Mahendravarman I.
* Detailed information on the tax system could also be traced from the Pallava
inscriptions. Land tax was the primary source of the government revenue.
* The Brahmadeya and Devadhana lands were exempted from tax. Traders and artisans
such as carpenters, goldsmiths, washer-men, oil-pressers and weavers paid taxes to
the government. *The Pallava inscriptions throw much light on the village assemblies
called sabhas and their committees.
* They maintained records of all village lands, looked after local affairs and managed
temples
Society under the Pallavas:
* The Tamil society witnessed a great change during the Pallava period. *The caste
system became rigid. The Brahmins occupied a high place in the society. They were
given land-grants by the kings and nobles. They were also given the responsibility of
looking after the temples.
* The Pallava period also witnessed the rise of Saivism and Vaishnavism and also the
decline of Buddhism and Jainism. The Saiva Nayanmars and the Vaishnava Alwars
contributed to the growth of Saivism and Vaishnavism. This is known as the Bakthi
Movement.
* They composed their hymns in the Tamil language. These hymns revealed the
importance of devotion or Bakthi.
* The construction of temples by the Pallava kings paved the way for the spread of
these two religions.
Education and Literature :
* The Pallavas were great patrons of learning. Their capital Kanchi was an ancient
centre of learning.
* The Ghatika at Kanchi was popular and it attracted students from all parts of India
and abroad.
* The founder of the Kadamba dynasty, Mayurasarman studied Vedas at Kanchi.
Dinganaga, a Buddhist writer came to
study at Kanchi. Dharmapala, who later became the Head of the Nalanada University,
belonged to Kanchi.
* Bharavi, the great Sanskrit scholar lived in the time of Simhavishnu. Dandin, another
Sanskrit
writer adorned the court of Narasimhavarman II. Mahendravaraman I composed the
Sanskrit play Mattavilasaprahasanam.
* Tamil literature had also developed. The Nayanmars and Alwars composed religious
hymns in Tamil. The Devaram composed by Nayanmars and the
Nalayradivyaprabandam composed by Alwars represent the religious literature of the
Pallava period.
* Perundevanar was patronized by Nandivarman II and he translated the Mahabharata
as Bharathavenba in Tamil.
* Nandikkalambagam was another important work but the name of the author of this
work is not known. Music and dance also developed during this period.

Pallava Art and Architecture:

* It was a great age of temple building. The Pallavas introduced the art of excavating
temples from the rock.
* In fact, the Dravidian style of temple architecture began with the Pallava rule. It was a
gradual evolution starting from the cave temples to monolithic rathas and
culminated in structural temples.
* The development of temple architecture under the Pallavas can be seen in four
stages.
* Mahendravarman I introduced the rock-cut temples. This style of Pallava temples are
seen at places like Mandagappattu, Mahendravadi, Mamandur, Dalavanur,
Tiruchirappalli, Vallam, Siyamangalam and Tirukalukkunram.The second stage of
Pallava architecture is represented by the monolithic rathas and Mandapas found at
Mamallapuram. * Narasimhavarman I took the credit for these wonderful
architectural monuments.
* The five rathas, popularly called as the Panchapandava rathas, signifies five different
styles of temple architecture.
* The mandapas contain beautiful sculptures on its walls.
* The most popular of these mandapas are Mahishasuramardhini Mandapa,
Tirumurthi Mandapam and Varaha Madapam. In the next stage, Rajasimha
introduced the structural temples.
* These temples were built by using the soft sand rocks.
* The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi and the Shore temple at Mamallapuram remain
the finest examples of the early structural temples of the Pallavas.
* The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi is the greatest architectural master piece of the
Pallava art.
* The last stage of the Pallava art is also represented by structural temples built by the
later Pallavas.
* The Vaikundaperumal temple, Muktheeswara temple and Matagenswara temples at
Kanchipuram belong to this stage of architecture.
* The Pallavas had also contributed to the development of sculpture.
* Apart from the sculptures found in the temples, the ‘Open Art Gallery’ at
Mamallapuram remains an important monument bearing the sculptural beauty of
this period. The Descent of the Ganges or the Penance of Arjuna is called a fresco
painting in stone.
* The minute details as well as the theme of these sculptures such as the figures of lice-
picking monkey, elephants of huge size and the figure of the
‘ascetic cat’ standing erect remain the proof for the talent of the sculptor. Fine Arts:*
Music, dance and painting had also developed under the patronage of the Pallavas.
* The Mamandur inscription contains a note on the notation of vocal music.
* The Kudumianmalai inscription referred to musical notes and instruments.
* The Alwars and Nayanmars composed their hymns in various musical notes. * Dance
and drama also developed during this period. The sculptures of this period depict
many dancing postures.
* The Sittannavasal paintings belonged to this period. The commentary called
Dakshinchitra was compiled during the reign of Mahendravarman I, who had the title
Chittirakkarapuli.
Art & Architecture :
* Pallavas began the dravida style of temple architecture which reached
culmination/Highest point under the rule of Cholas

* 4 stages of Dravida style:

1. Mahendravarmana group - Mahendravarmana I (600-630 AD)

=> Temple at bhairavakona (North Arcot distt)

=> Ananteshwar temple at Undavalli(Guntur distt)

2. Mammala Group - Narasimhavarmana I 'Mammala'(630AD- 668AD)

=> Mandapa Temples &Ratha Temples (Sapt pagodas) at Mammalapuram

(Mahabalipuram)

3. Rajasimha Group - Narasimhavarmana II 'Rajasimha'(680-720AD)

=> Kailashanatha & Vaikunth perumal temple at kanchi,

=>Shore Temple at Mammalapuram

4. Aparanjit Group - Nandivaramana 'Aparanjit'(879-897AD)

=> Mukteshwar & Matangeshwar temple at kanchi

=> parshurameshwar temple at gudimallam

RAJPUTA AGE:
I. NORTH INDIA( 650 - 1206AD):
* Rajputas emerged as powerful force in northern India for nearly 500 years from the
7th century.
* After the death of Harsha, there was no political unity in north India for about five
centuries.
* The country was split up into a number of states which were constantly fighting and
changing their frontiers.
* The important kingdoms in north India were Kashmir, Gandhara, Sind, Gujarat,
Kanauj, Ajmir, Malwa, Bengal and Assam.
* In the early eighth century Kashmir was dominant. Then, the Palas of Bengal reigned
supreme till the Pratiharas became the most powerful rulers of north India. But in the
tenth century, the Rashtrakutas of Deccan tried to extend their power in north India
but ultimately failed in their attempt.
* Tripartite struggle in 8th century AD
3 great powers in India - The Prathiharas in the North, The Palas in the east ,
The Rashtrakutas in the Deccan
* The struggle is about possession the city of Kannauj Distt,UP (Symbol of sovereignty)
* The Gurjara-Pratiharas were the earliest of the Rajput rulers. Its first great leader was
Harischandra. He conquered extensive territory in Rajaputana and ruled with his
capital at Bhinmal. The Gurjaras were in different branches. One branch ruled Gujarat
and another at Avanthi. * The Pratiharas involved themselves in a three- cornered
contest with the Palas of Bengal and the Rashtrakutas of Deccan.
Later the Pratiharas became weak.
* The Chauhans, the most valiant of the Rajput races, ruled Ajmir. Vigraharaj was their
most important king, who occupied Delhi. Therefore the Chauhans faced the
onslaught of the Muslims under Muhammad of Ghori. The Paramaras were also
important Rajput rulers of this period. The most important king was Bhoja. His
 military conquests as well as cultural contributions remain notable in the history of
Rajputs.
THE PRATHIHARAS (730-1036AD):
* Capitals : Avanti, Kannauj
* Also called Gurjara Prathiharas. They are probably originated from Gujarat or South -
west Rajasthan
* Bhoja/MihirBhoja(836-882) was the greatest ruler & devotee of Vishnu & adopted
title 'ADIVARAH'
THE PALAS(750 -1150AD):
* Capitals: AMuddagiri/Munger(Bihar)
* Gopala founder in 750 AD
* His son Dharmapala revived Nalanda University.
*He founded Vikramshila University
* The pala Dynasty succeeded by Sena Dynasty of Bengal . Jayadeva(Gita
Gobinda) was the great courtpoet of Luxman sen THE
RASHTRAKUTAS (752 -973 AD):
* Dantidurga was the founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. He defeated the Gurjaras
and captured Malwa from them. Then he annexed the Chalukya kingdom by
defeating Kirtivarman II. Thus, the Rashtrakutas became a paramount power in the
Deccan.
*His successor Krishna I was also a great conqueror. He defeated the Gangas and the
eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. He built
the magnificent rock-cut monolithic Kailasa temple at Ellora
*next important king of this dynasty was Govinda III. He achieved victories over north
Indian kingdoms. His successor Amoghavarsha I (815- 880 A.D.) ruled for a long
period of 64 years. He had lost control over Malwa and Gangavadi. Yet, his reign was
popular for the cultural development.
* He was a follower of Jainism. Jinasena was his chief preceptor. He was also a patron
of letters and he himself wrote the famous Kannada work,
Kavirajamarga. He had also built the Rashtrakuta capital, the city of Malkhed or
Manyakheda.
Cultural Contributions:*The Rashtrakutas widely patronized the Sanskrit
literature. There were many scholars in the Rashtrakuta court. * Trivikrama wrote
Nalachampu and the Kavirahasya was composed by Halayudha during the reign
of Krishna III.
* The Jain literature flourished under the patronage of the Rashtrakutas.
Amogavarsha I, who was a Jain patronized many Jain scholars.
* His teacher Jinasena composed Parsvabhudaya, a biography of Parsva in verses.
Another scholar Gunabhadra wrote the Adipurana, the life stories of various Jain
saints. Sakatayana wrote the grammer work called Amogavritti.
* The great mathematician of this period, Viracharya was the author of Ganitasaram.
*The Kannada literature saw its beginning during the period of the Rashtrakutas.
Amogavarsha’s Kavirajamarga was the first poetic work in Kannada language.
* Pampa was the greatest of the Kannada poets. His famous work was
Vikramasenavijaya. Ponna was another famous Kannada poet and he wrote
Santipurana.
Art and Architecture:*The art and architecture of the
Rashtrakutas were found at Ellora and Elephanta. At
Ellora, the most remarkable
temple is the Kailasa temple. It was excavated during the reign of Krishna I. It is carved out
of a massive block of rock 200 feet long, and 100 feet in breadth and height.
* The temple consists of four parts - the main shrine, the entrance gateway, an
intermediate shrine for Nandi and mandapa surrounding the courtyard. The temple
stands on a lofty plinth 25 feet high. The central face of the plinth has
*imposing figures of elephants and lions giving the impression that the entire structure
rests on their back. It has a three-tiered sikhara or tower resembling the sikhara of the
Mamallapuram rathas. In the interior of the temple there is a pillared hall which has
sixteen square pillars.
* The Kailasa temple is an architectural marvel with it beautiful sculptures. The
sculpture of the Goddess Durga is shown as slaying the Buffalo demon. * In another
sculpture Ravana was making attempts to lift Mount Kailasa, the abode of Siva. The
scenes of Ramayana were also depicted on the walls.
* The general characteristics of the Kailasa temple are more Dravidian. * Elephanta is
an island near Bombay. It was originally called Sripuri.
* The Portuguese after seeing the large figure of an elephant named it Elephanta. The
sculptural art of the Rashtrakutas reached its zenith in this place.
* There is a close similarity between the sculptures at Ellora and those in Elephanta.
* They might have been carved by the same craftsmen. At the entrance to the sanctum
there are huge figures of dwara-palakas.
* In the walls of the prakara around the sanctum there are niches containing the
images of Shiva in various forms - Nataraja, Gangadhara, Ardhanareesvara and
Somaskanda. The most imposing figure of this temple is Trimurthi. The sculpture is
six metre high. It is said to represent the three aspects of Shiva as Creator, Preserver
and Destroyer.
*Temples :
khajuraho - MP
Lingaraja Temple - Bhubaneswar, Odisha
Sun Temple - Konarka, Orissa
Jagannath Temple - Puri
Dilwara temple - Mount Abu
* There is lack of unity between them so their kingdoms are weakened due to wars &
led to Muslim Invasions
II. SOUTH INDIA(CHOLAS &OTHERS)
Chola Empire:(850-1279AD):
* Capital: Tanjore,Gangaikondacholapuram
*After the decline of the Sangam period, the Cholas became feudatories in Uraiyur.
* They became prominent in the ninth century and established an empire comprising
the major portion of South India. Their capital was Tanjore.
* They also extended their sway in Sri Lanka and the Malay Peninsula. * Therefore, they
are called as the Imperial Cholas. Thousands of inscriptions found in the temples
provide detailed information regarding the administration, society, economy and
culture of the Chola period. *The founder of the Imperial Chola line was Vijayalaya.
He captured Tanjore from Muttaraiyars in 850 A.D. and built a temple for Durga. His
son Aditya put an end to the Pallava kingdom by defeating Aparajita and annexed
Tondaimandalam.
*Parantaka I was one of the important early Chola rulers. He defeated the Pandyas and
the ruler of Ceylon. But he suffered a defeat at the hands of the Rashtrakutas in the
famous battle of Takkolam.
*Parantaka I was a great builder of temples. He also provided the vimana of the
famous Nataraja temple at Chidambaram with a golden roof. The two famous
Uttiramerur inscriptions that give a detailed account of the village administration
under the Cholas belong to his reign. After a gap of thirty years, the Cholas regained
their supremacy under Rajaraja I.
*Land revenue &trade tax were maintained sources of income

Rajaraja I (985 – 1014 A.D.):* It was under Rajaraja I and his son Rajendra
I that the Chola power reached its highest point of glory. His military conquests were:
1. The defeat of the Chera ruler
Bhaskararavivarman in the naval battle of
Kandalursalai and the destruction of the Chera navy.
2. The defeat of the Pandya ruler, Amarabhujanga and establishment of Chola
authority in the Pandya country.
3. The conquest of Gangavadi, Tadigaipadi and Nolambapadi located in the Mysore
region.
4. The invasion of Sri Lanka which was entrusted to his son Rajendra I. As the Sri
Lankan king Mahinda V fled away from his country, the Cholas annexed the
northern Sri Lanka. The capital was shifted from Anuradhapura to
Polanaruva where a Shiva temple was built
5. The Chola victory over the growing power of the Western Chalukyas of
Kalyani. Satyasraya was defeated and Rajaraja I captured the Raichur Doab, Banavasi
and other places. Hence the Chola power extended up to the river Tungabadhra.
6. The restoration of Vengi throne to its rulers Saktivarman and Vimaladitya by
defeating the Telugu Chodas. Rajaraja gave his daughter Kundavai in marriage to
Vimaladitya.
7. Rajaraja’s last military achievement was a naval expedition against the Maldive
Islands which were conquered.
*By these conquests, the extent of the Chola empire under Rajaraja I included the
Pandya, Chera and the Tondaimandalam
regions of Tamil Nadu and the Gangavadi, Nolambapadi and the Telugu
Chola territories in the Deccan and the northern part of Ceylon and the Maldive Islands
beyond India.
*Rajaraja assumed a number of titles like Mummidi Chola, Jayankonda and
Sivapadasekara. He was a devout follower of Saivism. He completed the construction
of the famous Rajarajeswara temple or Brihadeeswara temple at Tanjore in 1010 A.D.
He also helped in the construction of a Buddhist monastery at Nagapattinam.

Rajendra I (1012-1044 A.D.):

* Rajendra had demonstrated his military ability by participating in his father’s

campaigns. He continued his father’s policy of aggressive conquests and expansion.
His important wars were:
1. Mahinda V, the king of Sri Lanka attempted to recover from the Cholas the northern
part of Ceylon. Rajendra defeated him and seized the southern Sri Lanka. Thus the
whole of Sri Lanka was made part of the Chola Empire.
2. He reasserted the Chola authority over the Chera and Pandya countries.
3. He defeated Jayasimha II, the Western Chalukya king and the river Tungabadhra was
recognised as the boundary between the Cholas and Chalukyas.
4. His most famous military enterprise was his expedition to north India. The Chola
army crossed the Ganges by defeating a number of rulers on its way. Rajendra
defeated Mahipala I of Bengal. To commemorate this successful north-Indian
campaign Rajendra founded the city of
Gangaikondacholapuram and constructed the famous Rajesvaram temple in that city.
He also excavated a large irrigation tank called Cholagangam on the western side of
the city.
5. Another famous venture of Rajendra was his naval expedition to Kadaram or Sri
Vijaya. It is difficult to pin point the real object of the expedition. Whatever its
objects were, the naval expedition was a complete success. A number of places were
occupied by Chola forces. But it was only temporary and no permanent annexation
of these places was contemplated. He assumed the title Kadaramkondan.
6. Rajendra I had put down all rebellions and kept his empire in tact. At the death of
Rajendra I the extent of the Chola Empire was at its peak. The river Tungabadhra was
the northern boundary.
*The Pandya, Kerala and Mysore regions and also Sri Lanka formed part of the empire.
He gave his daughter Ammangadevi to the Vengi Chalukya prince and further
continued the matrimonial alliance initiated by his father. * Rajendra I assumed a
number of titles, the most famous being Mudikondan, Gangaikondan, Kadaram
Kondan and Pandita Cholan.
* Like his father he was also a devout Saiva and built a temple for that god at the new
capital Gangaikondacholapuram.
*He made liberal endowments to this temple and to the Lord Nataraja temple at
Chidambaram. He was also tolerant towards the Vaishnava and Buddhist sects.
*After Rajendra I, the greatness of the Chola power was preserved by rulers like
Kulottunga I and Kulottunga III.
* Kulottunga I was the grandson of Rajendra I through his daughter Ammangadevi.
* He succeeded the Chola throne and thus united the Vengi kingdom with the Chola
Empire. During his reign Sri Lanka became independent.
* Subsequently, Vengi and the Mysore region were captured by the western Chalukyas.
Kulottunga I sent a large embassy of 72 merchants to China and maintained cordial
relations with the kingdom of Sri Vijaya. Under Kulottunga III the central authority
became weak.
* The rise of the feudatories like the Kadavarayas and the emergence of the Pandya
power as a challenge to Chola supremacy contributed to the ultimate downfall of the
Chola Empire.
* Rajendra III was the last Chola king who was defeated by Jatavarman Sundarapandya
II. The Chola country was absorbed into the Pandya Empire.
Chola Administration:
1.Central Government:*The Cholas had an excellent system of administration. The
emperor or king was at the top of the administration. The extent and resources of the
Chola Empire increased the power and prestige of monarchy.
* The big capital cities like Tanjore and Gangaikondacholapuram, the large royal courts
and extensive grants to the temples reveal the authority of the king. They undertook
royal tours to increase the efficiency of the administration.
* There was elaborate administrative machinery comprising various officials called
perundanam and sirudanam.

2.Revenue:
*The land revenue department was well organized. It was called as
puravuvarithinaikkalam.
* All lands were carefully surveyed and classified for assessment of revenue.
The residential portion of the village was called ur nattam.
* These and other lands such as the lands belonging to temples were exempted from
tax. Besides land revenue, there were tolls and customs on goods taken from one
place to another, various kinds of professional taxes, dues levied on ceremonial
occasions like marriages and judicial fines. During the hard times, there were
remission of taxes and Kulottunga I became famous by abolishing tolls and earned
 the title – Sungam Tavirtta Cholan. The main items of government expenditure were
the king and his court, army and navy, roads, irrigation tanks and canals.
3. Military Administration:*The Cholas maintained a regular standing army consisting
of elephants, cavalry, infantry and navy. About seventy regiments were mentioned in
the inscriptions.
* The royal troops were called Kaikkolaperumpadai. Within this there was a personal
troop to defend the king known as Velaikkarar. Attention was given to the training
of the army and military cantonments called kadagams existed. * The Cholas paid
special attention to their navy. The naval achievements of the Tamils reached its
climax under the Cholas. They controlled the Malabar and Coromandal coasts. In
fact, the Bay of Bengal became a Chola lake for sometime.
4.Provincial Administration:*The Chola Empire was divided into mandalams(province
)and each mandalam into valanadus(commissionary)and nadus. In each nadu(District )
there were a number of Kurram (a group of villages). The royal princes or officers were
in charge of mandalams. The valanadu was under periyanattar and nadu under nattar.
The town was known as nagaram and it was under the administration of a council
called nagarattar. 5. Village Assemblies:*The system of village autonomy with sabhas
and their committees developed through the ages and reached its culmination during
the Chola rule.
* Two inscriptions belonging to the period of Parantaka I found at
Uttiramerur provide details of the formation and functions of village councils. * That
village was divided into thirty wards and each was to nominate its members to the
village council. The qualifications to become a ward member were:
a. Ownership of at least one fourth veli of land.
b. Own residence.
c. Above thirty years and below seventy years of age.
d. Knowledge of Vedas.
* However, certain norms of disqualification were also mentioned in the inscriptions.
They were:
a. Those who had been members of the committees for the past three years.
b. Those who had failed to submit accounts as committee members.
c. Those who had committed sins.
d. Those who had stolen the property of others.
*From the persons duly nominated, one was to be chosen for each ward by kudavolai
system for a year. The names of eligible persons were written on palm-leaves and put
into a pot. A young boy or girl would take out thirty names each for one ward. They
were divided into six variyams such as samvatsaravariyam,
erivariyam, thotta variyam, pancha variyam, pon variyam and puravuvari variyam to
take up six different functions of the village administration.
* The committee members were called
variyapperumakkal. They usually met in the temple or under a tree and passed
resolutions. The number of committees and ward members varied from village to
village.
6. Socio-economic Life:* Caste system was widely prevalent during the Chola
period.Brahmins and Kshatriyas enjoyed special privileges.
* The inscriptions of the later period of the Chola rule mention about two major
divisions among the castes – Valangai and Idangai castes. * However, there was
cooperation among various castes and sub-castes in social and religious life.
* The position of women did not improve. The practice of ‘sati’ was prevalent
among the royal families. The devadasi system or dancing girls attached to temples
emerged during this period.
* Both Saivism and Vaishnavism continued to flourish during the Chola period. A
number of temples were built with the patronage of Chola kings and queens.
* The temples remained centres of economic activity during this period. The
mathas had great influence during this period.
*Both agriculture and industry flourished. Reclamation of forest lands and the
construction and maintenance of irrigation tanks led to agricultural prosperity.
* The weaving industry, particularly the silk-weaving at Kanchi flourished. * The
metal works developed owing to great demand of images for temples and utensils.
Commerce and trade were brisk with trunk roads or peruvazhis and merchant guilds.
Gold, silver and copper coins were issued in plenty at various denominations.
* Commercial contacts between the Chola Empire and China, Sumatra, Java and
Arabia were extensively prevalent. Arabian horses were imported in large numbers to
strengthen the cavalry.
7. Education and Literature:* Kambana wrote Ramavataram was one of the greatest
figures of Tamil poetry. His Ramayana also known as Kamba Ramayana.
*Kambana, Kuttana, Pugalendi are considered as 3 GEMS of Tamil poetry
*Education was also given importance. Besides the temples and mathas as
educational centres, several educational institutions also flourished. * The
inscription at Ennayiram, Thirumukkudal and Thirubhuvanai provide details of the
colleges existed in these places.
* Apart from the Vedas and Epics, subjects like mathematics and medicine were taught
in these institutions. Endowment of lands was made to run these institutions.
* The development of Tamil literature reached its peak during the Chola period.
Sivakasintamani written by Thiruthakkadevar and Kundalakesi belonged to 10th
century.
* The Ramayana composed by Kamban and the Periyapuranam or
Tiruttondarpuranam by Sekkilar are the two master-pieces of this age.
Jayankondar’s Kalingattupparani describes the Kalinga war fought by Kulotunga I.
* The Moovarula written by Ottakuthar depicts the life of three Chola kings.
* The Nalavenba was written by Pugalendi. The works on Tamil grammar like
Kalladam by Kalladanar, Yapperungalam by Amirthasagarar, a Jain, Nannul by
Pavanandhi and Virasoliyam by
Buddhamitra were the products of the Chola age.
Art and Architecture:* Another aspect was image making which reached as climax in
the dancing figure of Shiva called Nataraja
*The Dravidian style of art and architecture(Eg: Kailashanath temple of Kanchipuram)
reached its perfection under the Cholas. They built enormous temples. The chief
feature of the Chola temple is the vimana(Tall pyramidal tower) which dominates the
whole structure of the shrine .
* Gopuram & Garbhagriha are other 2 imp structures
* The best specimens are the temples of Vijayalaya, Choleshwara,The
Nageshwara temple, The koranganath temple & The Muvarakovitha temple.
* The early Chola temples were found at
Narthamalai and Kodumbalur in Pudukottai district and at Srinivasanallur in
Tiruchirappalli district. T
* he Big Temple at Tanjore built by Rajaraja I is a master-piece of South Indian art and
architecture. It consists of the vimana, ardhamandapa, mahamandapa and a large
pavilion in the front known as the Nandimandapa.
* Another notable contribution made by the Cholas to temple architecture is the Siva
temple at Gangaikondacholapuram built by Rajendra I.
* The Airavathesvara temple at Darasuram in Tanjore District and the
Kampaharesvara temple at Tribhuvanam are examples of later Chola temples.
The Cholas also made rich contributions to the art of sculpture. The walls of the Chola
temples such as the Tanjore and Gangaikondacholapuram temples contain numerous
icons of large size with fine execution.
* The bronzes of the Chola period are world-famous. The bronze statues of Nataraja or
dancing Siva are master pieces. The Chola paintings were found on the walls of
Narthamalai and Tanjore temples.
{***The Temple of Hiyasaleshwara at Dwarasamudra (Modern Halebid) is the greatest
achievement of Hoyasalas Art.}
 MEDIEVAL INDIA:
Arab Conquest of Sind (712 A.D.):

1st Muslim Invasions

*The religion Islam was born at Mecca in Arabia. Its founder was Prophet Muhammad.
But his teachings made the wealthy people of Mecca his enemies. Therefore, he
migrated to Medina in 622A.D., which was the starting point of the Muslim calendar
and the Muslim era called hijra. After eight years he returned to Mecca with his
followers. He died in 632 A.D.
*The followers of Muhammad set up an empire called the Caliphate. The Umayyads
and the Abbasids were called the caliphs. They expanded their rule by conquests and
spread their religion
Islam. In 712 A.D., Muhammad bin Qasim invaded Sind. He was the commander of the
Umayyad kingdom. Qasim defeated Dahir, the ruler of
Sind and killed him in a well-contested battle. His capital Aror was captured. * Qasim
extended his conquest further into Multan. Qasim organized the administration of
Sind. The people of Sind were given the status of zimmis (protected subjects). There
was no interference in the lives and property of the people. Soon, Qasim was recalled
by the Caliph.
* Mohammad Bin Qasim invaded India in712 AD & Conquered Sindh which became
the province of Umayyad khilafat.
Mahmud of Ghazni( Turkish) Invasions: 1st Turkish Invasions
*By the end of the 9th century A.D., the Abbasid
Caliphate declined. The Turkish
governors established independent kingdoms and the Caliph became only a ritual
authority. One among them was Alptigin whose capital was Ghazni. His successor and
son-in-law Sabuktigin
wanted to conquer India from the north-west. He succeeded in capturing Peshawar
from Jayapala. But his raids did not produce a lasting effect. He was succeeded by his
son, Mahmud
Mahmud of Ghaznavi (1000-27AD):
*1st Turk invasion
* Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni led about 17 expeditions to India to enrich himself by
taking away the wealth from India.
* In 1025AD he attacked & raided the hindu Somanath temple that lies on the coast in
the extreme south of Kathiawar.
* The temple destroyed in 1026AD.
*As a reward of his services to Islam ,He received Title 'Yamin-al-Dawla' (Right hand of
the state) from Abbasid Caliph . his Dynasty is called Yamini Dyanasty
Muhammad Ghori Invasions:2nd Turkish Invasion
* He invaded India & laid the foundation of Muslim dominion in India. He may be
considered as the founder of Muslim rule.
*The Ghoris started as vassals of Ghazni but became independent after the death of
Mahmud. Taking advantage of the
decline of the Ghaznavid empire, Muizzuddin Muhammad popularly known as
Muhammad Ghori brought Ghazni under their control. *Having made his position
strong and secure at Ghazni, Muhammad Ghori turned his attention to India.
Unlike Mahmud of Ghazni, he wanted to conquer India and extend his empire in
this direction.
*In 1175, Muhammad Ghori captured Multan and occupied whole of Sind in his
subsequent expeditions. In 1186 he attacked Punjab, captured it from Khusru Malik
and annexed it to his dominions. The annexation of Punjab carried his dominion
eastward to the Sutlej and led his invasion of the Chauhan kingdom.
The Battle of Tarain (1191-1192) :
*Prithviraj Chauhan (1178-92) : He ruled over Delhi & Agra & fought 2 imp battles i.e.
1st Battle of Terrain in 1191 between the forces of Prithviraj
Chauhan & Mohammad Ghori in which ghori was defeated
*2nd Battle of Terrain in 1192 : ghori again invaded him nd then Prithviraj Chauhan was
defeated & captured. The Delhi kingdom is fell to Mohammad Ghori.
* This battle led to the establishment of Muslim rule over North & south India for
several centuries
* The Battle of Chandawar ( 1194) between Muhammad of Ghori and Jayachandra
of the Gahadavala dynasty. It took place at Chandawar. He was the last RAJPUTA king
who was defeated & killed by Ghori
* Rana khumbha (the sisodiyan ruler of Mewar 1433-68): He was famous ruler of
Mewar . He defeated Mohammad Khilji & built tower of victory (Vijay stambha) in
chittoor. It is called Battle of Sarangpur in 1437

SULTANATE/DELHI SULTANATE PERIOD(1206-1526AD):

* Mohammad Ghoris conquests became the nucleus in this period: divided into 5
dynasties

I. The Slave Dynasty(1206-90AD): 9 members

*also called Mamluk dynasty. Mamluk was the

Quranic term for slave.
* In fact, three dynasties were established during this period. They were
1. Qutbi dynasty (1206-1211) founded by Qutbuddin Aibak.
2. First Ilbari dynasty (1211- 1266) founded by Iltutmish.
3. Second Ilbari dynasty (1266-1290) founded by Balban.

1. Qutubuddhin Aibak (1206-10):

* A Turkish slave by origin, he was purchased by Ghori who later made him his
governor . After death of Ghori Aibak became the master of Hindustan & Founded
Slave Dynasty in 1206 AD .

*For his generosity,he was given the title of Laksh Bhakhsh(giver of Lakhs)

*He assumed the title Sultan and made Lahore his capital

*It was later completed by Iltutmish. Aibak died suddenly while playing chaugan (horse
polo) in 1210. He was Succeeded by his son Aram Baksh, who was replaced by
Iltutmish after eight months.
* He constructed 2 mosques

1.Quwat-ul-islam at Delhi

2. Adhai din ka Johonpra at Ajmer

* He also began the construction of Qutub Minar,in the honour of famous Sufi saint
Khwaja Qutubuddhin Bhaktiyar Kaki.

* Aibak was a great patron of learning & patronised writers like Hasan -un -
Nizami,author of 'Taj-ul-massir ' & fakruddin author of 'Tarik-i-mubarak shahi'

2.Shamsuddin Iltutmish (1211-1236):

* Iltutmish belonged to the Ilbari tribe and hence his dynasty was named as Ilbari
dynasty.
*His half brothers sold him as a slave to Aibak, who made him his-son-in law by giving
his daughter in marriage to him. Later Aibak appointed him as iqtadar of Gwalior.
*In 1211 Iltutmish defeated Aram Baksh/Aram shah and became Sultan. He shifted his
capital from Lahore to Delhi
* He was a very capable ruler & Real founder of Delhi Sultanate
* In the meantime, Temujin popularly known as Chengiz Khan, the leader of the
Mongols, started invading Central Asia. He defeated Jalaluddin Mangabarni, the ruler
of Kwarizam. Mangabarni crossed the river Indus and sought asylum from Iltutmish.
*Iltutmish refused to give him shelter in order to save his empire from the onslaught
of the Mongols. Fortunately for Iltutmish, Chengiz Khan retuned home without
entering into India. In fact, the Mongol policy of Iltutmish saved India from the wrath
of Chengiz Khan. * He received the mansur, the letter of recognition, from the
Abbasid Caliph in 1229 by which he became the legal sovereign ruler of India. Later
he nominated his daughter Raziya as his successor.
*He introduced the silver coins (tanka) & the copper coil(jital).
*He organised the iqta system & introduced reforms of civil administration &army
which were centrally paid & recruited.
* He set up an official nobility of slaves known as Chahalgani /Chalisa (group of 40)
* He completed the construction of Qutub Minar which was started by Aibak. * the
tallest stone tower in India (238 ft.), he built a magnificent mosque at Ajmir.
*He patronised Minhaj-us-siraj author of 'Tabaqat-i-Nasiri'
3.Ruknuddin(1236):
* He was the son of iltutmish & crowned by his mother ,shah turkan , after the death of
iltutmish.He was deposed by Razia,when he was out of capital to curb a rebellion in
Avadh against him.
4.Razia Sultana (1236-40):
* Iltutmish nominated his daughter Razia as his successor, the nobles placed
RuknuddinFiroz on the throne However ,Razia got rid of RuknuddinFiroz & ascended
the throne.
*She was the 1st Muslim lady who ever rule India
* She further offended the nobles by her preference for an Abyssian slave Yakut.
* Soon after her accession the governor's of Multan,Badaun, Hansi & Lahore openly
revolted against her. There was a serious rebellion in Bhatinda. Altunia governor of
Bhatinda refused to accept suzerainity of Razia . Razia accompanied by Yakut
marched against Altunia
* However,Altunia got Yakut murdered & imprisoned Razia . Subsequently Razia
married Altunia & both marched towards Delhi.
* In 1240 AD , she became the victim of conspiracy &was assassinated near
kaithal(Haryana).
5. Bahram shah(1240-42):
* After Razia , Iltutmish 3rd son Bahram Shah was on the throne by the powerful
Turkish council Chalisa.
*He was considered only as dejure ruler ,while Naib-e-mamlakat(the regent) was the
defacto ruler
* Bahram shah lost his life after his failed attempt to assert his authority once on
the throne
6.Masud Shah(1242-46):
*He was the son of RuknuddinFiroz but was deposed after Balban & Nasiruddin
mahmud's mother,Malika-e-jahan, conspired against him & established Nasiruddin
Mahmud as the new sultan.
7. Nasiruddin Mahamud(1246-66):
* He was the son of iltutmish & was known as the Darvesi king as he was very pious &
noble . He died in 1266.
8. Ghiyasuddin Balban(1266-87):
* Balban ascended the throne in1266.
*Ghiyasuddin Balban, who was also known as Ulugh Khan, served as Naib or regent to
Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud. He also strengthened his position by marrying his
daughter to the Sultan. *He knew that the real threat to the monarchy was from the
nobles called the Forty.
* He also introduced the Persian festival of Nauroz to impress the nobles and people
with his wealth and power
*Balban was determined to break the power of the Forty, the Turkish nobles. * He
broke the power of Chalisa & restored the prestige of the crown . That was his greatest
contribution towards the stability of the sultanate.
*To keep himself well-informed Balban appointed spies.
* He created a strong centralised army to deal with internal disturbances & to check
Mangoks who were posing a serious danger to Delhi Sultanate.
*He established the Military Department Diwan-i-Arz.
* The Persian court model influenced Balbans conception of kingship. He took up the
title of Zil-i-illahi(shadow of God)
*He introduced sijda (prostration before the monarch) & paibos (kissing the feet of
monarch) as the normal forms of salutation.
* He destroyed the mewati Rajputa brigandage in the doab,where forests were cut &
fort built
*In 1279, Tughril Khan, the governor of Bengal revolted against Balban. It was
suppressed and he was beheaded.
*In his last days he overlooked the sultanate affairs due to the death of his eldest
&mist loving son , Muhammad & Rebellion by his closest & most loved Slave ,Tughril.
Muhammad died fighting Mongol in 1285 while Tughril was captured & beheaded.
9. kaiqubad(1287-90):
* A grand son of Balban was seated on the throne by Fakhruddin,the kotwal of Delhi
who assumed high political authority during last days of Balban. But kaiqubad was
killed by the Khilji family,which saw the end of slaves Dynasty & the beginning of Khilji
Dynasty in Delhi Throne.
II. The Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320AD):
4 members
1. Jalaluddin Khilji(1290-96):
* Jalaluddin Khilji founded the Khilji Dynasty
*The advent of the Khalji dynasty marked the zenith of Muslim imperialism in India.
The founder of the Khalji dynasty was Jalaluddin Khilji. He was seventy years old when
he came to power. He was generous and lenient. Malik Chhajju, nephew of Balban was
allowed to remain the governor of Kara. His leniency was misunderstood as weakness.
When Chhajju revolted, it was suppressed but he was pardoned. When the thugs
(robbers) looted the country, they were allowed to go after a severe warning. In 1292
when Malik
Chhajju revolted for the second time, he was replaced by his son-in-law, Alauddin
Khalji.
* In 1296 Alauddin Khalji took an expedition to Devagiri and returned to Kara. During
the reception there, Alauddin Khalji treacherously murdered his father-in-law
Jalaluddin Khalji and usurped the throne of Delhi.
2. Alauddin Khilji(1296-1316):
* He was a nephew & son-in-law of Jalaluddin Khilji. Alauddin Khilji killed him &
succeeded the throne in 1296.
* He was the 1st Turkish sultan of Delhi who separated religion from politics.He
proclaimed 'kingship knows no kinship' ALAUDDIN IMPERIALISM:
* Alauddin annexed Gujarat (1298),Rathmbor(1301l,Mewar(1303),Malwa
(1305),Jalor(1311). In Deccan, Alauddin's Army led by Malik khafur defeated Ram
Chandra (Yadava ruler of Devagiri), Pratap Rudradeva(kakatiya ruler of warangal),
VirBallal III(Hoyasala ruler of Dwarasamudra) & virpandya(Pandya ruler of Madurai.
ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS:
* The introduction of paying salaries in cash to the soldiers led to price regulations
popularly called as Market Reforms.
*In order to avoid problems created by nobles , Alauddin issued 4 ordinances.
1.ordinance I : aimed at the confiscation of religious endowments & free grants of
lands
2. Ordinance II : Alauddin reorganized spy system
3. Ordinance III: prohibited the use of wine.
4. Ordinance IV : issued by Alauddin laid down that nobles should not inter - marry
without his permission
* He introduced the system of Dagh(the branding of horse) &
Chehra/Huliya(Descriptive roll of soldiers)
* Alauddin ordered that all land was to be measured & then share of state was to be
fixed .
* The post of special officer called Mustakharaj was created for the purpose of
collection of revenue.
* The peasants had to pay the produce as aland revenue
*Alauddin sought to fix cost of all commodities. for the purpose he set up 3 markets at
Delhi :
1. One market for food grains
2. Costly cloth
3. Horses,slaves & cattle
* Each market was under the control of a high officer called Shahna who maintained a
register of the merchants & strictly controlled the shopkeepers
& the prices . The check on market was kept by 2 officers
1. Diwan-i-Riyasat
2. Shahna-i- Mandi
* All goods for sale were brought to an open market called sara-i-adal
*A separate department called Diwani Riyasat was created under an officer called Naib-
i-Riyasat. There were secret
agents called munhiyans who sent reports to the Sultan regarding the functioning of
these markets.
*Many forts were built by him & the most imp of them is Alai fort. He also constructed
the Alai Darwaza ,the entrance of Qutub Minar. He also built the palace of 1000 pillars
called Hazar Sutun.
* He was the patron of art & learning. Amir Khusrau , the poet -musician was his
favourite court poet.
* In 1316, after death of Alauddin,Malik kafur, called Hajardinari seized the throne.
Before kafur died ,he nominated Shihabuddin(Alauddin's 6 yrs old prince) as king but
imprisoned the eldest prince Mubarak khan. kafur was killed by the loyalists of the
royal family of Alauddin.
3. Mubarak khan(1316-20):
* After the death of Kafur, Mubarak khan was free from prison & worked as regent
for Shihabuddin. HE captured the throne at the 1st opportunity he got, but could rule
only for a year as he sank into debauchery & could not give up his dissipated lifestyle
* He awarded his lover Mubarak Hassan authority over army & palace guards ,who
soon obtained full control over Sultan's palace .
* Mubarak Hassan was given the title Khusrau khan by the sultan & with in the
months Khusrau killed Mubarak khan & assumed the title of Nasiruddin in
Mid-1320
4. Khusrau khan(1320):
* Khusrau khan was killed by Ghazi Malik, governor of Dipalpur when he tried to
oppose a rebellion by Ghazi Malik & his son Fakhruddin Jauna. This brought the end of
Khilji Dynasty & established the Tuglaq Dynasty on the throne of Delhi.
III. The Tugluq Dynasty (1320-1414AD):
1. Ghiyasuddin Tuglaq(1320-25):
* Khusrau khan ,the last king of the Khilji Dynasty was killed by Ghazi Malik.
Ghazi Malik ascended the throne assuming title Ghiyasuddin Tuglaq
*The founder of the Tughlaq dynasty was Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq. Ghiyasuddin
Tughlaq sent his son Juna Khan to fight against Warangal. He defeated Pratabarudra
and returned with rich booty. Ghiyasuddin laid the foundation for Tughlaqabad near
Delhi. Ulugh Khan was said to have treacherously killed his father and ascended the
throne with the title Muhammad bin Tughlaq in 1325.
* He died in an accident & his son Jauna(Ulugh khan) succeeded him under the title
Mohammad -bin-Tughlaq
2. Mohammad-bin-Tuglaq(1325-51):
* Prince Jauna,son of Ghiyasuddin Tuglaq ascended the throne in 1325. * He tried
to introduce many administrative reforms.He had 5 Ambitious projects for which
he became particularly debatable.
1. Taxation in the Doab (1326): The sultan made an ill-advised financial experiment in
the doab between the Ganges & Yamuna . He not only increased the rate of taxation
but also received & created some additional Abwabs or cesses. The increase was 20
fold & to this were added Ghari or House tax & the charai or pasture tax . The sultan
created a new department of agriculture called Diwan-i-Kohi. The main object of this
is dept was to bring more land under cultivation by giving direct help to peasants.
*In order to overcome financial difficulties, Muhammad bin Tughlaq increased the land
revenue on the farmers of Doab (land between Ganges and Yamuna rivers). It was an
excessive and arbitrary step on the farmers. A severe famine was also ravaging that
region at that time. It had resulted in a serious peasant revolts
2. Transfer of capital (1327): He transferred capital from Delhi to Devagiri.
Devagiri had been a base for the expansion of Turkish rule in south India. It is 2nd
capital & named as Daulatabad.The distance between these two places was more than
1500 kilometres. Many people died during the rigorous journey in the summer After
couple of yrs ge abandon Daulatabad because he could not control south from Delhi
& North from Daulatabad
3. Introduction of Token currency (1329):
* He decided to introduce bronze coins were to have same value as that of the
silver coins.There was a shortage of silver through out the world in the fourteenth
century. Kublai Khan issued paper money in China.
* In the same manner, Muhammad bin Tughlaq issued copper coins at par with the
value of the silver tanka coins. He thought that it could prevent people from forging
new coins. But he was not able to do so & soon the new coins began to be greatly
devalued in Markets . He withdraw the token currency. He promised to exchange the
silver coins in the place of bronze coins
4. Proposed khurasan Expedition (1329):
* He decided to conquer khurasan & Iraq & mobilised a huge army for the
purpose.
* There was instability in khurasan on account of the unpopular rule of Abu said.
This project was also abandoned
5. Qarachil Expedition (1330):
* This was launched in kumaon hills in Himalayas allegedly to counter Chinese
incursions . It also appears that the expedition was directed against some refractory
tribes in kumaon Garhwal region with the object of bringing them under Delhi
Sultanate
=> His 5 projects led to revolts . His last days were spent in checking the revolts (36
revolts in 25 yrs)
Agricultural Reforms: the promotion of agriculture were the real solution to the
problem. He launched a scheme by which takkavi loans (loans for cultivation) were
given to the farmers to buy seed and to extend cultivation. A separate department for
agriculture, Diwan- i- Kohi was established. Model farm under the state was created in
an area of 64 square miles for which the government spent seventy lakh tankas. This
experiment was further continued by Firoz Tughlaq.
* He died in Thatta while campaigning in Sindh against Taghi, a Turkish slave.
3. Firoz shah Tuglaq(1351-88):
* He was cousin of Muhammad bin Tuglaq
*He therefore made no attempt to reassert his authority over south India & deccan.
*He decreed that whenever a noble died his son should be allowed to succeed his
position including his iqta & if he had no sons ,his son-in-law & his absence his slave
was to succeed
* Firoz extended the principle of Heridity to the army & soldiers to send in their place
their sons. The soldiers were not paid I. Cash but by assignments on land revenue of
villages (vajeha)
* He was a true Muslim & his state under him is truly islamic
* He tried to ban practices which the orthodox thelogians considered non - islamic .
Thus, he prohibited the practice of Muslim women going out to worship at the grant
of saints.
*It was during the time of Firoz that jizya became seperate tax . Firoz refused to
exempt Brahmins from payment of jizya since this was not provided for Shariat.
* The new system of taxation was according to Quran 4 kinds of taxes sanctioned by
the Quran was imposed. They are:
Kharaj - land tax, which was equal to 1/10 of the produce of the land.
Zakat - 2% tax on property
Jizya - levied on non - muslims & khams was 1/5 of the booty captured during the war
* Sultan paid large attention to irrigation. Firoz repaired a no. Of canals & imposed
Haque - i-Sharb or Hasil-i-sharb(water tax)
* He was agreat builder . The cities of fatehabad,Hisar,jaunpur was founded in the
memory of Mohammad bin Tuglaq & named after his nickname 'jauna khan'
* The 2 pillars of Ashoka ,one from topra(Haryana) & the other from meerut(up) were
brought to Delhi.
* The sultan established at Delhi a hospital described Dar-ul-shifa
* A new department of Diwan -i- khairiyat was set up to make provisions for the
marriage of poor girls
* He ordered his officials that whenever they attacked a place they should select
handsome & well born young boys & send them to sultan as slaves Administrative
Reforms:* He strictly followed the advice of the ulemas in running the
 administration. He pleased the nobles and assured hereditary succession to their
properties.
* Thus the iqta system was not only revived but also it was made hereditary. As per the
Islamic law he levied the taxes. Jiziya was strictly imposed on nonMuslims. He was the
first Sultan to impose irrigation tax.
* But at the same time he dug irrigation canals and wells. The longest canal was about
200 kilometres from Sutlej to Hansi. Another canal was between Yamuna and Hissar.
* There were about 1200 fruit gardens in and around Delhi yielding more revenue. The
special tax on 28 items was abolished by him since they were against the Islamic law.
He also developed royal factories called karkhanas in which thousands of slaves were
employed. About 300 new towns were built during his reign.
* The famous among them was Firozabad near Red Fort in Delhi, now called Firoz Shah
Kotla. Old monuments like Jama Masjid and Qutb-Minar were also repaired.
*A new department called Diwan-i-Khairat was created to take care of orphans and
widows. Free hospitals and marriage bureaus for poor Muslims were also established.
Firoz patronized scholars like Barani and Afif. As he was guided by the ulemas, he was
intolerant towards Shia Muslims and Sufis.
* He treated Hindus as second grade citizens and imposed Jiziya.
* In this respect he wasthe precursor of Sikandar Lodi and Aurangazeb. Also he
increased the number of slaves by capturing the defeated soldiers and young
persons. In his regime the number of slaves had increased.
* He appointed Khan-i-Jahan Maqbal, a Telugu Brahmin convert as wazir (prime
minister). However peace & tranquility in his rule credit was goes to Khan-i-Jahan
Maqbul.He died in 1388.
* The Malwa, Gujarat & sharqi(jaunpur) kingdoms broke away from the sultanate
*Timur's Invasion:
* 1398-99 Timur , the lame ,a Turkish chief & cruel conqueror from Mongolia
& descendant of Chengiz khan ,invaded India in 1398 during the reign of
Mahmud shah Tuglaq(Nasir-ud-Din ). The last ruler of Tuglaq Dynasty. * Timur's
army mercilessly sacked & plundered Delhi . Timur returned to central Asia
,leaving a nominee named khizra khan to rule over punjab. In
1404 he died while on his way to conquering China
IV. The Sayyid Dynasty (1414-50AD):(4 members)
1. Khizr khan(1414-21):
* Timur's nominee captured Delhi & was proclaimed the new sultan. He was the 1st of
the Sayyid Dynasty which ruled over Delhi & surrounding districts
2. Mubarak shah(1421-34):
* He succeeded khizr at the throne after his succesful expeditions against
mewatis,katehars & the gangetic doab area . He was killed by the nobles in his own
high court
3. Muhammad shah(1434-43):
* The nobles put Muhammad shah on the throne but he could not survive the in
fighting among the nobles in the court . He was authorised to rule only a meagre area
around 30 miles & rest of the sultanate was ruled by nobles .
4. Alam shah(1443-51):
* The last sayyid king descended in favour of Bahlol Lodhi & retired . Thus began the
Lodhi Dynasty which was confirmed to Delhi & a few surrounding areas
V. The Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526AD):(3 Members)
1. Bahlol Lodhi(1451-88):
He was one of the Afghan sardars . He established himself In Punjab after the invasion
of Timur. He founded Lodhi Dynasty .
The Lodis, who succeeded Sayyids, were Afghans. Bahlul Lodi was the first Afghan ruler
while his predecessors were all Turks.
2. Sikandar Lodhi(1489-1517):
* He was only son of Bahlol Lodhi who conquered Bihar & Western Bengal
* He shifted his capital from Delhi to Agra ,a city founded by him * He was fanatical
Muslim & broke the sacred images of the jwalamukhi temple at nagar kot & ordered
the temples of Mathura to be destroyed * He took a keen interest in the
 development of agriculture . He introduced the Gaz-i-sikandari( sikindar's yard) of 32
digits for measuring cultivated fields.
*He was apoet & composed poems in Persian with pen name 'Gulrukhi'
3. Ibrahim Lodhi(1517-26):
* He was the last king & last sultan of Delhi . Son of sikindar Lodhi. Some of the
nobles turns against him
* At last daulat khan Lodhi, the governor of punjab invited babur to overthrow
Ibrahim Lodhi . Babur accepted the offer & inflicted a crushing defeat on Ibrahim
Lodhi in the 1st battle of paniput in1526. He was killed & ended Delhi Sultanate
Causes of decline of Delhi Sultanate:
1. Despotic military type of govt
2.Wild projects of Jauna & incompetence of Firoz Tuglaq
3. War of succession - no fixed law of succession
4. Greed & incompetency of nobles
5. Defective military org
6. Poor means of communication
7. Financial instability
8. No.of slaves increased
9. Timur's Invasion
Part 1
Administration under Delhi Sultanate:
* The Turkish sultan in India declared himself Lieutenant of the faithful i.e. of the
Abbasid Caliphate of baghadad & included his name in Khutba ,it did not mean that
Caliph became the legal ruler . The Caliph had only a moral position
* Political,legal& military authority was vested in the sultan . He was responsible
for Administration & was also the commander -in -chief of the
Military forces
* No clear law of succession developed among Muslim rulers . The military
strength was the main factor in succession to the throne .
*At its zenith the authority of Delhi Sultan had extended as far south as Madurai.
*The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic state with its religion Islam. The Sultans considered
themselves as representatives of the Caliph. They included the name of the Caliph in
the khutba or prayer and inscribed it on their coins. * Although Balban called himself
the shadow of God, he continued to practice of including the name of Caliph in the
khutba and coins. Iltutmish, Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Firoz Tughlaq obtained
mansur or letter of permission from the Caliph.
Central Administration:
Dept =head(founded by)
1. Diwan-i-wizarat( Dept of finance) = Wazir
2. Diwan - i-Ariz (Military dept) =
Ariz -i-Mumalik
3. Diwan-i-Insha(Dept of correspondence)
= Dabir-i-Mumalik
4. Diwan-i-Risalat(Dept of Appeals) = Dabir-i-Mulq
5.Diwan -i- Mustakharaj (Dept of Arrears) = founded by Alauddin khilji
6. Diwan -i-Royasat(Dept of commerce) = Rais-i-Mumalik(founded by
Alauddin khilji)
7. Diwan-i-Kohi (Dept of Agriculture) = founded by Md-bin-tughlaq
8.Diwan-i-Bandagan(Dept of Slaves)= founded by Firoz Tughlaq
9.Diwan- i- khairyat (dept of charity) =founded by Firoz Tughlaq 10.
DIWAN -I- isthiaq(Dept of Pensions) = founded by Firoz Tughlaq
* Administrative Division: Head
1. Iqta(province) = Muqti/Wali
2. Shiq(Dist) = Siqdar
3. Paragana(Taluka) = Chaudhary & Amil
4. Gram (village) = Muqaddam ,khut

*Art & Architecture under Delhi Sultanate:

* Turkish conquerors
1. Done
2. The loft towers
3. The true arch supported by beam
4. The vault
* They also brought with them an expert of knowledge of the use of concrete
& mortar, which had hitherto been little used in India
* Adhai Din ka Jhonpra at Ajmer has a beautiful prayer hlk,an exquisitely carved mehrab
of white marble & decorative arch screen
*The 1st eg of true /Voussoired arch is said to be the tomb of Ghiyasuddin
Balban in Mehrauli(Delhi)
* Khilji Dynasty:
The usage of Voussoiredarch & done was established & for all . Famous eg is the tomb
of Hazrat Nizamuddin Aulia at Delhi
* The Tughluqs
They show stark simplicity & sobriety, probably indicating less financial resources as
well as puritanical tests. Slopping walls & a dark appearance characterised the
buildings .some notable Tughlaq monuments were the first of Tughlaqabad, the tomb
of Ghiyasuddin Tuglaq which marked a new phase in Indo- islamic architecture by
serving as amodel for later tombs & the fort of Adilabad
* The Sayyids Too shot to allow construction of elaborate buildings
* The Lodhis
The construction of double domestic was the main features of Lodhi architecture. One
building worth noting the Moth ki Masjid erected by the prime minister of Sikindar
Lodhi
Local Administration:*The provinces under the Delhi Sultanate were called iqtas. They
were initially under the control of the nobles. But the governors of the provinces were
called the muqtis or walis. They were to maintain law and order and collect the land
revenue. *The provinces were divided into shiqs and the next division was pargana. The
shiq was under the control of shiqdar.
The pargana comprising a number of villages was headed by amil.
* The village remained the basic unit of the administration. The village headman was
known as muqaddam or chaudhri. The village accountant was called patwari.
* Economy After consolidating their position in India, the Delhi Sultans introduced
reforms in the land revenue administration. The lands were classified into three
categories:
1. iqta land – lands assigned to officials as iqtas instead of payment for their
services.
2. khalisa land – land under the direct control of the Sultan and the revenues
collected were spent for the maintenance of royal court and royal household. 3. inam
land – land assigned or granted to religious leaders or Religious institutions.
The peasantry paid one third of their produce as land revenue, and sometimes even
one half of the produce. They also paid othertaxes and always led a hand-to-mouth
living. Frequent famines made their lives more miserable.
However, Sultans like Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Firoz Tughlaq took efforts to
enhance agricultural production by providing irrigational facilities and by providing
takkavi loans. They also
encouraged the farmers to cultivate superior crop like wheat instead of barley. Firoz
encouraged the growth of horticulture.
* Muhammad bin Tughlaq created a separate agricultural department, Diwani
Kohi.
* Cotton textile and silk industry flourished in this period. Sericulture was
introduced on a large scale which made India less dependent on other countries for
the import of raw silk. Paper Industry had grown and there was an extensive use of
paper from 14th and 15th centuries. Other crafts like leather-making, metal-crafts
and carpet-weaving flourished due to the increasing demand. The royal karkhanas
supplied the goods needed to the Sultan and his household. They manufactured costly
articles made of gold, silver and gold ware.
*The nobles also aped the life style of Sultans and indulged in luxurious life.
They were well paid and accumulated enormous wealth.
*The system of coinage had also developed during the Delhi Sultanate.
Iltutmish issued several types of silver tankas. One silver tanka was divided into 48
jitals during the Khalji rule and 50 jitals during the Tughlaq rule. * Gold coins or
dinars became popular during the reign of Alauddin Khalji after his South Indian
conquests.
* Copper coins were less in number and dateless. Muhammad bin Tughlaq had not
only experimented token currency but also issued several types of gold and silver
coins. They were minted at eight different places. At least twenty five varieties of gold
coins were issued by him.

SOCIAL LIFE :
*There was little change in the structure of the Hindu society during this period.
Traditional caste system with the Brahmins on the upper strata of the society was
prevalent. The subservient position of women also continued and the practice of sati
was widely prevalent. The seclusion of women and the wearing of purdah became
common among the upper class women.
*The Arabs and Turks brought the purdah system into India and it became widespread
among the Hindu women in the upper classes of north India. *During the Sultanate
period, the Muslim society remained divided into several ethnic and racial groups. The
Turks, Iranians, Afghans and Indian Muslims developed exclusively and there were
no intermarriages between these groups. Hindu converts from lower castes were also
not given equal respect.
* The Muslim nobles occupied high offices and very rarely the Hindu nobles were
given high position in the government.
* The Hindus were considered zimmis or protected people for which they were
forced to pay a tax called jiziya. In the beginning jiziya was collected as part of land tax.
*Firoz Tughlaq separated it from the land revenue and collected jiziya as a separate tax.
Sometimes Brahmins were exempted from paying jiziya.
Art and Architecture:*The art and architecture of the Delhi Sultanate period was
distinct from the Indian style. The Turks introduced arches, domes, lofty towers or
minarets and decorations using the Arabic script. They used the skill of the Indian
stone cutters. They also added colour to their buildings by using marbles, red and
yellow sand stones.
*In the beginning, they converted temples and other structures demolished into
mosques. For example, the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque near Qutub Minar in Delhi was
built by using the materials obtained from destroying many Hindu and Jain temples.
* But later, they began to construct new structures. The most magnificent building
of the 13th century was the Qutub Minar which was founded by Aibek and completed
by Iltutmish.
* This seventy one metre tower was dedicated to the Sufi saint Qutbuddin
Bakthiyar Kaki. The balconies of this tower were projected from the main building and
it was the proof of the architectural skills of that period. Later,
Alauddin Khalji added an entrance to the Qutub Minar called Alai Darwaza.
*The dome of this arch was built on scientific lines. The buildings of the Tughlaq period
were constructed by combining arch and dome. * They also used the cheaper and
easily available grey colour stones. The palace complex called Tughlaqabad with its
beautiful lake was built during the period of Ghyasuddin Tughlaq. Muhammad bin
Tughlaq built the tomb of Ghyasuddin on a high platform. The Kotla fort at Delhi was
the creation of Firoz Tughlaq. The Lodi garden in Delhi was the example for the
architecture of the Lodis.
Music:*New musical instruments such as sarangi and rabab were introduced during
this period. Amir Khusrau introduced many new ragas such as ghora and sanam. He
evolved a new style of light music known as qwalis by blending the Hindu and Iranian
systems.
*The invention of sitar was also attributed to him. The Indian classical work
Ragadarpan was translated into Persian during the reign of Firoz Tughlaq. Pir
Bhodan, a Sufi saint was one of the great musicians of this period. Raja Man Singh of
Gwalior was a great lover of music. He encouraged the composition of a great musical
work called Man Kautuhal.

Literature:*The Delhi Sultans patronized learning and literature. Many of them had
great love for Arabic and Persian literature. Learned men came from Persia and Persian
language got encouragement from the rulers. Besides theology and poetry, the writing
of history was also encouraged. * Some of the Sultans had their own court historians.
The most famous historians of this period were Hasan Nizami, Minhaj-us-Siraj,
Ziauddin Barani, and Shams-Siraj Afif. Barani’s Tarikh- i-Firoz Shahi contains the history
of
Tughlaq dynasty. Minhaj-us-Siraj wrote Tabaqat-i- Nasari, a general history of
Muslim dynasties
*Amir Khusrau (1252-1325) was the famous Persian writer of this period. He wrote a
number of poems. He experimented with several poetical forms and created a new
style of Persian poetry called Sabaq-i-Hind or the Indian style.
He also wrote some Hindi verses.
* Amir Khusrau’s Khazain-ul-Futuh speaks about Alauddin’s conquests. His famous
work Tughlaq Nama deals with the rise of Ghyiasuddin Tughlaq.
* Sanskrit and Persian functioned as link languages in the Delhi
* Sultanate. Zia Nakshabi was the first to translate Sanskrit stories into Persian.
The book Tutu Nama or Book of the Parrot became popular and translated into Turkish
and later into many European languages.
*The famous Rajatarangini written by Kalhana belonged to the period of Zainul-Abidin,
the ruler of Kashmir. Many Sanskrit works on medicine and music were translated into
Persian.
*In Arabic, Alberuni’s Kitab-ul-Hind is the most famous work. Regional languages also
developed during this period.
* Chand Baradi was the famous Hindi poet of this period. Bengali literature had also
developed and Nusrat Shah patronized the translation of Mahabaratha into Bengali.
* The Bakthi cult led to development of Gujarati and Marathi languages. The
Vijayanagar Empire patronized Telugu and Kannada literature.

* Mangolian Invasions during Delhi Sultanate:

Regime of sultan = Events
1. Iltutmish= 1221AD Chengiz khan came upto bank of Indus
2. Bahram =1241AD , Tair Bahadur entered punjab looting & killing at lahore
3. Masud = 1245 AD , Towards the end of the 1245AD Balban fought back the
Mongolians & recovered Multan which was captured by the Mongols
4. Balban = 1279AD , Prince Muhammad of Multan, Bughra khan from
Samana & Malik Mubarak of Delhi combined together to defeat Mongols 5. Balban
= 1286 AD , Timur invaded India . Prince Muhammad was killed in the battle & was
decorated with the khan-i-shahid title
6. Jalaluddin Khilji = 1292 AD , Abdullah came to Northern part of India . About 4k
Mongols got converted to Islam & become the famous 'new musalman'
7. Alauddin Khilji=1304 AD , Ulugh & Zafar khan defeated the Mongols at
Jalandhar &saldi their leader was taken as prisoner
-> Zafar khan was killed in the battle with Mongol kutulugh khan (1299)
8.Alauddin Khilji = 1304AD , Targi ,Tartaq & Ali Beg were defeated
9. Mubarak khan = 1320 , Dalucha khan invaded kashmir valley
10.Muhammad-bin -Tughlaq = 1329AD , Tarmashirin khan was able to reach the
outskirts of Delhi but was defeated by Muhammad bin Tuglaq.
 Vijayanagar & other Kingdoms:
VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE (1336 - 1565 AD)

*The vijayanagar kingdom & the city were founded by Harihar & Bukka (sons of
sanghama) who were feudatories of kakatiyas & later became minister in the court of
kampili

* Vijayanagar Kingdom lay in the Deccan, to the south of the Bahmani kingdom

*The history of Vijayanagar Empire constitutes an important chapter in the history of

India. Four dynasties – Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva and Aravidu – ruled Vijayanagar from
A.D. 1336 to 1672.

*The sources for the study of Vijayanagar are varied such as literary, archaeological and
numismatics.
*Krishnadevaraya’s Amukthamalyada, Gangadevi’s Maduravijayam and
Allasani
Peddanna’s Manucharitam are some of the indigenous literature of this period.
*Many foreign travelers visited the Vijayanagar Empire and their accounts are also
valuable. The Moroccan traveler, Ibn Battuta, Venetian traveler Nicolo de Conti, Persian
traveler Abdur Razzak and the Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes were among them
who left valuable accounts on the socio-economic conditions of the
Vijayanagar Empire.
*The copper plate inscriptions such as the
Srirangam copper plates of Devaraya II provide the genealogy and achievements of
Vijayanagar rulers.
* The Hampi ruins and other monuments of Vijayanagar provide information on the
cultural contributions of the Vijayanagar rulers.
*The numerous coins issued by the Vijayanagar rulers contain figures and legends
explaining their tittles and achievements.
I. Sangama Dynasty :*Vijayanagar was founded in 1336 by Harihara and
Bukka of the Sangama dynasty. They were originally served under the Kakatiya rulers
of Warangal. Then they went to Kampili where they were imprisoned and converted to
Islam.
* Later, they returned to the Hindu fold at the initiative of the saint
Vidyaranya. They also proclaimed their independence and founded a new city on the
south bank of the Tungabhadra river. It was called Vijayanagar meaning city of victory.
*The decline of the Hoysala kingdom enabled Harihara and Bukka to expand their
newly founded kingdom. By 1346, they brought the whole of the Hoysala kingdom
under their control. The struggle between Vijayanagar and Sultanate of Madurai lasted
for about four decades.
*Kumarakampana’s expedition to Madurai was described in the
Maduravijayam. He destroyed the Madurai Sultans and as a result, the
Vijayanagar Empire comprised the whole of South India up to Rameswaram.
1. Harihara-I :(1336-1356AD)
They laid the foundation of Vijayanagar. Vijayanagar - Bahmani conflict began with the
foundation of kingdoms. Clash of interests in 3 areas: Raichur doab(between Krishna &
Tungabhadra), Krishna - Godavari delta &
Marathwada
2. Bukka-I(1356-79):
He strengthened the city of Vidyanagar & renamed it Vijayanagar. He restored
harmony between the warring Vaishnavas & the jains . The kings of Malabar,Ceylon &
other countries kept ambassadors at his court.
3. Harihar -II(1378-1404):
Bukka-I was succeeded by his son Harihar -II
4. Deva Raya- I (1406- 22):
He was the 3rd son of Harihara-II. His greatest achievements was his irrigation works
where a dam was built across the Tungabhadra with canals leading to the city. Nicolo
de conti visited Vijayanagar during his reign
5. Deva Raya -II( 1423 -46):
He was the grand son of Devaraya -I . Ahmad shah I of Bahmani invaded vijayanagar
& extracted a war indemnity. Devaraya-II began the practice of employing Muslim
cavalry men & archers in the army on large scale ( their induction had began during
Deva Raya-I) . He was called Praudh Deva Raya. In his inscriptions he has the title of
Gajabetekara( the elephant hunter ). Sri Lanka paid a regular tribute to him. He was
follower of Vishaivism ,yet he respected other religions . Dindima was the court poet,
whereas Srinatha was given the title of" Kavisarvabhauma". Abdur khaizak the envoy
of shahrukh visited Vijayanagar during his reign.
*The conflict between Vijayanagar Empire and the Bahmani kingdom lasted for many
years. The dispute over Raichur Doab,
the region between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra and also over the fertile areas
of Krishna-Godavari delta led to this long drawn conflict. The greatest ruler of the
Sangama dynasty was Deva Raya II. But he could not win any clear victory over the
Bahmani Sultans. After his death, Sangama dynasty became weak.
II. The Saluva Dynasty:(1486-1505)
* Saluva Narsimha (1486-91): He founded the Saluva Dynasty
* Tirumal(1491) & Immadi Narasimha (1491-1505) : Both were minors during the
regency of Narsa Nayaka. Vasco Da Gama landed in Calicut during his reign in 1498.
III. The Tuluva Dynasty:
* Vira Narasimha (1505-09) : The son of Narsa Nayaka ,became the king after the
assassination of Immadi Narasimha,the last Saluva ruler.
1.Krishnadevaraya (1509-29 AD):
* Saluva Timma, the chief minister of vira Narsimha,placed krishnadevaraya, the
brother of vira Narsimha on the throne.
* He maintained friendly relations with Albuquerque, the Portuguese governor,
whose ambassador Friar luis resided in vijayanagar. He won Orissa (Gajapati kingdom)
for vijayanagar & vijayanagar emerged the strongest during his reign.
* He built the VijayaMahal (House of victory), the Hazara Rama temple & the
vithal Swami temple.
* He took the titles of yavanaraja sthapnacharya ( restorer of the yavana kingdom
i.e. Bidar kingdom) & Abhinava Bhoja. He is also known as Andhra
Bhoja & Andhra pitamaha
* He was a gifted scholar in both Telugu & Sanskrit of which only 2 works are
extent: The Telugu work on polity 'Amuktamalyada' & the Sanskrit drama
'Jambavati kalyanam'
* His court was adorned by the Ashtadiggajas ( the 8 celebrated poets of Telugu):
1. Peddana(Manucharitam)
2. Timmaya(parijata Aprahanama)
3. Bhattamurthi
4. Dhurjati
5. Mallan
6. Raju Ramachandra
7. Suronaa
8. Tenali Ramkrishna (panduranga Mahamatya)
* He, a contemporary of Babur, was the most illustrious ruler of the Deccan
* Duarte Barbosa & Dominigo paes , Portuguese travellers , visited
Vijayanagar during the time of Krishna Deva Raya
*The Tuluva dynasty was founded by Vira Narasimha. The greatest of the Vijayanagar
rulers, Krishna Deva Raya belonged to the Tuluva dynasty. He possessed great military
ability. His imposing personality was accompanied by high intellectual quality. His first
task was to check the invading Bahmani forces.
*By that time the Bahmani kingdom was replaced by Deccan Sultanates. The
Muslim armies were decisively defeated in the battle of Diwani by Krishna Deva Raya.
Then he invaded Raichur Doab which had resulted in the confrontation with the Sultan
of Bijapur, Ismail Adil Shah.
* But, Krishna Deva Raya defeated him and captured the city of Raichur in 1520. From
there he marched on Bidar and captured it.
*Krishna Deva Raya’s Orissa campaign was also successful. He defeated the Gajapathi
ruler Prataparudra and conquered the whole of Telangana. He maintained friendly
relations with the Portuguese. Albuquerque sent his ambassadors to Krishna Deva
Raya.
*Though a Vaishnavaite, he respected all religions. He was a great patron of literature
and art and he was known as Andhra Bhoja.
*Eight eminent scholars known as Ashtadiggajas were at his royal court.
Allasani Peddanna was the greatest and he was called Andhrakavita Pitamaga.
His important works include Manucharitam and Harikathasaram. Pingali
Suranna and Tenali Ramakrishna were other important scholars. Krishna Deva
Raya himself authored a Telugu work, Amukthamalyadha and Sanskrit works,
Jambavati Kalyanam and Ushaparinayam.
*He repaired most of the temples of south India. He also built the famous
Vittalaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy temples at Vijayanagar. He also built a new city
called Nagalapuram in memory of his queen Nagaladevi. Besides, he built a large
number of Rayagopurams.
*After his death, Achutadeva and Venkata succeeded the throne. During the reign of
Rama Raya, the combined forces of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golkonda and Bidar
defeated him at the Battle of Talaikotta in 1565. This battle is also known as Raksasa
Thangadi. Rama Raya was imprisoned and executed. The city of Vijayanagar was
destroyed. This battle was generally considered to mark the end of the Vijayanagar
Empire. However, the Vijayanagar kingdom existed under the Aravidu dynasty for
about another century. * Thirumala, Sri Ranga and Venkata II were the important
rulers of this dynasty. The last ruler of Vijayanagar kingdom was Sri Ranga III.
2.Achyuta Deva Raya (1529-42) :
Krishna Deva Raya nominated his brother Achyutha Deva Raya as the successor .
During his reign, Farnao Nunij, a Portuguese horse trader , visited
Vijayanagar
3. Venkata-I (1542) & Sadashiva Raya(1543-76) :
Real power was exercised by Rama Raja/Raya & his 2 brothers . The 5 successor states
of the Bahmani empire divided through Rama Raja's diplomacy. The Battle of
Talikota(also called the Battle of Rakshasa- Tangadi) was fought on 23 Jan ,1565. Rama
Raja was take prisoner & executed by Hussain Nizam Shah - I . The city of Vijayanagar,
which was the pride of medieval World, was mercilessly destroyed. Caesar Frederick, a
italian traveller, visited Vijayanagar in 1567-68 during the reign of Sadashiva Raya IV.
The Aravindu Dynasty (1570-1650AD) :
* Tirumala Raya, the brother of Rama Raja ,ruled in the name of sadasiva Raya . On his
failure to repopulat6 vijayanagar,he shifted the capital to penugonda . He divided his
empire into 3 practically linguistic sections
* The empire slowly shrunk & the Aravindu Dynasty ended in 1646.
Administration:
* Nayankar system was the special feature of provincial administration
* Ayangar system was the special feature of village Administration. A body of
12 functionaries, known as Ayyangars , conducted village affairs
1. Mandalam (province) = Mandaleshwar
2. Nadu(District) = Naduprabhu
3. Gram(Village) = Gauda
* They were granted tax free lands Manyams which they were to enjoy in
perpetuity.
* The Vijayanagar rulers issued gold coins called varahas or pagodas . The perta
was half a Varaha. The Fanam was 1/10th of perta. All were gold mixed with alloy. The
Tar was a silver coin. The jital was a copper coin
*The administration under the Vijayanagar Empire was well organized. The king
enjoyed absolute authority in executive, judicial and legislative matters.
He was the highest court of appeal.
* The succession to the throne was on the principle of hereditary. Sometimes
usurpation to the throne took place as Saluva Narasimha came to power by ending
the Sangama dynasty.
* The king was assisted by a council of ministers in his day to day administration.
*The Empire was divided into different administrative units called Mandalams,
Nadus, sthalas and finally into gramas. The governor of Mandalam was called
Mandaleswara or Nayak. Vijayanagar rulers gave full powers to the local authorities in
the administration.
*Besides land revenue, tributes and gifts from vassals and feudal chiefs, customs
collected at the ports, taxes on various professions were other sources of income to
the government. Land revenue was fixed generally one sixth of the produce. The
expenditure of the government includes personal expenses of king and the charities
given by him and military expenditure. * In the matter of justice, harsh punishments
such as mutilation and throwing to elephants were followed.
*The Vijayanagar army was well-organized and efficient. It consisted of the cavalry,
infantry, artillery and elephants. High-breed horses were procured from foreign
traders. The top-grade officers of the army were known as Nayaks or Poligars. They
were granted land in lieu of their services. These lands were called amaram. Soldiers
were usually paid in cash.
Society:
* It was the only empire in medieval India which employed women in the state
services. Women even went to battles . Also, it was the only state that promated
widow remarriage. Status of women improved during this time.
* Viprulu: Brahmins,
Rajulu: Kshatriya, Nalavajaativaru
Vipravinodins : Artisans ,
Kaikollas: weavers
Sahagaman : Sati
Besabaga: Forced labour
* Allasani Peddanna in his Manucharitam refers the existence of four castes – Brahmins,
Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras - in the Vijayanagar society. *Foreign travelers left
vivid accounts on the splendour of buildings and luxurious social life in the city of
Vijayanagar. Silk and cotton clothes were mainly used for dress. Perfumes, flowers
and ornaments were used by the people. Paes mentions of the beautiful houses of
the rich and the large number of their household servants. Nicolo Conti refers to the
 prevalence of slavery. Dancing, music, wrestling, gambling and cock-fighting were
some of the amusements.
* The Sangama rulers were chiefly Saivaites and Virupaksha was their family deity. But
other dynasties were Vaishnavites.
*Srivaishnavism of Ramanuja was very popular. But all kings were tolerant towards
other religions. Borbosa referred to the religious freedom enjoyed by everyone.
Muslims were employed in the administration and they were freely allowed to build
mosques and worship.
* A large number of temples were built during this period and numerous festivals were
celebrated. The Epics and the Puranas were popular among the masses.
* The position of women had not improved. However, some of them were
learned.Gangadevi, wife of Kumarakampana authored the famous work
Maduravijayam. Hannamma and Thirumalamma were famous poets of this period.
*According to Nuniz, a large number
of women were employed in royal palaces as dancers, domestic servants and
palanquin bearers. The attachment of dancing girls to temples was in practice. Paes
refers to the flourishing devadasi system. Polygamy was prevalent among the royal
families. Sati was honoured and Nuniz gives a description of it
Economic condition:
* According to the accounts of the foreign travelers, the Vijayanagar Empire was one of
the wealthiest parts of the world at that time.
*Agriculture continued to be the chief occupation of the people. The Vijayanagar rulers
provided a stimulus to its further growth by providing irrigation facilities. New tanks
were built and dams were constructed across the rivers like Tunghabadra.
* Nuniz refers to the excavation of canals.
There were numerous industries and they were organized into guilds. Metal workers
and other craftsmen flourished during this period.
* Diamond mines were located in Kurnool and Anantapur district. Vijayanagar was also
a great centre of trade.
* The chief gold coin was the varaha but weights and measures varied from place to
place
*. Inland, coastal and overseas trade led to the general prosperity. There were a
number of seaports on the Malabar coast, the chief being Cannanore. Commercial
contacts with Arabia, Persia, South Africa and Portugal on the west and with Burma,
Malay peninsula and China on the east flourished. The chief items of exports were
cotton and silk clothes, spices, rice, iron, saltpeter and sugar. *The imports consisted
of horses, pearls, copper, coral, mercury, China silk and velvet clothes. The art of
shipbuilding had developed.

Architecture:
* The ruins of the Vijayanagar at Hampi were brought to light in 1800 by an engineer
of English East India company named colonel Colin Mackenzie.
* The Vijayanagar rulers produced a new style of architecture called Provida Style . The
large no. & Prominence of pillars & piers are some of the distinct features. Horse was
the most common animal on the pillars.
* Another important features were the mandapa or open pavilion with a raised
platform, meant for seating dieties & Amman Shrine
* Imp Temples were Vithalswami & Hazara Rama temple at Hampi ,Tadapatri
& Parvati temples at chidambaram & varadraja & ekambranath temples at
Kanchipuram
* The vijayanagar rulers started the practice of inscribing the Stories of the Ramayana
& the Mahabharata on the walls of the various temples.
Vithalswami & Hazara Rama temple are examples of this type of wall Inscription
* The temple building activity further gained momentum during the Vijayanagar rule.
The chief characteristics of the Vijayanagara architecture were the construction of tall
Raya Gopurams or gateways and the Kalyanamandapam with carved pillars in the
temple premises.
*The sculptures on the pillars were carved with distinctive features. The horse was the
most common animal found in these pillars. Large mandapams contain one hundred
pillars as well as one thousand pillars in some big temples. These mandapams were
used for seating the deity on festival occasions. Also, many
Amman shrines were added to the already existing temples during this period.
*The most important temples of the Vijayanagar style were found in the Hampi
ruins or the city of Vijayanagar. Vittalaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy temples
were the best examples of this style. * The Varadharaja and Ekamparanatha
temples at Kanchipuram stand as examples for the magnificence of the Vijayanagara
style of temple architecture.
* The Raya Gopurams at Thiruvannamalai and Chidambaram speak the glorious
epoch of Vijayanagar. They were continued by the Nayak rulers in the later period.
* The metal images of Krishna Deva Raya and his queens at Tirupati are examples
for casting of metal images. Music and dancing were also patronized by the rulers of
Vijayanagar.
*Different languages such as Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada and Tamil flourished in the
regions. There was a great development in Sanskrit and Telugu literature. The peak of
literaryachievement was reached during the reign of Krishna Deva Raya. He himself
was a scholar in Sanskrit and Telugu.
*His famous court poet Allasani Peddanna was distinguished in Telugu literature. Thus
the cultural contributions of the Vijayanagar rulers were many-sided and remarkable.
* 1. The temple building activity of the Vijayanagar rulers produced a new style,
called the Vijayanagar style. Though often characterized as Dravida Style, it had its own
distinct features.
2. The distinct features of the architecture were the pillars and the complicated manner
in which they were sculptured.
3. The horse was the most common animal to be depicted on the pillars.
4. The temples had a Mandapam or open pavilion with a raised platform, generally
meant for seating the deity on special occasions. It also had a Kalyana Mandapam
with elaborately carved pillars. The most magnificent of the temples in this style are
in Hampi (Vijayanagar). Vitthalaswamy and the Hazara Ramaswamy temples are the
best examples.
5. The Raya Gopurams, towers incommemoration of the visit of emperors in different
corners of the empire, are also important examples of architecture of the period.
6. In the Vijayanagar temples the central part was occupied by the Garbhagriha—the
sanctum cell where the presiding deity was installed.
7. Amman shrine was meant for the consort of the God.

Literature under Vijaynagar Empire:

*The Vijayanagar rulers were also great patrons of literature. Under their patronage,
several religious as well as secular books were composed in different languages such
as Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada and Tamil. The peak of literary development was reached
during the reign of Krishna Raya, who is rightly called 'Andhra Bhoja'.

Works in Telugu
1. Up to 1500 AD most of the books were written in the form of translations. 2. Famous
scholars were Srinatha, Pothana, Jakkama and Duggana, who translated Sanskrit and
Prakrit works into telugu.
3. During Bukka I‘s time, Gangadevi wrote MaduraVijayam.
4. Devaraya I constructed a Peran hall to hours the scholars.
5. Devaraya II wrote two Sanskrit works, Mahantaka Sudhanidhi and a commentary
on the Brahmasutras of Badrayana.
6. Devraya II gave the title of Kanakkabhisekha to Srinatha who wrote Sringara
Naishada, Sivar-otrimahatyam, Kasikandha, Bhim-kanda, Harivilasam and
Ponditaradhya Charita.
7. Bommara Pothana popularly (Niyogi) translated the Bhagwat Purana into Telugu
and also wrote Virbhadra Vijayam.
8. Krishnadeva Raya wrote ‘Amuktamalyada', a book on polity in Telugu and also a
Sanskrit drama ‘Jambavati Kalyanam'.
9. Allasani Peddana (Andhrakavi Pitamha) wrote Manucharitam and
Harikathasarammsamu.
10. Tenaliramakrishna wrote Pandura-ngamahatyam.
11. Dharajati wrote Kalahastimahatyam.
12. Madayya wrote Rajasekharacharitam.
13. Pingali Suranna wrote Raghavapan-daviyam and Prabhavari Padyumna.
14. Ramabhadra wrote Sakaramatasara Sangraham.
15. Ramaraj a Bhusan wrote Narasabhu- paliyan and Harischandra Nalopa- khyanam.
16. Achyuta Raya Patronised Rajanatha and the poetess Tirumalambadevi who wrote
Vardambika Parinayam.
17. Ramaraya patronized Ramayama- tya, an authority on music. Tirumala commented
on Jayadeva's Gitagovinda, Vaishnavite Saint Poetess Molla wrote Mollaramayana
in the time of Tirumala. Bhattamurthi, a scholar wrote Vasucharita in times of
Tirumala.
18. Dikshitar wrote a commentary on the Vedas and explained Advaita
Philosophy Vemana wrote Vemanasatakas, moralist literature in Telugu.
19. Elugandi Peddana translated Leelavati, a maths book into Telugu.

Works in Kannada
1. Narahari (Kumaravalmiki) composed a popular version of Ramayana called Torve
Ramayan.
2. Kumaravyas composed Mahabharta in Kannada.
3. Vithalnath translated Bhagwat Purana into Kannada.
4. Vaishnav Saints Purandhardas, Kanakdas and Sripathraja contributed to
Kannada literature through Bhakti songs and Kirthans. Bhimakavi wrote
Basava Purana
5. Chamarasa wrote Prabhulinglai.
6. Virupaksha Pandit wrote Chennabasva Purana Art under Vijaynagar Empire:
1. Music: Vijayanagar period is known for origin of Carnatic music under Purandhar
Das period known for origin of Rudraveens.
2. Dance: Bharatanatyam was promoted. Drama Yakshagana was a popular dance
drama closely associated with temple walls.
3. Paintings: Themes of Ramayana and Tlahabharta on temple walls.
4. Sculpture: Largest number of portrait sculptures in this period. Portrait sculpture of
Krishnadeva Raya and his queens is seen at Tirumala.
 Bahmani kingdom
*An Afghan noble, Alauddin Hassan established the Bahmani kingdom in AD
1347.Prior to the foundation of the Bahmani kingdom, Hassan’s ancestors rose to
prominence in the service of Alauddin Khilji.
* A tradition in circulation, as recorded in Ferishta of later times informs that Hassan
rose to importance in the service of a Brahmin, Gangu and was therefore known as
Hassan Gangu.
*After founding the Bahmani kingdom, Alauddin Hassan claimed his descent from the
Iranian heroes, Isfandar and Bahman and added Shah to his name. Conse­quently, the
kingdom was called the Bahmani Kingdom
* The founder of the Bahmani kingdom was Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah also known
as Hasan Gangu in 1347. Its capital was Gulbarga.
The political , Social, Economic Conditions: of the Bahmani kingdom can be divided
into two phases. The first phase was between AD 1347-1422 and the second phase was
between AD 1422-1538. In the first phase, the centre of activity was Gulbarga and in
the second, the centre of activity was shifted to Bidar because of its strategic location.
* The Bahmani kingdom was a contemporary of the Vijayanagara power, which was
founded in AD 1336.
*Throughout their existence, both the Vyayanagara and the Bahmanis constantly
fought for supremacy in three distinct areas, in the Tungabhadra Doab, in the Krishna
Godavari delta and in the Marathwada country. * The reasons for continued hostility
were primarily the economic interest, but the religious dimension also influenced the
hostility between the two powers to some extent. Alauddin Hassan Bahman Shah ruled
from AD 1347 to 1358. *He was followed by his son Muhammad I (1358-1375). He was
followed by his son Alauddin Mujahid (1375-78). Mujahid was killed by his uncle
Dawood I, who ruled for nearly a month and was followed by his brother Muhammad
II (1378-1397). Muhammad II was succeeded by Tajuddin Firoz Shah, who ruled from
AD 1397 to 1422. He was followed by Shihabuddin Ahmad or
Muhammad Shah, who ruled for a period of 14 years from AD 1422 to 1436.
* He was followed by Alauddin Ahmad II or Alauddin II, who ruled from AD
1436-1458. He was succeeded by Alauddin Humayun who ruled form AD 1458 to 1461.
* He was followed by Muhammad III, who ruled from AD 1463-1482. The last
noteworthy Bahmani ruler Shihabuddin Ahmad died in AD 1518. After him, his sons
Ahmad Shah IV, Alauddin Shah, Kaliyuka and Kalimulla ruled till AD 1528. With the
death of Kalimulla, the Bahmani kingdom disappeared.
*Throughout this period, the wars between the Bahmanis and the Vijayanagara rulers
were taking place affecting the fortunes of these two kingdoms.
* There was hardly any decade that passed without a clash of arms between these two
kingdoms. Though, contemporary chroniclers describe the wars as Jihads or holy
wars, this perception do not appear to be quite true.
* Of the twelve Bahmani Sultans, the most remarkable was Firuzshah Bahamani who
ruled for a quarter of a century from AD 1397 to 1422. Firuz was a well-read scholar,
a good calligraphist and a poet of eminence; he was also profi­cient in many
languages.
* He had the vision of making Deccan a cultural centre of India. He was liberal in
outlook and inducted Hindus in large number into administrative cadres. * He took
all the necessary measures to improve the principal parts of his kingdom Chaul and
Dabhol, where the foreign ships used to anchor. * He was defeated by Devaraya-I.
His successor Ahamad Shah shifted the capital from Gulbarga to Bidar.
*In the early decades of the foundation of Bahmanis, there arose strife among nobles.
The nobles were divided as old timers or newcomers or Deccanis and Afaqis. This
division created havoc in the history of the Bahamani kingdom, between AD 1482-
1518, the clash among nobles reached its climax, which led to the dismemberment of
the Bahmani kingdom.
*There were a total of fourteen Sultans ruling over this kingdom. Among them,
Alauddin Bahman Shah, Muhammad Shah I and Firoz Shah were important.
*Tajuddin Firoz shah (1397-1422): The greatest among them all . He was determined
to make Deccan cultural centre in India. He inducted large no. Of Hindus in the
administration on a large scale . He paid much attention to the ports of his
Kingdom,Chalu & Dabhol which attracted trade ships from
Persian gulf & red sea
*Ahmad Wali Shah shifted the capital from Gulbarga to Bidar.
*The power of the Bahmani kingdom reached its peak under the rule of Muhammad
Shah III(1463-1482). It extended from the Arabian sea to the Bay of Bengal. On the
west it extended from Goat to Bombay.
* On the east, it extended from Kakinada to the mouth of the river Krishna. The
success of Muhammad Shah was due to the advice and services of his minister
Mahmud Gawan.
Mahmud Gawan:*In the history of the Bahmani kingdom, the period between AD
1463-1482 saw the rise of Muhammad Gawan as the Prime Minister of the kingdom.
Nothing important is known about the early life of Muhammad Gawan. Gawan was an
Iranian by birth and he was first noticed in AD 1456 and in 1461 he was made a
member of the council of regency.
*The Bahmani kingdom reached its peak under the guidance of Mahmud Gawan. He
was a Persian merchant. He came to India at the age of forty two and joined the
services of Bahmani kingdom. Slowly he became the chief minister due to his personal
qualities. He remained loyal to the kingdom. *He was also a learned person. He
possessed a great knowledge of mathematics. He made endowments to build a
college at Bidar which was built in the Persian style of architecture. He was also a
military genius. *He waged successful wars against Vijayanagar, Orissa and the sea
pirates on the Arabian sea. His conquests include Konkan, Goa and Krishna-Godavari
delta. Thus he expanded the Bahmani Empire through his conquests. *His
administrative reforms were also important. They were aimed to increase the control of
Sultan over the nobles and provinces.
*Royal officers were appointed in each province for this purpose. Most of the forts
were under the control of these officers. Allowances were reduced to the nobles who
shirked their responsibility.
*This was disliked by the nobles. So, the Deccani nobles organised a plot against
Gawan.
*They induced the Sultan to punish him with death sentence. After the execution of
Gawan, the Bahmani kingdom began to decline.
*Muhammad Shah was succeeded by weak Sultans.
*During this period the provincial governors declared their independence. By the year
1526, the Bahmani kingdom had disintegrated into five independent sultanates. They
were Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Berar, Golkonda and Bidar and known as Deccan
Sultanates.
=> 5 kingdoms - foundation yr- founder- Dynasty - yr annexed by
1. Berar -1484- Fataullah imad shah - Imad shahi - 1574(Ahmedabagar) 2. Bijapur -
1489 - Yusuf Adil shah - Adil shahi - 1686(Aurangzeb)
3. Ahmednagar - 1490- Malik Ahmad - Nizam Shahi - 1633 (Shahjahan)
4. Golconda - 1518 - Quli Qutub shah - Qutub Shahi Dynasty -
1687(Aurangzeb)
5. Bidar - 1526-27- Amir Ali Barud - Barud shahi - 1610( Bijapur)
*Ibrahim Adil shah the greatest ruler of Adilabad shah Dynasty introduced
Dakhini in place of Persian as court language
*Gol Gumbaj was built by Muhammad Adil shah it is famous for the so- called
'Whispering Gallery ' . GolGumbaj was designed by Yaqut of Dabul.
*Quli Qutub shah was the greatest ruler of Qutub shahi Dynasty & it was who founded
the city of Hyd originally known as Bhagyanagar after the name of the Sultan's
favourite,Bhagyamathi & he also built charminar Cultural Conditions:
*In the Bahmani kingdom, we notice the predominant influence of the Sufis of the
Chisti, Qadiri and Shattari orders. Bidar has emerged as one of the most important
centres of the Qadiri order. Sheikh Sirajuddin Junaidi was the first Sufi to receive the
royal honour. The famous Chisti saint of Delhi, Syed Muhammad Gesu Daraz migrated
to Gulbarga in AD 1402-03 and Sultan Firuz granted a number of villages for the
maintenance of Khanquah of Gesu Daraz. *With the influx of Afaqis, the Shia
population of the Bahmani kingdom also increased. An interesting feature of the
communal life is the mingling of Muslim and Hindu traditions and in particular, during
the Ursu celebrations, the Jangam, a Lingayat in a Muslim cap blew the conch and
offered flowers to the Muslim saint. Thus, the Bahmani culture was composite and
tolerant.

Art and Architecture:

*the Bahmanis were influenced by the style of the Delhi Sultanate.
*The Persian architects’ hand and skill is very visible in the Jamil Masjid of Gulbarga.
The Chand Minar of Daultabad and the Madarsa at Bidar also reflect Persian
craftsmanship. The capital cities of Gulbarga and Bidar were the centres of the civil
architecture of the Bahmanis.
*The royal tombs of Gulbarga fall into two patterns:
(1) Single tombs:
(2) Double tombs.
*Single tombs consist of simple square chambers, crowned with battlements and
comer turrets and roofed by a single dome, the whole standing on a low square plinth
while the double tombs are merely duplicate of the single ones. The Bahmani
architecture has its own peculiarities like square arches of its cloisters.
*In conclusion, it can be said that the Bahmani kingdom acted as a cultural bridge
between the north and the south and had close contacts with some of the leading
countries of West Asia, including Iran and Turkey.
Religious movements in 15th -16th centuries
BHAKTI MOVEMENT
*The term ‘Bhakthi’ refers to ‘devotion’. As a movement, it emphasized on the mutual
intense emotional attachment and love of a devotee toward a personal god and of the
god for the devotee. This movement originated in South India in the 7th and 10th CE,
mostly in the poems of Alvars and Nayanars. These poems were composed in Tamil;
the poems were addressed to Lord Vishnu and Lord Shiva respectively

*In the ninth century Sankara started a Hindu revivalist movement giving a new
orientation to Hinduism. He was born in Kaladi in Kerala. His doctrine of Advaita or
Monism was too abstract to appeal to the common man.

*Moreover, there was a reaction against the Advaita concept of

Nirgunabrahman (God without attributes) with the emergence of the idea of
Sagunabrahman (God with attributes).
*In the twelfth century, Ramanuja, who was born at Sriperumbudur near modern
Chennai, preached Visishtadvaita.
*According to him God is Sagunabrahman. The creative process and all the objects in
creation are real but not illusory as was held by Sankaracharya. Therefore, God, soul,
matter are real. But God is inner substance and the rest are his attributes.
*He also advocated prabattimarga or path of self-surrender to God. He invited the
downtrodden to Vaishnavism.
*In the thirteenth century, Madhava from Kannada region propagated Dvaita or
dualism of Jivatma and Paramatma.
*According to his philosophy, the world is not an illusion but a reality. God, soul,
matter are unique in nature. Nimbarka and Vallabhacharya were also other preachers
of Vaishnavite Bhakti in the Telangana region. Surdas was the disciple of
Vallabhacharya and he popularized Krishna cult in north India. Mirabai was a great
devotee of Krishna and she became popular in Rajasthan for her bhajans. Tulsidas was
a worshipper of Rama and composed the famous Ramcharitmanas, the Hindi version
of Ramayana.
*Bhakti soon spread to North India, appearing most notably in the 10thcentury
Sanskrit text the Bhagavata-Purana.

*Bhakti movement was based on the doctrine that the relationship between god and
man is through love and worship rather than through performing any ritual or religious
ceremonies.

*The origin of Bhakti movement is traced in Vedas, but it’s real development took
place after the 7th
*It was initiated by Shaiva Nayanars & Vaishnavite Alwars in south India, later spread to
all regions.
*Emotional Side of Vaishnavism represented by: Alvars through collective songs –
“Prabhandam”.
*Intellectual side of Vaishnavism represented by: “Acharyas”
*The Nayanars and Alvars were Tamil poet-saints who played an essential role in the
propagation of a Bhakti Movement in the South part of India during the 5th – 10th
centuries.
NAYANARS:
*Devotees of Shiva
*Thirumarai – Compilation of hymns of Nayanars by the highest priest of Raja
RajaCholaI, Nambiyandar Nambi.
The details of the lives and of the saints are described in the work ‘Tevaram’ which is also
called the Dravida Veda.
Alvars:
*Alvars bestowed their belief and devotion to Lord Vishnu
*The poetry of the Alvars echoes Bhakti to God through love, and in the ecstasy of
such devotions they sang hundreds of songs which embodied both depth of feeling
and felicity of expressions
*The collection of their hymns is known as Divya Prabandha. The Bhakti literature
that sprang from Alvars has contributed to the establishment and sustenance of a
culture that broke away from the ritual-oriented Vedic religion and rooted itself in
devotion as the only path for salvation. *The Bhakti movement saints were divided
into two schools depending on the way they imagined God:
Nirguna
*Believe invisible formless god, without attributes.
*Nirguna bhakta’s poetry was Jnana-shrayi or had roots in knowledge.
*It was introduced by Adi Shankara
* Nirguna Saints: Guru Nanak, Ravidas, Kabir, Dandu Dayal etc
Saguna
*Believe God with form & attributes.
Saguna bhakta’s poetry was Prema-shrayi, or with roots in love.
*It believed that god is the biggest manifestation of everything perfect
*Saguna Saints: Tulsidas, Surdas, Meerabai, Ramanuja, Nimbaraka, Madhva,
Vallabha, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, etc Features:
*Unity of God or one God though known by different names.
*Condemnation of rituals, ceremonies and blind faith.
*Rejection of idol worship.
*The Bhakti movement promotes the Surrender of oneself to God.
*Emphasized both Nirguna and Saguna Bhakti movement.
*Salvation through Bhakti movement.
Open-mindedness about religious matters.
Rejected castes distinctions & believed in equality of all humans.
*Rebelled against the upper caste’s domination and the Sanskrit language.
*Use of local or regional languages for Preaching.
*Creation of literature in the local language.
Reasons behind the movement:
*The movement started as a response to the evil practices that had crept into
Hinduism. Some of the other reasons which fuelled the spread of the movement
across the country were: 1.The spread of Islam
2.Emergence of great reformers
3.Influence of Sufi sects
4.Influence of Vaishnavism and Shaivism ideologies
5. Evil practices of the Hindus

1.Shankaracharya (788 – 820 AD) :

*Birth- Kerala, Death- Uttarakhand (Kedarnath)
*Guru – Govinda Bhagavath pada
*Integrated the essence of Buddhism in Hindu thought and interpreted the ancient
Vedic religion
*Consolidated the doctrine of Advaita Vedant (Non-Dualism)- God & created world is
one and The individual soul is not different from Brahman. *Organizer of the
Dashanami monastic order and unified the Shanmata tradition of worship.
*Brhat-Sankara-Vijaya by Citsukha is the oldest biography of Adi Shankara
2. Ramanujarcharya (1017-1137 A.D) : Shri sect
*Birth – Tamilandu
*Guru – yadav preksha
*Propagator of Vishishtadvaita Vedanta or qualified monism – There exists a plurality
and distinction between Ātman (soul) & Brahman (metaphysical, ultimate reality).
Exponents of the Sri Vaishnavism tradition within Hinduism
*Literary works: Vedartha Sangraham, Sri Bhashyam, Gita Bhashyam
3.Nimbarka: Sanaka Sect
*He was the contemporary of Ramanuja.
*He propounded the philosophy of ‘bheda-bheda’/Dvaitadvaita -the God, the soul and
the world were identical yet distinct
4.Madhvarchaya (1238-1319 AD) : Brahma Sect
*He was a critic of Adi Shankara’s Advaita Vedanta and Ramanuja’s Vishishtadvaita
Vedanta teachings.
*He preached “Dvaita” or dualism, where divinity was separate from the human
conscience/soul.
*Liberation- only through the grace of God
Book – Anuvyakhyana
5. Vishnu Swami & Vallabhacharya: Rudra
Sampradaya sect :Shuddhavaita
VIRASHAIVISM/SHARANA MOVEMENT: EQUALITY, LIBERATION, AND
SOCIAL REFORM IN KARNATAKA
*The Virashaiva movement began in Karnataka in the mid-twelfth century, and was a
significant expression of the Bhakti movement.
*It was initiated by Basavanna and other virashaivas like Allama Prabhu and
Akkamahadevi.
*They fought for the equality of all human beings and against the Brahmanical ideas of
caste and poor treatment of women.They were also against religious rituals and idol
worship.
*Bhakti movement Challenged caste system, questioned the theory of rebirth
*Encouraged post puberty marriage & widow remarriage.
*Basavanna spread social awareness through his poetry, popularly known as
Vachanaas.
*He established Anubhava Mantapa– academy of mystics, saints and philosophers of
the ‘Lingayath’s’ faith within the broader context of the Bhakti movement.

Bhakti Saints:
1. Ramanujarcharya:
* He advocated philosophy of Vishistadvaita
*Vaishnava Acharya Ramanuja is oldest propagator of this
* According to Vaishnavadvaitha philosophy,Brahmana is eternal but he also included
an element of plurality
* He was born at Sriperumbudur in Madras (Chennai) Tamilnadu in1017 & died in
1137
* Father : Asuri kesava, Mother : Kanthimathi
* He emphasized the worship of a virtuous god
* According to him , the path of salvation lies in karma , knowledge, devotion
2. Vallabhacharya:
* He was the son of Sri Lakshmanabhatta, a telang Brahmin of somayazi clan
* He propounded the philosophy of Shuddhavaita
* He propounded philosophy of Pushtimarg
3. Ramananda:
*He was 1st propounded of bhakti movement in North India
* He was born at Prayag (Allahabad) in1299 AD & studied at Prayag & Varanasi
* He 1st preached his sermon in hindi
* He worshipped Rama & Sita as ideals of society
* Padmavati & Surasari (women) ,Kabir (weaver), Raidas(cobbler),
Sena(Barber), & pipa(Rajput prince) were amongst prominent disciples of
Ramananda
* The bhakti movement is reborn in 15th -16th centuries. It was led by Kabir,
Nanak, Tulsidas , surdas, Mirabhai
4. Kabir:
* He was saint associated with Nirguna Bhakti who despite being a saint , continued to
live family life
* He considered Rama, Rahim,Hazrat, Allah as different forms of the same
God
* He did not believe in the Vedas & the Quran
*'Bijak' is a compilation of sermons of Saint Kabir
* 'Amarmool' is a compilation of dialogues of Kabirdas & his disciples
Dharmadas
* Kabirdas was a contemporary to sultan sikandar lodi
5.Gurunanak:
* He was born in 1469 at Talwandi (Nankana sahib in Pakistan) in punjab of undivided
India
* Father : Mehta kalu Chandra Khatri & Mother :Tripta
* He founded Sikhism
* He believed in Monotheism & emphasized the worship of Nirguna Brahma
* He started a shared community kitchen called Guru ka Langar
* He was influenced by the Sufi saint baba Farid
* He strongly advocated Hindu- Muslim unity & condemned the fanatics of both
religions & stressed on truth
6. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu:
* A 16th century bhakti saint from Bengal preached selfless devotion to
Krishna bhakti
* He was the originator of bhakti movement in Bengal
* He was born in a Brahmin Family in Nadia (Bengal) in 1485
* After his retirement he moved from Bengal to Puri (Odisha) . His childhood nickname
was Nimai
* He opposed caste system rituals , untouchability
*He established 'Gaudiya Vaishnavism ' & also popularized the 'sankirtan system'
7. Surdas:
* Surdas was a poet of the Krishna Bhakti cult
* He was a contemporary of Akbar
* The lifestory of Krishna is presented in his famous work 'Sursagar' * His compositions
compiled in Sursagara, Surasaravali & Sahitya Lahari
8. Mirabhai:
* She was the only daughter of Ratan singh Rathore of Merta
* She married to Bhoj Raj, the elder son of Rana Sangha in 1516
* She was a Hindu spiritual poetess whose hymns dedicated to Lord Krishna were
popular in North India
* Ravidas was her mentor
* She composed 4 texts & these were Barsi ka Maurya, Geet Govind Teeka,
Raga Govind & Raaga Sorath ke pad
* She was a contemporary of Hindi poet ,Tulsidas & often communicate with him
through letters
9. Tulsidas:
* He was born in 1532 in the Banda district of UP
* The famous Saint -poet Goswami Tulsidas was a contemporary of Akbar & Jahangir
* He wrote many texts among which 'Ramacharitamanas & Vinyapatrika', kavitawali
,Gitawali are famous
* Abul Fazal has mentioned him in his work 'Ain-i-Akbari'
10. Namdev:
* He was instrumental in popularizing the bhakti movement in Maharashtra
* His teacher was Visoba khechara
*The object of his devotion was Vithoba or Vithal (identified with Vishnu) of
Pandharpur. The cult vithoba/Vithal known as Varkari sect
* Among the saints of the bhakti movement, he was highly influenced by
Islam
* His compositions are famous as 'Abhyanga'. Some of his verses are compiled in Guru
Granth Sahib
11. Ravidas:
* He belonged to kutbandhla chamar caste & resided at Kashi
* He was the one of the 12 disciples of Ramanand
* Father : Raghu & Mother : Ghurbiniya .they used to make a living by repairing shoes
* He founded the Raidasi sect
12. Dadu Dayal:
* He was born at Ahmedabad in 1544 & belonged to Tanner caste
*Dadu's childhood nickname was Mahabalipuram
*After coming to Sambhar ,he founded the brahma sect later called Dadu panth
*He was Nirguna worshipper . He also opposed discrimination based on caste
* He started a movement called Nipakh
* Anubhav Vani & Kambli are his works
13. Thyagaraja(1767-1847) :
A Telugu saint who spent his life in Tamil. The greatest saint composer of
Karnataka music. He adorned god in the form of Rama, the incarnation of
Vishnu & hero of Valmiki's Ramayana
14. Jnanesvara/Jnanadeva (1271-1296) :
Founder of Marathi language & literature wrote a long commentary on Bhagavad Gita
called Bhavarthadipka, more commonly known as Jnaneshvari
15. Eknath(1533- 1599) :
Wrote a commentary on the Ramayana called Bhavartha Ramayana
16. Tukaram (1598-1650) :
The greatest bhakti poet from Maharashtra wrote devotional poems known as
Abhangas
17. Ramdas (1608-1681) :
The last great saint poet from Maharashtra .
Dasabodha is the compilation of his writings & poems

Sufi Movement
* Sufi =(Safa Arabic word) Purity
* Abul Fazal mentions 14 silsilahas in Ain-i-Akbari
*In the beginning of 12 AD, some religious people in Persia turned to asceticism due to
the increasing materialism of the Caliphate. They came to be called the ‘Sufis’.
*In India, Sufi movement began in 1300 A.D & came to South India in the 15th century.
*Sufism is the mystical arm of Islam. Sufis represent the inner side of the Islam creed
(tasawwuf).
*Sufism(tasawwuf) is the name given to mysticism in Islam.
*Sufi means wool: People who wear long woolen clothes are called sufis. *It was a
liberal reform Bhakti movement within Islam. It stressed the elements of love and
devotion as an effective means of the realization of God.
*It is based on Pir-Murid (Teacher- student)
Sufism sprang from the doctrine of Wahdat-ul-wajood (unity of being) propounded by
Ibn-ul-Arabi [1165-1240 AD].
*"Early Sufi saints – Rabia, Mansur bin hallal.
*Sufi orders are broadly divided in two : Ba-sara– Those who followed Islamic law &
Be-shara– who did follow Islamic law.
*In Sufism, self-discipline was considered an essential condition to gain knowledge of
God. While orthodox Muslims emphasize external conduct, the Sufis lay stress on inner
purity.
"Sufism entered in India between 11th and 12th Al-Hujwari was first Sufis who settled
in India and died in 1089 AD who is popularly known as Data Ganj Naksh (Distributor
of unlimited treasure).
ZMultan and Punjab were the early centers and later on, it spread to Kashmir, Bihar,
Bengal and the Deccan.
THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SUFISM: FANA, INSAN-E-KAMIL,
AND SPIRITUAL UNITY
1.Fana: Spiritual merger of devotee with Allah
2.Insan-e-kamil: Perfect human with all good virtues,
3.Zikr-tauba: remembrance of god all the time(zikr),
4.Wahdatul-wajood: one god for the entire universe; unity of god and being.
5.Sama: spiritual dance and music to promote their concepts, though music is un-
Islamic.
THREE STAGES IN THE HISTORY OF SUFISM: KHANQAH, TARIQA, AND
TARIFA STAGES
STAGE PERIOD CHARACTER
*1st Stage: Khanqah ,10th century, Also called the age of Golden Mysticism *2nd Stage:
Tariqa, 11-14th century, When Sufism was being institutionalized and traditions and
symbols started being attached to it.
*3rd Stage: Tarifa ,15th century ,onwards The stage when Sufism became a popular
movement.
SUFISM AND MUSIC: MUSIC, POETRY, AND CULTURAL EVOLUTION
*Sufism encourages music as a way of deepening one’s relation with God,
remembering God by zikr (reciting name) sama or performance of mystical music.
*Sufis too composed poems and a rich literature in prose, including anecdotes and
fables, The most notable writer of this period was Amir Khusrau the follower of
Nizamuddin Auliya.
*Sufi saints are credited with the invention of sitar and tabla.
*It contributed to the evolution of classical music. Khayal style owes a lot to sufism.
*Amir Khusro was a disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya. He gives a unique form to sama.
*Khusrow is sometimes referred to as the “Parrot of India”. His songs are sung in
several dargahs across the country. Khusrow is regarded as the “Father of Qawwali”.
IMPORTANT FEATURES: REJECTION, ORDERS, AND SPIRITUAL
PRINCIPLES
*The Sufis rejected the elaborate rituals and codes of behaviour demanded by Muslim
religious scholars.
*They believed that God is ‘Mashuq‘ and Sufis are the ‘Ashiqs’. *Sufism was divided
into 12 orders (Silsila) and each under a mystic Sufi saint of which 4 most popular
ones were Chistis, Suhrawardis, Qadiriyahs and Naqshbandis.
*Silsila(Mystic organisation )is the continuous link between Murshid (teacher) and
Murid/pir/Shaykh (student/one who seeks).
*They lived in Khanqah -hospice of worship.
*"Names of Silsila were based on the names of founding figures E.g. – Qadri
Silsila based on the name of Shaikh Abdul Qadri & Place of origin E.g. – Chishti (place
in Afghanistan).
*Sufism took roots in both rural and urban areas and exercised a deep social, political
and cultural influence on the masses.
*Sufism believes that devotion is more important than fast (Roza) or prayer (Namaz).
*Sufism discards the caste system.
*Sufism has adapted extensively from the Vedanta school of the Hindu philosophy.
*The cardinal doctrines of the Sufism include: Complete surrender to the will of God;
Annihilation of the self; Becoming a perfect person
*These three cardinal principles altogether make the Doctrine of Fana which means
annihilation of human attributes through Union with God.
*In Sufism, a perfect being is also called a Wali (saint), a word that literally means
‘sincere friend’.
1. Chisti order:
*According to Sayyid Muhammad Hafiz, it was the 1st Sufi order had come to India
* Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti laid the foundation of chisti order in India
* He came to India with Ghori's army in1192 (12th century)
* He was followed by Khwaja Bakhtiyar khaki ,sultan Qutubuddhin Aibak &
Sultan Iltutmish
* Shaik Fakruddin -Ganj-i-Shakar was a sufu saint of chishti silsilah who was famous as
Baba Farid
*Some of compositions of Baba Farid was compiled in Adi Granth of the religious texts
of Sikhism. He was the son -in -law of Balban
*Nizamuddin Auliya's acclaimed disciples were Shaikh Salim chishti ,Amir
Khusrau & Hassan Dehlavi
* Baba Farid had 2 prominent disciples Nizamuddin Aulia (1238-1325 AD) &
Nasiruddin Chirag -e-Dehlavi the famous saints of chishti sect
* Some of famous disciples of Nizamuddin includes Shaik Nasiruddin Chirag
Dehlavi,Amir Khusrau & Shaikh Salim chishti
*Nizamuddin Aulia was followed by shaik Nasiruddin & Shaik Salim chishti the famous
chishti saints
*Shaik Salim chishti lived at Fatehpur Sikri
* Amir Hassan- e- Dehlavi was called the 'Saadi of India' because of his high quality
ghazals .
2. Suhrawardi order:
* Abu - al - Najib suhrawardi established this order
*Shihabuddin Suhrawardi a teacher from baghdad was the founder of this order
* This sect was propagated in India by his disciples Jalaluddin Tabrezi ,
Bahauddin Zakariya & Hamiduddin Nagori
* Saharuddin Arik,sayyid Jalaluddin,khursh Jalaluddin Tabrezi, Burhanetc were the
prominent saints of the suhrawardi sect
*Firdausi was a branch of this order
3. Qadri order:
*The founder of the Qadri sect was shaik Muinuddin Qadir Jilani of Baghdad
*In India,this order was established by Sayyid Muhammad Gilani & Shah
Niyamat Ullah
* The most famous Saint of this order was Shaik mir Muhammad or Miyan Mir * Dara
shukoh the son of the Mughal emporer Shahjahan was a follower of this order
4. Naqshbandi order:
* It was founded by Khwaja Bahauddin Naqshbandi
*A prominent saints of this order 'khwaja Baqi Billah'
* Shaik Ahmad Sirhindi ,a disciple of Khwaja baqi Billah,became famous Saint of this
order
* Shaik Ahmad Sirhindi was a contemporary of Mughal emperor Akbar
* Shaik Ahmad Sirhindi was contemporary of Mughal emperor Akbar
* He opposed Akbars liberal policies
Note: Naqshbandi opposed Music
5. Shattari order:
* In 15th century Shaik Abdullah Shattari established shattari order in India
* It was centred at Bengal, Jaunpur & Malwa
* Shah Mohammad Ghaus the saint of this order believed Lord Krishna in the form of
Auliya
Note: Pranayam & yoga practices were accepted by almost all Sufi sects ,except
Naqshbandi
SUFU WORDS : MEANING
Tasawwuf = Sufism
Shaik/pir/Murshid = spiritual teacher
Murid = Disciple
Khalifah = successor
Khanqah = the hospice
Sama = Musical recital
Raksa = Dance
Fana = Self annihilation
Ziyarat = piligrimage to the tombs of Sufi saints
 ACHIEVEMENTS OF BHAKTI & SUFI MOVEMENTS:

1. They influenced each other & inherited from each other

2. bhaktism reformed Hinduism & Sufism liberalised Islam
3. Both put breaks on orthodoxy
4. Both encouraged social reform measures
5. atmosphere of inter religious fraternity was created. Hindu & muslims reconciled
6. Development of regional Languages
7. A cultural synthesis took place which transformed a Muslim rule in India into a
national govt under Akbar

THE MUGHALS (1526-40 &1555-1857)

* Babur established the Mughal Empire in India in1526
*The Mughal rulers did not accept the authority of the Caliphate & considered them as
independent kings

1. Babur(1526- 30):
* Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur was born on 14th Feb 1483, in the small state of
Ferghana
*Father : Umar shaik Mirza, Mother : Qutulugh Nihar Khanum
* He was a 5th descendant of Timur(from father side) &14th descendant of
Chengizkhan(from mother side)
* He ascended the thronee of Ferghana in June 1494 at the age of 11
* He annexed kabul in 1504 & assumed the title of Padshah in 1507
* He invaded 5 times to establish an empire in India
* He defeated the Yusufzai clan in his 1st campaign in 1519 & went back after taking
possession of Bajaur & Bhira
* In the 1st battle of paniput in526 Babur 1sy used the Tughlama battle tactics & the
usmani tactics to strengthen the artillery BATTLES:
1. 1st battle of paniput - Apr 21, 1526 - b/w Ibrahim Lodhi & Babur - Babur
(conqueror)
2. Battle of khanwa - Mar 16, 1527 - b/w Rana sanga(Mewar) & Babur - Babur 3. Battle
of Chanderi - Jan 29 , 1528 - b/w Medini Rai(Chanderi) & babur - babur
4. Battle of Ghagra - may5, 1529 - b/w Muhammad Lodhi (uncle of Ibrahim
Lodhi)&Babur - babur
*After the battle of Khanwa ,Babur abolished the tax on muslims 'Tangha'.He assumed
Ghazi title after his victory . At that time of battle Babur declared
Jihad(crusade to protect islam)
* He mentioned 2 hindu kingdoms along with 5 Muslim ones in his autobiography
BABURNAMA, one is vijayanagara & the other is Mewar
* He wrote his autobiography Tuzuk-i-Baburi (Babur Nama in Persian by
Abdur Rahim khanekhana )in Turkish Language & in English by Madam
Bevridge
*His autobiography was translated into Persian by Abdul Rahim khane khanan .
payanda khan also assisted in this work *He was given the title of kalandar due
to his generosity * Died = Dec26th ,1530 at Agra .
* His body was 1st buried at Arambagh in agra
*Later he was buried in kabul a place that he choose in his former will
*He was a follower of the famous Naqshbandi Sufi saint Khwaja Ubaidullah
Ahrar
*He compiled 2 anthologies of poems , Diwan( in Turkish) Mubaiyan(in
Persian). He also wrote Risal - i-Usaz or letters of babur
*His tomb at Kabull

2. Humayun(1530-40 & 1555- 56):

* After babur's death ,the eldest son Nasiruddin Muhammad Humayun ascended the
throne at the age of 23
* He was born in Kabul in 1508
*His mother Maham Begum belonged to shia sect
* He gave Kabul & Qandahar to his brother kamran ,Sanbhal to Mirza
Askari ,Alwar & Mewar to Miraza Hindal out of his empire
* He gave the kingdom of Badakhshan to his cousin Suleiman Mirza
* His contemporary Afghan leader was sherkhan known as Sher Shah Suri * He
established a new cit called Dinpanah BATTLES:
1. Battle of Chausa - June 26 1539, B/w Sherkhan & Humayun - Sherkhan
(conqueror)
2. Battle of Bilgram - May 17th ,1540 - Sherkhan & Humayun - Sherkhan
(conqueror)
*After winning the battle of Chausa ,Sherkhan assumed the title of Shershah
* In the Bilgram battle, Sher khan defeated Humayun & Annexed Agra & Delhi
* After his defeat in the Bilgram Battle , Humayun migrated to sindh & later to
Iran where he continued to live in exile for 15vys (1540-1555)
* Humayun Married Hamida Banu Begum, the daughter of the spiritual guru of Persia
Mir Ali Akbar jami on Aug 29th ,1541 while in exile
* Akbar was born to hamida
* After shershah's death Humayun invaded India in 1555 & defeated his brothers the
Afghans . He once became the ruler of india
*On June 22nd,1555 Humayun defeated Sikandar Shah Suri in the battle of Sirhindi &
annexed Delhi.
* Humayun Nama was written by his sister Gulbadan Begum
*Humayun believed in astrology. Thus he made it a point to wear clothes of 7 colours
in a week with colour changing each day of the week
*On 27th January,1556 Humayun died after falling from the stairs of the library at
Dinpanah palace & was buried in Delhi
*In the words of historian Lane-poole he "tumbled out of life as he had tumbled
through it"
* His sister Gulbadan Begum, wrote his biography Humayunama
*He built Dinpanah at Delhi as his 2nd capital
*His tomb at Delhi

SUR EMPIRE (2ND AFGHAN EMPIRE - 1540 -55):

3. SherShah(1540-55):
* He was born in 1472 at Bajwara (Hoshiarpur) of an Afghan wife of Hasan Sur
* Childhood name: Farid.He belonged to sur Dynasty
* His father was Hassan Khan a landlord of Sasaram . Ibrahim Lodhi transferred his
father's jagir to him
* In 1527-28 ,he joined babur's service & then returned to South Bihar as deputy
governor & guardian of the minor king Jalal khan Lohani,son of Bahar khan lohani.
* Bahar khan lohani, the then ruler of southern bihar was pleased with his bravery &
conferred on him the title of Shershah
* Shershah established Sur Dynasty & the 2nd Afghan empire in North India in 1540
* He ascended the throne of Delhi after defeating Humayun in the Battle of
Bilgram in 1540
* He built Rohtasgarh fort
* He defeated Maldeo in 1543 - 44 & annexed Ajmer ,jodhpur & Mewar
* The Battle at kalinjar in 1545 is considered his last campaign
* He died in a gunpowder explosion on may22, 1545
* Kalinjar was ruled was ruled by kirat Singh at the time of this campaign
* Sher shah's tomb was built on the high mound in the middle of the lake. In
Sasaram in Bihar
* He studied from jaunpur which was an important centre of higher education at that
time
*He is considered to be the precursor of Akbar as emperor & Administrator
* He built the buildings of purana Qila in Delhi
* He used 30,36 inch Gaj-e-sikandari & Flax stem for land measurement
* He adopted the practice of maintaining the description (huliya) of the soldiers &
branding (Dagh) of the horses
*Landa was measured & 1/3rd of the avg was fixed as land tax
* Peasant was given a Kabuliyat(Deed of Agreement )& Patta(Title deed) system which
fixed the peasant rights & taxes He introduced..
*Zamindars were removed & the taxes were directly collected.
* He introduced Silver & copper coins (Rupia coin)
* He re-established Patliputra as Patna in 1541
* He Built Grand Trunk road(G T.Road) that runs from Calcutta to peshawar *He
introduced the principle of local responsibility for local crimes .
Muqaddams were punished for failure to find culprits
* He defeated the ruler of Bengal ,Nusrat shah & assumed title of Hazrat-i-Ala. He
gained chunar by marrying Lad Malika, the widow of governor of Chunar fort
*He was impressed by the Valour of the rajputs in the war of Marwar said that "for a
handful of bajra,I nearly lost the kingdom of Hindustan". The ruler there at that time
was Maldeo
* Shershah succeeded by his son Islam shah (1545-54) & Islam by
Muhammad Adil shah (1554 -1555)
*He was buried at Sasaram
*Islam shah erected 5 forts there to protect the North -west border. These forts were
built at shergarh , islamgarh , Rashidgarh ,Firuzgarh & Mankot .
These were jointly called the Forts of Mankot
Note: Malik Muhammad Jayasi was a contemporary of Sher shah.

Sher Shah’s Administration:Although his rule lasted for five years, he organized a
brilliant administrative system. The central government consisted of several
departments. The king was assisted by four important ministers:
1. Diwan –i- Wizarat – also called as Wazir - in charge of Revenue and Finance.
2. Diwan-i-Ariz – in charge of Army.
3. Diwan-i-Rasalat- Foreign Minister.
4. Diwan-i-Insha- Minister for Communications.
Sher Shah’s empire was divided into forty seven sarkars. Chief Shiqdar (law and order)
and Chief Munsif (judge) were the two officers in charge of theadministration in each
sarkar. Each sarkar was divided into several parganas. Shiqdar (military
officer), Amin (land revenue), Fotedar (treasurer) Karkuns (accountants) were in
charge of the administration of each pargana. There were also many administrative
units called iqtas. *Administrative unit: Head
1. Iqta(province) = Haqim & Amin
2. Sarkar (District) = Shiqdar-i-Shiaqdaran & Munsif -i-Munsifan
3. Pargana(Taluka) = Shiqdar & Munsif
4. Gram (Village) = Muqaddam & Amil

4. Akbar(1556-1605):
* Akbar was born on oct 15th ,1542 of Humayuns wife Hamida Banu Begum at
Amarkot
*Childhood Nickname was Jalal
*He was in punjab when Humayun died
* He was crowned at the age of 13 on Feb 14th 1556,at kalanaur on the throne of
bricks by his patron bhairam khan
* Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar Badshah ascended the throne assuming the title Ghazi
*Bairam khan remained a patron of Akbar from 1556 to 1560. He was killed by
Afghan in Gujarat during piligrimage of Mecca
* In a bid to expand the empire Akbar made his 1st attack in1561 against Baz
Bahadur the ruler of Malwa
* The Mughal Army conquered Ahmadnagar in 1600 despite facing strong opposition
from chandbibi
*Akbar tried to win over Rajputas & he allowed them to Mughal service & he married
Harakha Bhai (daughter of Bharmal/Biharimal ,kutchhwaha Rajputa ruler of Amer
,capital Jaipur) in 1562. Most of them are recognised him but Ranapratap singh & his
son Amar Singh ( sisodiya rajputas of Mewar,capital chittor) did not recognised him
* Abdul Rahim had conferred(given) the title of Khan-i-Khanan
IMP YRS OF AKBAR:
1. 1562 - Abolition of Slave practice
2. 1562 -Abolition of purdah system
3. 1563 - Abolition of piligrimage tax
4. 1564 - Abolition of Jizya tax
5. 1571- Foundation of Fatehpur Sikri
6. 1574 - Mansabdari system introduced
7. 1575 - Establishment of Ibadatkhana(house of worship)
8.1579 - Proclamation of Mazhar
9. 1580 - Dahsala Bandobast Introduced
10. 1582 - Din-i-Ilahi /Taihid-i-illahi was established
11. 1583 - beginning of Ilahi era
12. 1584 - Ilahi Samvat (calendar)
13. 1587 - Ilahi Gaz (Yard)
* On Nov 5th ,1556 , the 2nd Battle of Paniput took place b/W Bairam khan(regent of
Akbar) & Hemu( Hindu General of Muhammad Adil Shah) .
Hemu was defeated captured & slain by bairam khan
* This war ended the Mughal & Afghan contest for the throne of Delhi in favour of the
Mughals & enabled . Akbar to reoccupy Delhi & Agra
* Akbar built the Buland Darwaza at the capital at Fatehpur Sikri
Commemoration of Gujarat victory. Agra fort , Lahore fort, Allahabad fort &
Humayuns tomb at Delhi
*Fatehpur Sikri,place near Agra it is said that Akbar had no sons for a long time . Shaik
Salim chishti ,a Sufi saint blessed Akbar with a son who was named Salim/Sheiko
Baba(Jahangir) . In honour of Salim chisti Akbar shifted his court from Agra to Fatehpur
Sikri
* In the Battle of Haldighati (1576) ,the commander of Akbar was Maan singh. It was
fought between Ranapratap of Mewar & Mughal army led by Maan singh of Amer .
Ranapratap was defeated but he did not submit & continue md struggle.
* Akbar conferred the title of Amir-ul-Umra on Bhagawan das the son of Raja bharmal
of Amer
* During the conquest of Gujarat,Akbar 1st time saw the sea & met the
Portuguese
* He was the principle patron of the Din-i-Ilahi religion he started in 1582
* Abul Fazal was the chief priest of the Din-i-Ilahi religion. He also composed
Akbar Nama
Note : Smith said ' Din-i-Ilahi is a memorial to aAkbars stupidity,not his intelligence '
* Next Faizi elder brother of Abul Fazal held the position of poet laureate at the court
of Akbar
* Birbal wast 1st & last hindu to accept Din-i-Ilahi religion . His childhood nickname
was Mahesh Das
*Akbar conferred the titles of Raja & kavi Rai on Birbal
*Rahim or Abdul Rahim was a famous Hindi poet at Akbars court
* Akbar implemented Dahsala System for land revenue
* In 24th yr of his rule , Akbar introduced a new tax system called Ain-i-
Dahsala or Zabt System
* Under this system, revenue was charged 1/3rd of Average by taking the standard of
the last 10 years production of different crops & their prevailing prices at the same
time
* Coin with figures of Rama & Sita & Ram Sita written in Devnagari script were issued
during Akbars reign
* Famous musician Tansen lived in Akbar Court. He conferred the the title of
Kanthqbharan Vani Vilas on Tansen
* Main works of Tansen are Miyan ki todi, Miyan ki Malhar,Darbari Kanhara & Miyan ka
Sarang etc..
* Swami Haridas was great musician during Akbars Reign. He was refused to
Akbars court so Akbar went to his hut & listen his music
* The famous painters of Akbars court were Abdus samad,Dasawanth &
Basawan
* The main feature during Akbars system of governance was the mansabdari system .it
was borrowed from central Asia (Mongolia)
* Akbar was under the influence of Maham Anga & Adham khan junta . after he killed
adham khan in 1562
* The state of Mewar didn't accept Akbar's suzerainity. After the death of
Rana Pratap his son Rana Amar Singh conclude a treaty with Jahangir in1615 *The style
of the panchmahal building at Fatehpur Sikri built by Akbar is similar to a Buddhist
Vihara
* Tulsidas (Ramcharitmanas) also lived in his period
*Akbar was the real founder of Mughal Empire in India
*He was 1st Mughal ruler who divorced religion from politics
*Birbal was killed in the battle with the Yusufzai tribe(1586)
* Abul Fazal was murdered by Bir singh Bundela(1601)

* 9Jewels /Navratna of Akbar:1.Birbal(Adminstrator)

2. Abul Fazal(Scholar & statesman) , 3.Tansen(Musician),
4. TodarMal(finance minister,Dahsala bandobast/Jabti)
5.Faizi(Scholar & statesman)
6. Maan Singh(Mansabdari, Grandson of Bharmal),
7.Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khanan (Statesman,Hindi poet),
8.Mulla do pyaza &
9.Fakir Azizuddin
.....& Bhagawandas (Mansabdari, son of Bharmal)one of general
* Akbar set up a translation department under faizi
* As wished Akbar, Abdul Qadir Badauni translated the Ramayana written in
Sanskrit into Persian
* Faizi translated Leelavati & Abul Fazal translated Kalia Daman into Persian
* Akbars reign is called the 'golden period of Hindi literature '
*Akbar Conferred the title of kavipriya on Birbal & Mahapatra on Narahari & zari Kalam
on Muhammad Hussain & Sirin kalam on Abdus samad
* Akbars contemporary was the famous Sufi saint Shaik Salim chishti & Queen
Elizabeth -I of England
* At the time of the establishment of East India company in dec 1600 the
Queen of England was Elizabeth
* Ralph Fitch was 1st English merchant to visit Fatehpur Sikri & Agra
* Official language of Mughals is Persian
* Akbar use dto play an instrument called Nakkara (Nagara)
* He died oct 16th, 1605 after suffering from Dysentery & he was buried at
Sikandra near Agra
*His tomb at Agra
5. Jahangir (1605-27):
*Jahangir/Salim 's Father :Akbar &
Mother : Mariam-uz-zamani /Jodha Bhai/Harkha Bhai (daughter of Raja Bharmal of
Amer) was born on Aug 30, 1569 at Shaik Salim chishti 's hut located at Fatehpur Sikri
* Salims main teacher was Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khanan
* He was crowned at Agra fort on Nov 3rd 1605. After that he assumed the title of
'Nuruddin Muhammad Jahangir Badshah Ghazi'
* The 12 declarations of Jahangir were called Tuzk-e-Jahangiri (his autobiography)
*He issued 12 ordinances called Dastur -ul-Amal (rules of code of conduct)
* He is known for his strict administration of justice. He established zanjir-iAdal(chain
of justice) at Agra fort for the seekers of royal justice. She was made the official
Padshah begum
*He issued coins in the name of Nurjahan & his own
*In 1608, Capital William Hawkins , a representative of East India company came to
Jahangir court.
*In 1615 Sir Thomas roe, an ambassador of king jamesI of England also came to his
court. Though initially Jahangir resisted later on he granted permission to the English
to establish a trade port at surat
* Jahangir 's eldest son Khusrau revolted against his father in 1606. Khurram killed
Khusrau in1622
*Arjun dev, the 5th Sikh guru was executed for the crime of assisting Khusrau
* Jahangir married Mehrunnisa(Nurjahan) in 1611 & conferred the title of Nur
Mahal on her. She is former wife of Ali Quli beg
* Jahangir conferred the title of Sher Afghan on Ali Quli begh for killing a lion
* After the death of Sher Afghan , Mehrunnisa was employed in the service of
Salima begum ,Akbars widow
*Lado begum ,the daughter of Mehrunnisa from Sher Afghan was married to shaharyar
the son of Jahangir
* He appointed her father Ghiyas Begh as diwna & conferred the title of
'Itimad-ud-Daulah' on him
* He banned The use of tobacco in his empire
Note: Nurjahan formed a group called Junta Group
* Do - Aspa & Shi -Aspa were introduced during the reign of Jahangir
* 1st the commander of Jahangir is Mahavat khan
* The treaty of Chittorgarh was signed b/w Rana Amar Singh & the Mughal emperor
Jahangir in 1615.
* Jahangir had 5 sons
1. Khusrau 2. Parviz 3. Khurram
4. Shaharyar 5. Jahandar
* Khurram (Shahjahan) revolted , but revolt was suppressed by Mahabat khan in1623
* Mughal painting reached its climax during the reign of Jahangir
* Jahangir established a gallery in Agra under the supervision of Akarija
* His reign is called golden period of painting
* Ustad Mansoor & Abul Hassan were the best painters during the reign of
Jahangir
& Titles confered by him are Nadir-ul-Asr & Nadir - ud- jama
*His tomb at Lahore

6. Shahjahan (1628-58):
* Mother: JagatGosai/Jodha Bhai(Daughter of Raja jagat Singh. Name : Abul
Muzaffar/Muhammad Sahib/Quran -i-sani
*He ascended the throne in 1628 after his father's death
*He was best known for his Deccan & foreign policies
* The 1st thing he had to face wa srevolts in Bundelkhand (Juhar singh Bundela of
orchcha 1628-35) & the Deccan (Khan-i-Jahan Lodhi,the governor of Deccan in 1629-
31)
* 3 yrs after his accession his wife Mumthaz Mahal(Arzumand Bano) died in
1631. To perpetuate her memory he built the Taj Mahal at Agra in 1632-53
* In 1631-32 he defeated the Portuguese
* In addition to Jahangirs empire, Nizqmshahis Dynasty of Ahmedanagar was brought
under his control in 1633
* The Deccan sultanate & Golconda accepted his suzerainity in 1636
* Shahjahan reign is described by french travellers Bernier & tavernier & Indian
traveller Nicoli Manucci. Peter nundi described the famine that occurred during his
time
* His reign is said to be pinnacle of Mughal Dynasty. He is known for the promotion of
Art, culture & Architecture during his time . The red fort ,Jama masjid & Tajmahal are
some of the magnificent structures built
In his reign
*Shah Jahan personally owned the royal treasury, and several precious stones such as
the Kohinoor.
*At Delhi, Shah Jahān built a huge fortress-palace complex called the Red Fort as well
as another Jāmiʿ Masjid, which is among the finest mosques in India.
*In September 1657, Shah Jahan was ailing and appointed his eldest son Dara Shikoh
as his successor. This nomination led to a succession crisis among his three sons, from
which Shah Jahan's third son Aurangzeb (1658–1707) emerged victorious and became
the sixth emperor, executing all of his surviving brothers, including Crown Prince Dara
Shikoh. After Shah Jahan recovered from his illness in July 1658, Aurangzeb imprisoned
his father in Agra Fort from July 1658 until his death in January 1666.
*His tomb at Agra

7. Aurangzeb (1658-1707):
*He defeated Dara at Dharmasthiya (1658),Samugarh (1658) & Deorai in which
Samugarh was the decisive one & Deorai was the last one
* Aurangzeb ascended the throne and held the title of ‘Abul-Muzaffar
Mohin-ud-Din Muhammad Aurangzeb Bahadur Alamgir Badas Ha Ghazi’ * After
victory he was crowned at Delhi under the title of Alamgir . He ruled over 50 yrs till
his death in Feb 1707 in Ahmednagar
*his tenure also marked a golden period of the Mughal Empire in terms of economic
growth.
*Aurangzeb was known as “Zinda Pir” or “Darvesh” due to his simple way of living saint
and high-level thinking.
*He ruled according to the Sharia law in the Quran.He banned drinking and singing in
court. Public drinking was also prohibited.
*In 1679, Aurangzeb re-introduced the jizyah tax or the poll tax for the nonmuslim
population. Jizya was abolished by Akbar in 1564. However, economically weak
sections of society, the elderly, children, and women, were exempted from paying
these taxes.
*He did not allow the construction of new temples, churches
*Aurangzeb inspired Islamic calligraphy during his reign. Quran manuscripts in the
Naskh style were popular during the time. Aurangzeb was a skilled calligrapher in the
Naskh style.
*During his reign, he built Bibi Ka Maqbara in Aurangabad and Badshahi Masjid in
Lahore.He also built Moti Masjid, and Badshahi Mosque.
* He banned music & he prohibited Hindu festivals & celebrations
*He banned Kalma Inscription on coins , celebrating Navroz festival , cultivating hemp
,Jarokha darshan ,song-music etc....
* During the 1st 23 yrs of the rule , Marathas under Shivaji rose to power * He captured
Guru Tej Bahadur,the 9th guru of Sikhs in 1675 & executed him when he refused to
embrace Islam .
*The 10th & last Sikh guru ,Guru Gobind Singh son of Guru Tej Bahadur organised his
followers into community of warriors called Khalsa to fight the Muslim tyranny &
avenge the killing of his father .
*Guru Gobind Singh was however assassinated in 1708 by an Afghan at Nander in
Deccan.
* Banda Bahadur a trusted disciple of Guru Gobind Singh continued the war against
Mughals .
* The original name of Banda Bahadur was Lachchman Dev. after becoming a saint he
was named Madho das . Finally he was named Banda Bahadur by
Guru Gobind Singh
*He left North in1682 & next 25 yrs bid to crush Marathas
* Shivaji was most powerful Maratha king & an arch enemy of Aurangzeb.
When He could not eliminate him,he conspired in 1665 with Jai Singh of
Amber ,a Rajput, to eliminate Shivaji . On an assurance given by Jai
Singh ,shivaji visited His court. Shivaji was imprisoned by him but he managed to
escape & in 1674 proclaimed himself an independent monarch . He died in 1680 &
was. Succeeded by his son Sambhaji, who was executed by him in1689. Sambhaji was
succeeded by his Brother Rajaram & after his death in
1700 his widow Tarabai carried on the movements
* During his reign Bijapur & Golconda was annexed in1686 &1687 *Aurangzeb died on
March 3, 1707, near Ahmednagar, at the age of 88 & buried at
khuldabad(Daulatabad). He was succeeded by Azam Shah, who was killed at the
battle of Jajau by Bahadur Shah I.
*His tomb at Aurangabad/Daulatabad
Imp yrs of Aurangzeb:
* 1659- Forbade Inscription of Kalma on the coins , celebration of Nauroji festival,
Appointment of Muhatasib(Regulator of moral character)
*1663 - Ban of sati custom
* 1668- ban on hindu festival
* 1669 - Ban on Jahrokha darshan ,forbade music in the court
* 1670 - Ban on Tuladan (weighing of the emperor)
* 1679 - Re-introduction of Jaziya

Decline of Mughal Empire:

1. Aurangzebs Rajputq,Deccan & religious policies
2. Weak successors who were incompetent both as administrators & generals
3. Wars of succession
4. Factionalist among nobility after Aurangzeb
5. Jagirdari crisis
6. Growth of Maratha & other regional powers in Bengal,hyd ,awadh, ,Mysore etc
7. Foreign invasions by Nadir shah (1739) & Abdali
8. British conquest of india
 Later Mughals:
1. BahadurShah -I(1707-12):
Original name:Muazzan, Title : Shah Alam-I
2. Jahandar Shah(1712-13):
Ascended the throne with the help of zulfikar khan & He abolished Jaziya
3. Farrukh Siyar(1713- 1719):
Ascended the throne with the help of Sayyid brothers - Abdullah khan &
Hussain Khan
4. Muhammad shah (1719-1748):
In 1738-39,Nadir shah raided India & took away Thakht-i-Taus (the peacock throne ) &
Kohinoor diamond
5. Ahmed shah(1748-54):
Ahmadshah Abdali (general of Nadir shah) marched towards the Delhi &
Mughals ceded punjab & Multan
6. Alamgir II (1754-59):
Ahmad shah occupied Delhi. Later Delhi was plundered by Marathas
7. Shah Alam II(1759-1806):
Nazib khan became very powerful in Delhi so much so that he could not enter
Delhi for 12yrs
8. Akbar II(1806-37):
Pensioner of East India company
9. Bahadur shah -II(1837-1857) :
Last Mughal emperor who was made premier during 1857 revolt. He was deported to
Rangoon(Burma ,now Myanmar) in 1858 where he died in 1862 Mughal
Administration:
* The basis of Mughal kingship was Shariat(combined name of Quran &
Hadis). It was highly centralised
* Wizarat= Council of Ministers
Wakil = Prime minister
*The Diwan(head of revenue department )
- Mir bhakshi ( head of the Military Administration =incharge of military payments &
accounts),
-Mir saman/Khan-i-saman(in-charge of the royal household called The karkhanas /the
buyutat, included factories and stores ) & -sadar-ussudur(head of the ecclesiastical
department. His chief duty was to protect the laws of the shari'at. He was also
connected with the distribution of charities - both cash (wazifa) and land grants) were
assistants of Prime minister/Wakil
* Akbar increased the powers of Diwan to limit powers of wakil
* Akbar established a new post Diwan-i-wazrat-i-kul in the 8th yr of his reign
*During the reign of Aurangzeb, Asadkhan served 31 yrs Diwan
* After issuing a certificate called Sarkhat the soldiers were paid salaries
* In Mughal Administrative parlance the word Mal was related to Land
Revenue
*Muhatasib= Chief of the Inspection Department of public conduct
Mustaufi = Auditor
Mushrif = Accountant
Mir-i-Bahar = chief of Naval staff
Qazi-ul-quzat = Judicial Department
* Akbar expelled the prostitutes form the city & placed them at Shaitanpuri *Mughal
Empire was divided into Subhas which were further subdivided into sarkar , pargana
& Gram.
*However it also had other territorial units as Khalisa(royal land),jagirs (autonomous
rajyas) & inams (gifted lands ,mainly waste lands) * There were 15 subhas (provinces)
during Akbar's Reign. Which later increased to 29nunder Aurangzeb's reign
*Administrative unit : Incharge
1. Subha(province) : Siphalhar/Subedar/Nizam - The head executive Diwan incharge
of revenue department
2. Sarkar(District) : Fauzdar-Administrative head Amal/Amalgauzar - Revenue
collection
3. Pargana(Taluka) : Siqdar Administrative head Amin,Qanungo-Revenue officials
4. Gram(Village) : Muqaddam -Headman,patwari - Accountant *Akbar started
using Ilahi gaj(33 inches) in the place of sikandari gaj(30 inches) to measure land
* The major system of land revenue determination was Batai /Ghalla Bakkshi
*Offerings=Nazarana
*Akbar introduced Jharokha system & Tuladan & Aurangzeb was stopped both
* Akbar introduced Mansabdari system. The term Mansab indicates the rank of its
holder . Mansabdari was both civil & military. almost the whole nobility, bureaucracy
& military hold Mansabdari
*The Mughal Mansab was dual i.e Zat(personal rank & pay status) &
sawar(no.of horseman to maintain) * Mansabdari were 3 categories :
1. Mansabdars
2. Amirs
3. Amir-ul-Umda
* Akbar introduced the dual system of Zat & Sawar in the 40th yr of his rule
*Land revenue is the main source of incomeof the state
*Akbar employed an officer Karoriin Dahsala system
*Akbar introduced Kankut system ,the field was measured either by means of a rope or
by pacing.estimating the yield per Bigha
*Akbar Foster mother Maham Anga Ram the purdah Govt from 1560-62 AD
& established the Madrasa -e-begum in delhi
*Nurjahan (wife of Jahangir) introduced bJunta group
* Nurjahans mother Asmat begum invented art of extracting perfumes from rose
flowers
*An order given by prince called Nishaan
*The royal order called Farman
* Al-Thamgha-Jagir was started in the time of Jahangir
*According to pay mode they were of 2 types : Naqdi(paid through cash) & jagirdars (
paid through jagirs)
* Jahangir added Duasoah sih-aspah system (ones sawar rank can be raised without
raising his zat rank)
* Shahjahan added Jama- Dami or Mahana zagir(monthly scale) system. * It ultimately
caused jagirdari an agrarian crisis ,which was a major cause of the decline of
Mughals
*There were several methods of revenue collection in practice viz.Kankut
(estimate), Rai(yield per unit area) & zabti (based on the yields of crops) * Dahsala
Bandobast/Zabti : A standard method of collection based on the rates of crops
determined after 10 yrs assessment . TodarMal pioneered it * Jagirdari system was
the assignment of land in proportion to a Jagirdars salary . Hence,every Mansabdari
was entitled to a jagir if he was not paid in cash
*madad-i-maash /Suyur ghal /Inam were land grants to oeop8 of favour
/Religious assignment
*Battles: Year : b/w: Conqueror
1. Battle of Kheda = 1707 = Tarabai & shahu =Shahu
3 3rd Battle of Paniput = 1761 = Abdali & Balaji Bajirao = Abdali
4.Anglo-maratha Battle -I = 1775-82 = British(Warren Hastings) &
Maratha(Mahadji sindhia )= the British (treaty of Salbai
5.Anglo Maratha -II =1803-1805= The Lord Wellesley &Bajirao -II = the
British(Treaty of Rajghat)
6. Anglo-maratha -III =1817 -1818 = theWarren Hastings &Bajirao II =the
British (treaty of Madausaur)

Mughal culture:
* Babur built 2 mosques
1. Kabulibagh in panipat
2. Sambhal in Rohilakhand
*Humayuns tomb was built by his widow Bega begum/Haji begum
* An unusual building at Fatehpur Sikri is Panch Mahal built by Akbar. It has the plan of
Buddhist Vihara
* The Mariams palace ,Diwan -i-aam,Diwan-i-Khas at Sikri built by Akbar are
Indian in their plan
* Buland Darwaza (built after Gujarat victory) formed the main entrance to
Fatehpur Sikri built by Akbar
* Salim Chishti 's tomb (redone in marble by Jahangir) is the 1st Mughal building in
pure marble )
* Palace of Birbal , palace of Tansen are also inside the Fatehpur Sikri built by
Akbar
* Akbar began to build his own tomb at Sikandra which was later completed by
Jahangir
* The architecture of Fatehpur Sikri is known as epic in red sand stone built by
Akbar
* Nurjahan built Itimad-ud-daula/Mirza Ghiyas Begs marble tomb at Agra which is
noticeable for 1st used of pietra dura(Floral designs made up of semi precious
stones) technique
* Jahangir introduced Vigourous use of marble instead of redsand stone & use of
pietra dura for decorative purpose
* Jahangir built Moti Masjid in Lahore & his mausoleum at shahdara (lahore) * Tomb
/Mausoleum building activity reached its climax in Taj Mahal .
Shahjahan built the jama masjid
* Some of the imp buildings built by Shahjahan at Agra are Moti masjid (one mosque
of marble) . Khaas Mahal , Mussmman Burz (Jasmine palace where he spent his last yr
in captivity) etc
* He laid the foundations of shahjahanabad in 1637 where he built the red fort &
Thakht-i-Taus (peacock throne)
* The only building built by Aurangzeb in the red fort is Moti Masjid * The only
monument associated with Aurangzeb is Bibi ka Makabara which is tomb of his wife
Rabbia -ud-daura in Aurangabad
*Aurangabad also built the Badshahi masjid in Lahore
* Humayun had taken in to his service 2 master painters Mir Syed Ali & Abdus samad
* Dasawant& Basawan were 2 famous painters s of Akbars court
* Abdul Hassan,Ustad Mansur & Bishandas were 3 famous painters of
Jahangirs court
* Jahangir claims that he could distinguish the work of each artist in a picture *The
architecture of the Mughals includes the magnificent forts, palaces, public buildings,
mosques and mausoleums.
* The Mughals were fond of laying gardens with running water. Some of the
Mughal gardens such as the Nishat Bagh in Kashmir, the Shalimar Bagh at Lahore and
the Pinjore garden in the Punjab have survived even today. *During the reign of Sher
Shah, the mausoleum at Sasaram in Bihar and the Purana Qila near Delhi were built.
These two monuments are considered as the architectural marvels of medieval India.
*Large scale construction of buildings started with the advent of Akbar. He built many
forts and the most famous one was the Agra Fort. It was built in red sandstone. *His
other forts are at Lahore and Allahabad. The climax of fort-building reached its climax
during the reign of Shah Jahan.
*The famous Red Fort at Delhi with its Rang Mahal, Diwan-i-Am and Diwan-iKhas was
his creation.
*Akbar also built a palace- cum-fort complex at Fatepur Sikri (City of Victory), 36
kilometres from Agra.
* Many buildings in Gujarathi and Bengali styles are found in this complex.
Gujarathi style buildings were probably built for his Rajput wives.
*The most magnificent building in it is the Jama Masjid and the gateway to it called
Buland Darwaza or the Lofty Gate. The height of the gateway is 176 feet.
* It was built to commemorate Akbar’s victory over Gujarat. Other important buildings
at Fatepur Sikri are Jodh Bai’s palace and Panch Mahal with five storeys.
* During Akbar’s reign, the Humayun’s
tomb was built at Delhi and it had a massive dome of marble. It may be considered the
precursor of the Taj Mahal. *Akbar’s tomb at Sikandara near
Agra was completed by Jahangir. Nur Jahan built the tomb of Itimaddaulah at Agra. It
was constructed wholly of white marble with floral designs made of semi-precious
stones on the walls.
*This type of decoration was called pietra dura. This method became more popular
during the reign of Shah Jahan. The pietra dura method was used on a large scale in
the Taj Mahal by Shah Jahan. Taj Mahal is considered a jewel of the builder’s art.
*It contains all the architectural forms developed by the Mughals. The chief glory of the
Taj is the massive dome and the four slender minarets. *The decorations are kept to
theminimum. Mosque building had reached its peak during Shah Jahan’s reign. The
Moti Masjid at Agra was built entirely in white marble.
The Jama Masjid at Delhi was built in red stone.
*The Mughal architectural traditions continued in the eighteenth and early nineteenth
century. Their influence in the provincial kingdoms is clearly visible.
Many features of Mughal tradition can be seen in the Golden Temple at Amritsar.

Paintings and Music:*The contribution of Mughals to the

art of painting was remarkable. The
foundation for the Mughal painting was laid by Humayun when he was staying in
Persia.
*He brought with him two painters – Mir Sayyid Ali and
Abdal Samad to India.
These two painters became famous during Akbar’s reign.
* Akbar commissioned the illustrations of several literary and religious texts. He invited
a large number of painters from different parts of the country to his court. Both Hindus
and Muslims joined in this work. Baswan, Miskina and Daswant attained great positions
as Akabar’s court artists.
*Illustrations of Persian versions of Mahabharata and Ramayana were produced in
miniature form. Many other Indian fables became the miniature paintings in the Art
Studio established by Akbar.
*Historical works such as Akbar Nama also remained the main themes of
Mughal paintings. The most important work is Hamznama, which consisted 1200
paintings.
*Indian colours such as peacock blue,
Indian red began to be used. Mughal paintings reached its climax during the reign of
Jahangir. He employed a number of painters like Abul Hasan, Bishan Das, Madhu,
Anant, Manohar, Govardhan and Ustad Mansur. Apart from painting the scenes of
hunting, battles and royal courts, progress was made in portrait painting and paintings
of animals.
* Many albums containing paintings and calligraphy were produced during the Mughal
period. Later, the influence of European painting could be seen.
*Music had also developed under the Mughals. Akbar patronized Tansen of Gwalior.
Tansen composed many ragas.
*Jahangir and Shah Jahan were also fond of music.

Literature:
1. Tuzuk-i-Baburi = Babur
2. Qanun-i-Humayun =Khwand Amair
3. Humayunama = Gulbadan Begum
4. Tuzk-e-Jahangiri= Jahangir 5. Raqqat-e-Alamgiri = Aurangzeb

Language:
* the Mughals came to India, they bought over the Persian language with them. Persian
and Sanskrit were known to be very important languages in Mughal time.
*Persian language became widespread in the Mughal Empire by the time of Akbar’s
reign. Abul Fazl was a great scholar and historian of his period. He set a style of prose
writing and it was followed by many generations.
*Many historical works were written during this period. They include Ain-i-
Akbari and Akabar Nama authored by Abul Fazl. The leading poet of that period was
his brother Abul Faizi.
*The translation of Mahabharata into the Persian language was done under his
supervision. Utbi and Naziri were the two other leading Persian poets.
*Jahangir’s autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri was famous for its style.
*He also patronized many scholars like Ghiyas Beg, Naqib Khan and
Niamatullah. Shah Jahan also patronized many writers and historians like Abdul Hamid
Lahori, author of Padshah Nama and Inayat Khan who wrote Shah Jahan Nama.
*His son Dara Shikoh translated the Bhagavat Gita and Upanishads into the
Persian language. Many historical works were written during the reign of Aurangazeb.
*Famous dictionaries of the Persian language were also compiled during the Mughal
period.
*Regional languages such as Bengali, Oriya, Rajasthani and Gujarathi had also
developed during this period. Many devotional works including the
Ramayana and Mahabharata were translated into regional languages. * From the time
of Akbar, Hindi poets were attached to the Mughal court. The most influential Hindi
poet was Tulsidas, who wrote the Hindi version of the Ramayana, the Ramcharitmanas.

MARATHA STATE (1674-720) &

CONFEDERACY(1720-1818)
* The mountainous region and dense forests made them brave soldiers and adopt
guerilla tactics. They built a number of forts on the mountains. The spread of the
Bhakti movement in Maharashtra inculcated a spirit of religious unity among them.
* The spiritual leaders like Tukkaram, Ramdas, Vaman Pandit and Eknath fostered
social unity. The political unity was conferred by Shivaji. The Marathas held important
positions in the administrative and military systems of Deccan Sultanates of Bijapur
and Ahmadnagar.
*There were a number of influential Maratha families such as the Mores and
Nimbalkers. But the credit of establishing a powerful Maratha state goes to Shahji
Bhonsle and his son Shivaji.

1. Shivaji(1674-80):
* Shivaji was born at Shivner fort in 1627. His father was Shahji Bhonsle and mother Jija
Bai & religious Guardian - Samarth Ramdas
*He inherited the jagir of Poona from his father in
1637. After the death of his guardian, Dadaji
Kondadev in 1647, Shivaji assumed full charge of
his jagir.
*Even before that he conquered Raigarh, Kondana and Torna from the ruler of Bijapur.
*He captured Javli from a Maratha
chief, Chanda Rao More. This made him the master of Mavala region. In 1657, he
attacked the Bijapur kingdom and captured a number of hill forts in the Konkan region.
*he captured Kalyan & javli forts in konkan 1659.
* The Sultan of Bijapur sent Afzal Khan deputed by Adilshah(ruler of Bijapur
)against Shivaji. But Afzal Khan was murdered by Shivaji in 1659 in a daring manner.
*Shivaji’s military conquests made him a legendary figure in the Maratha region. Many
came forward to join his army.
* The Mughal emperor Aurangazeb was anxiously watching the rise of Maratha
power under Shivaji.
*He sent the Mughal governor of the
Deccan, Shaista Khan against Shivaji in 1660. Shivaji suffered a defeat at the hands of
the Mughal forces and lost Poona.
* But Shivaji once again made a bold attack on Shaista Khan’s military camp at
Poona in 1663, killed his son and wounded Khan.
*This daring attack affected the prestige of Khan and he was recalled by Aurangazeb.
*In 1664, Shivaji attacked Surat & later Ahmadnagar, the chief port of the Mughals and
plundered it.
*This time Aurangazeb sent Raja Jai Singh of Amber to fight against Shivaji. He
made elaborate preparations and succeeded in besieging the Purander fort where
Shivaji lodged his family and treasure. Shivaji opened negotiations with Jai Singh
and the Treatyof Purander was signed in 1665.
*According to the treaty, Shivaji had to surrender 23 forts to the Mughals out of 35
forts held by him. The remaining 12 forts were to be left to Shivaji on condition of
service and loyalty to Mughal empire.
* On the other hand, the Mughals recognized the right of Shivaji to hold certain parts
of the Bijapur kingdom. As Shivaji asked to exempt him from personal service to the
Mughals, his minor son Shambaji was granted a mansab of 5000.
*Shivaji visited Agra in 1666 but he was imprisoned there. But, he managed to escape
from prison and made military preparations for another four years.
Then he renewed his wars against the Mughals.
*Surat was plundered by him for the second time in 1670. He also captured all his lost
territories by his conquests.
*In 1674 Shivaji crowned himself at Raigarh and assumed the title as 'Haindava
Dharmodharak ( Protector of Hinduism) & 'Chatrapathi'. * He used to give salary in
cash to the officers by abolishing the practice of granting Jagir
*After that he continued struggle with Mughals & siddis(janjira). Then he conquested
into the Carnatic region and captured Ginjee and Vellore. After his return from this
expedition, Shivaji died in 1680.
Shivaji Administration:
* He divided his territory under his rule (swaraj) into 3 provinces , each under a viceroy.
Provinces were divided into Prants which were subdivided into parganas or tarafs . The
lowest unit was Village headed by Patel(Headman). *Shivaji was also a great
administrator. He laid the foundations of a sound system of administration. The king
was the pivot of the government. He was assisted by a council of ministers called
Ashtapradhan. However, each minister was directly responsible to Shivaji.
Shivaji's Ashtapradhan:1. Peshwa(Mukhya Pradhan) – Finance and general
administration. Later he became the prime minister.
2. Sar-i-Naubat ( Senapati )– Military commander, a honorary post with no military
powers.
3. Majumdar (Amatya) – Accountant General/Revenue & finance Minister.
4. Waqenavis (Mantri) – Home Minister/Intelligence, posts and household affairs.
5. Surnavis(Sachiv) – Head of Royal Correspondence.
6. Dabir (Sumanta) – Foreign Minister/Master of ceremonies.
7. Nyayadish – Justice.
8. Panditarao (Sadar)–Head of Religious Affairs/ Charities and religious administration.
*Most of the administrative reforms of Shivaji were based on the practices of the
Deccan sultanates. For example, Peshwa was the Persian title.
*The revenue system of Shivaji was based on that of Malik Amber of
Ahmadnagar. Lands were measured by using the measuring rod called kathi. Lands
were also classified into three categories – paddy fields, garden lands and hilly
tracks.
* During the Maratha period , Saranjami system was related to Land revenue
administration
*The income of land was determined by Kadi & Zarib
* Land revenue was fixed 1/3rd (33%of the gross produce initial time)
& 2/5th (40% of the gross produce after reforms)
*He reduced the powers of the existing deshmuks and kulkarnis. He appointed his own
revenue officials called karkuns.
*Chauth and sardeshmukhi were the 2.d largest source of states income apart from
land taxes collected not in the Maratha kingdom but in the neighbouring territories of
the Mughal empire or Deccan sultanates.
*Chauth was one fourth(1/4th) of the land revenue paid to the Marathas
in order to avoid the Maratha raids.
*Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of 10% on those lands which the
Marathas claimed hereditary rights. But which formed part of Mughal Empire
*Shivaji was a man of military genius and his army was well organized. The regular
army consisted of about 30000 to 40000 cavalry supervised by havaildars. They were
given fixed salaries.
*There were two divisions in the Maratha cavalry – 1. bargirs, equipped and paid by the
state; and 2. silahdars, maintained by the nobles.
* In the infantry, the Mavli foot soldiers played an important role. Shivaji also
maintained a navy.
*The forts played an important role in the military operations of the Marathas. By the
end of his reign, Shivaji had about 240 forts. Each fort was put under the charge of
three officers of equal rank as a precaution against treachery.

2. Sambhaji(1680-89):
* He is elder son of shivaji defeated Rajaram, younger son of shivaji in the war of
succession
* He provided protection & support to Akbar II the rebellious son of
Aurangzeb
* He was captured at sangameshwar by a Mughal noble

3. Rajaram(1689-1700):
* He succeeded throne with the help of the ministers at Rajgarh
* He fled from Rajgarh to jinji in 1689 due to Mughal invasion in which
Rajgarh was captured along with Sambhaji's wife & son (shahu) by the
Mughals
* Rajaram died at satara which had become the capital after the fall of jinji to the
Mughals in 1698
* Rajaram created the new post of pratinidhi thus taking the total no. Of ministers to
9(Pratinidhi+ Ashtapradhan)

4. Tarabhai(1700- 07):
* Rajaram was succeeded by his minor son Shivaji II under the Guardianship of his
mother Tarabhai
* Tarabhai continued the struggle with the Mughals

5. Shahu(1707-1749):
* Shahu was released by the Mughal emperor Bahadur shah
* Tarabhai army was defeated by shahu in the Battle of Kheda(1700) & Shahu occupied
Satara
* But the southern Part of the Maratha kingdom with its capital Kolhapur continued to
be under the control of the descendants of Rajaram (Shivaji II &
Sambhaji II)
*Shahu's reign saw the rise of the Peshwas & Transformation of of the Maratha
kingdom in to an empire based inthe principle of confederacy

6. Balaji Vishwanath (1713-20): the 1st Peshwa:

*Balaji Viswanath began his career as a small revenue official Was given the title of
Sena Karte(marker of the army) by shahu in 1708 and became Peshwa in 1713. As
Peshwa, he made his position the most important and powerful as well as hereditary.
* He played a crucial role in the civil war and finally made Shahu as the
Maratha ruler. He sought the support of all Maratha leaders for Shahu.
* In 1719, Balaji Viswanath got certain rights from the then Mughal emperor,
Farukh Siyar. He concluded an agreement with the Syed brothers - king
maker(1719)
First, the Mughal emperor recognized Shahu as the Maratha king(king of Swarajya).
Second, he allowed Shahu to collect Chauth and Sardeshmukhi from the six Mughal
provinces of the Deccan including the Carnatic and Mysore.

Maratha confederacy:(1720-1818)
7. Baji Rao I ( 1720-40):
*Baji Rao was the eldest son of Balaji Viswanath. He succeeded his father as
Peshwa at the age young age of 20
*He was considered the greatest exponent of guerilla tactics after shivaji & The
Maratha power reached its zenith under him.
*He initiated the system of confederacy among the Maratha chiefs. Under this system,
each Maratha chief was assigned a territory which could be administered
autonomously.
*As a result, many Maratha families became prominent and established their
authority in different parts of India. They were kingdom & territory
1. the Gaekwad at Baroda,
2.the Bhonsle at Nagpur,
3. the Holkars at Indore,
4. the Scindias at Gwalior, and
5. the Peshwas at Poona.
6. The pawar at Dhar
* After defeating &expelling the siddis of Janjira from the mainland (1722) he
Conquered Bassein & Salsette from the Portuguese (1739)
* He also defeated the Nizam-ul-mulk near bhopal & concluded the treaty of
Doraha Sarai by which he got Malwa & Bundelkhand from the latter (1738)
* He led innumerable successful expeditions into North India to weaken the
Mughal Empire & to make the Marathas the supreme power in India *He said
about Mughals :
" Let us strike at the trunk of the withering tree & the branches will fall off themselves"

8. Balaji Baji Rao(1740-61):

*Popularly known as Nanasaheb. He succeeded hai father at the age of 20.
The Maratha king Shahu died in 1749 without issue.
*His nominated successor Ramraja was imprisoned by the Peshwa Balaji Baji
Rao at Satara. The full control of the Maratha kingdom came under the Peshwa.
*Peshwa entered into an agreement with the Mughal Emperor in 1752. *According to
it the Peshwa gave assurance to the Mughal Emperor that he would protect the
Mughal Empire from internal and external enemies for which the Chauth of the
northwest provinces
and the total revenue of the Agra and Ajmer provinces would be collected by the
Marathas.
*Thus when Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded India, it became the responsibility of the
Marathas to protect India. The Marathas fought very bravely against Ahmad Shah
Abdali in the Third Battle of Panipat in Jan 14, 1761. But they got defeated. Many
deaths of Maratha leaders like Vishwas rao & Sadashiva rao Bhau and thousands of
soldiers died in this battle.
*Balaji Baji Rao also died on hearing the sad end of this battle. Also, this battle gave a
death blow to the Maratha power.
* Successors of him are Madhav Rao(1761-72) , Narayan Rao(1772-73), Sawai
Madhav Rao ( 1773- 95) & Baji Rao II( 1795 -1818)
*Thereafter, the Maratha confederacy
weakened due to internal conflicts among the Maratha chiefs
*After the decline of the Mughal Empire, the Marathas emerged a great power in India
but they could not succeed in preventing the establishment of British power in India.
*The important causes for the downfall were that there was lack of unity among the
Maratha chiefs like Holkar, Scindia and Bhonsle. Also, the superiority of the British
army and fighting methods ultimately won. *The post of Peshwa was abolished in 1818
* Modi script was used in Maratha Inscriptions
ANGLO MARATHA WARS:
1. 1st Anglo -Maratha war (1775-82) : favouring the cause of Raghunath rao(Raghoba,
son of Baji Rao I) for peshwaship, English (Hastings) came in conflict with the Marathas
. On being defeated ,the British had to sign the humiliating " Convention of
Wadgaon(1779)"
- the British later signed Treaty of Salbai(1782) renouncing the cause of
Raghoba
2. 2nd Anglo -Maratha war (1803- 06) : the Maratha Peshwa signed the subsidiary
alliance Treaty of Bassein (1802)
- The Maratha Confederacy which did not like the idea challenged the British power
but were defeated by the British
3. 3rd Anglo -Maratha war (1817- 18):
Lord Hastings was determined to proclaim British paramountcy in India . He moved
against pindaris ,trangressed the sovereignty of the Maratha chiefs & the war began .
Marathas are decisively defeated.
 MODERN HISTORY
THE ADVENT OF THE EUROPEANS

* After the decline of the Roman Empire and the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the
Arabs established dominance in Egypt and Persia, controlling the trade routes to
India. The Europeans lost direct contact with India and the easy accessibility to Indian
commodities.

*Spirit of the voyage: In the 15th century, there was a growing eagerness in Europe
for adventurous sea voyages to reach the East, driven by the spirit of the Renaissance
and advancements in shipbuilding and navigation.
*Division of non-Christian world: The Treaty of Tordesillas(1494) divided the non-
Christian world between Portugal and Spain, granting Portugal the eastern territories
and Spain the western territories. This set the stage for Portuguese incursions into the
waters around India.
*After the decline of Roman Empire in 17th century the Arabs had established their
domination in Egypt & Persia. Direct contact between The Europeans & India declined
& with that the easy accessibility to the Indian commodities like spices , calicoes, silk &
various precious stones that were greatly in demand were affected

* In 1453, Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks, who were the ascendant.
Merchandise from India went to the European markets through Arab Muslim
Intermediaries.

* The red sea trade route was a state monopoly from which islamic rulers earned
tremendous revenues

* The Land routes were controlled by Arabs. At that time, Europeans were keen to find
a direct sea route to India .
1. THE PORTUGUESE EAST INDIA COMPANY:

* In 1487 ,the Portuguese navigator Bartholomew Dias rounded the cape of good hope
in Africa . After 10 yrs ships were set out for India in 1497 & arrived in India in slightly
less than 11 months time in May 1498.
*The arrival of 3 ships under Vasco Da Gama, led by Gujarati pilot named Abdul Majid
at Calicut in May 1498.

*He was Received by the Hindu ruler of Calicut ,The Zamorin (Samuthiri)

* For centuries the trading system in the Indian Ocean has participants - Indians, Arabs,
Africans from east coast,Chinese, Japanese etc.. So Portuguese want to monopolise
these trade to earn more profits

* He stayed in India for 3 months & he returned to Portugal ,he carried back with him a
rich cargo & sold the merchandise in the European market at a huge profit

*Pedro Álvares Cabral, was a Portuguese nobleman, He had come in 1500 to make a
treaty with the Zamorin of Calicut and to set up a Portuguese factory in the city. But
he was not successful and there was conflict between the local Arab merchant guilds.
The Portuguese factory was overrun in a Portuguese were killed. Cabral blamed the
Zamorin and bombarded the city. War broke out between Portugal and Calicut in
1501.

* He once again came to India in 1502. He ruptured Zamorin & set up a trading factory
at cannanore . Gradually this led to establishment of imp trading stations at Calicut,
Cochin, Cannanore.

* Francisco De Almeida(1505-09):In 1505, the king of Portugal appointed a

governor in India for a 3 year term . His policy was known as
The Blue water policy (Cartaze system)= Blue Water Policy (Cartaze system): It was
a naval trade licence or pass issued by the Portuguese empire in the Indian Ocean
during the sixteenth century. Its name derives from the Portuguese term 'cartas',
meaning letters..

* Alfonso De Albuquerque(1509-15): He was the 2nd governor & real founder of

Portuguese power in India. He was the 1st european of the Renaissance to raid the
Persian Gulf. He introduced Policy of Imperialism .He was the 1st European after
Alexander to conquer the Indian Territory. He is known to have abolished the practice
of the Sati system in Goa. He captured Goa from the Sultan of Bijapur, Ismail Adil
 Shah with the help of Krishnadev Raya (ruler of the Vijaynagar empire). He also
introduced a permit system for other ships and exercising control over the major
shipbuilding centers in the region.Albuquerque captured Malacca and Ceylon. He
also built a fort at Calicut.

* Nino Da Cunha(1529-38): He was the Portuguese governor who transferred his

capital from Cochin to Goa(1530). He also captured Daman and Diu from Bahadur
Shah of Gujarat. Bahadur shah of Gujarat during his conflict with the Mughal emporer
Humayun,secured help from Portuguese by ceding them in 1534 The Island of
Bassein & also based in Diu

In 1529, Nino was able to sack Daman and Diu (Damao), which were territories of
Bahadur Shah. Later in 1534, he was able to compel Bahadur Shah to sign the Treaty
of Bassein. On the basis of treaty of Bassein, Bahadur shah gave Bassein (modern
Vasai and Nallasopara in Mumbai Suburbs) to the Portuguese. But a year later, the
Mughals (Humayun)captured Gujarat and
Bahadur Shah, in order to purchase the support of the Portuguese, gave them Mumbai
and surrounding areas.Bahadur shah relations with Portuguese were became sour &
Humayun withdrew the Gujarat. After that Portuguese killed Bahadur shah by invited
him to their ship .Thus by 1534, modern Mumbai,
Vasai, Virar, Daman & Diu, Surat and entire Goa had gone in the hands of the
Portuguese. He also increased their influence in Bengal by settling there with
Hooghly as their Headquarters

* Martin Alfonso de Souza(1542-38) : is known since the famous Jesuit Saint

Fransisco Xavier came to India with him.

* They lost Hugli in 1631 after being driven out by Qasim khan , Ordered by a
Mughal Noble of Shahjahan

* In 1661 ,the king of Portugal gave Bombay to

*They established Portuguese settlements at Daman, Salsette and Bombay on the west
coast and at San Thome near Madras and Hugli in Bengal on the east coast.
*In May 1661, as per the marriage alliance between Charles II of England and Catharine
of Braganza, the Portuguese king's former sister. Bombay was given to the English as
dowry.
* The Marathas captured Salsette & Bassein in 1739 from Portuguese
* In 1612 , Loss of surat to English
* In 1663 , the Dutch win all their forts on the Malabar Coast to oust the
Portuguese
*However, the Portuguese power declined in India by the end of the sixteenth century.
They lost all their possessions in India except Goa, Diu and Daman in which retained till
1961.

Decline of the Portuguese:

*By the 18th century, the Portuguese in India experienced a decline in their commercial
influence.
*The Portuguese lost their local advantages as powerful dynasties emerged in Egypt,
Persia, and North India, and the Marathas became their immediate neighbours.
*The Marathas captured Salsette and Bassein from the Portuguese in 1739. *The religious
policies of the Portuguese, including the activities of the Jesuits, caused political
concerns.
*Their conversion efforts to Christianity, coupled with antagonism towards Muslims,
led to resentment among Hindus.

2. THE ENGLISH EAST INDIA COMPANY:

* In 1599, a group of English merchants known as the 'Merchant Adventurers' formed a
company to pursue Eastern trade and share in the high profits enjoyed by the
Portuguese.

*Before EIC established a trade in India,John Mildenhall, a merchant adventurer was

the 1st English man who arrived in India in 1599 by overland route

*Queen’s charter: Queen Elizabeth I issued a charter on December 31, 1600, granting
exclusive trading rights to the newly formed 'Governor and Company of Merchants of
London trading into the East Indies.' *Initially granted a monopoly of fifteen years, it
was later extended indefinitely by a fresh charter .
Foothold in West and South
*Arrival at Jahangir’s court: In 1609, Captain William Hawkins arrived at the court of
Jahangir in an attempt to establish a factory at Surat, but it was unsuccessful due to
Portuguese opposition.
*Beginning of trade: However, the English began trading at Masulipatnam in 1611 and
established a factory there in 1616.
*Battle with Portuguese: In 1612, Captain Sir Thomas Roe Best defeated the
Portuguese in a sea battle of Surat, leading to Jahangir granting permission for an
English factory in Surat in 1613.
*Peace was established with the Portuguese, and an Anglo-Dutch compromise allowed
the English to trade without interference.
*Gift of Bombay: Bombay was gifted to King Charles II in 1662 and later given to the
East India Company in 1668, becoming their headquarters in 1687. *Madras: The
English also obtained trading privileges from the Sultan of Golconda and built a
fortified factory at Madras in 1639, which became the headquarters of English
settlements in South India.
*The Golden Farman was a decree enabling the holder to trade freely throughout the
territory of a kingdom. The Sultan of Golconda issued one such Golden Farman to the
British in 1632, which enabled free trade for the British across the territory of the
kingdom of Golconda.
*1633 : Factories established at Balasore and Hariharpur, Odisha.
*1639 :Ruler of Chandragiri permitted the English to set up a fortified factory at Madras
which later became Fort St. George. English promised to give half of the customs
revenue to local Raja, in return for the right to fortify and mint their own coins
Foothold in Bengal:
*Bengal, a prosperous and significant province of the Mughal Empire, attracted English
merchants due to its trade and commercial opportunities. *Permission to trade: In
1651, Shah Shuja, the subahdar of Bengal, granted the English permission to trade in
Bengal in exchange for an annual payment.
Factory in Bengal were started at Hooghly (1651) & other places like
Kadimbazar, Patna,Rajmahal
*Request for a fortified settlement: Seeking a fortified settlement, William Hedges, the
first agent and governor of the Company in Bengal, appealed to Shaista Khan, the
Mughal governor, but hostilities ensued.
*Settlement at Sutanuti: In 1686, Hooghly was sacked by the Mughals, leading to
English retaliation. After negotiations, Job Charnock signed a treaty with the Mughals
in 1690, allowing the English to establish a factory at Sutanuti *Fort William: The
English obtained permission to buy the zamindari of Sutanuti, Gobindapur, and
Kalikata in 1698, and the fortified settlement was named Fort William in 1700,
becoming the seat of the eastern presidency (Calcutta)with Sir Charles Eyre as it's 1st
president .
Farukhsiyar's Farmans :
*In 1714, an Englishman John Surman was sent to Delhi Court for securing trading
facilities for the company.
*He succeeded in obtaining from Emperor Farukhsiyar a farman in 1717 *The East
India Company secured valuable privileges in 1717 under the royal farman
* It is often referred to as the Magna Carta of the East India Company. The Farman
granted the Company a number of trading privileges, including exemption from
customs duties, the right to mint coins, and the right to build fortifications. It also gave
the Company the authority to collect taxes in certain areas.
What’s the Farman?
*The Company was permitted to carry on trade in Bengal, Bombay and Madras free of
customs duty.
*The Company was also permitted to mint its own coins.
*The Nawabs of Bengal, however, showed scant regard for the imperial farman
Granted the Company the freedom to export and import their goods in
Bengal without paying taxes
*Right to issue passes or dastaks for the movements of such goods.
*The Company servants were also permitted to trade but were not covered by this
farman. They were required to pay the same taxes as Indian merchants.
SO?
*This farman was a perpetual source of conflict between the Company and the Nawabs
of Bengal.
*All the Nawabs of Bengal from Mushid Quli Khan to Alivardi Khan, had objected to
the English interpretation of the farman of 1717.
*They had compelled the Company to pay lumps sums to their treasury, and firmly
suppressed the misuse of dastaks
* The final Amalgamation of the company came in 1708 under the title of ' The United
company of merchants of England trading into East Indies'. This is East India company
continued its existence till 1858.

3. THE DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY:

* Cornelis de Houtman being the first Dutchman to set foot in the country. In
1602, the Dutch East India Company, known as Verenigde Oostindische
Compagnie (VOC), was founded

*Trading company formed with powers by a charter of Dutch parliament In

March 1602,
*This company was granted the authority to conduct wars, negotiate treaties, acquire
territories, and establish fortresses.
*Trading centre: The Dutch established their control over Masulipatnam in 1605 and
they established their settlement at Pulicat in 1610.
* The Dutch set up factories at Masulipattam(1605), pulicat(1610), Surat(1616),
Bimilipatam(1641), Karaikal(1645), Chinsura(1653), Kadimbazar,
Baranagore,Patna, Balasore, Negapatam(all in 1658) & Cochin (1663)
* Pulicat was the main centre in India till 1690 after Negapatam replaced it
* The rivalry between the English & Dutch was intensified & they both came
to compromise in 1667 by which the British agreed to withdraw all their claims on
Indonesia & the Dutch retired from India to concentrate on their more profitable trade
in Indonesia
* They monopolised the trade in Black pepper & spices . The most important
Indian commodities the Dutch traded were silk,cotton,indigo, rice & opium *However,
the Dutch encountered defeats in the Battle of Colachel in 1741 against the Travancore
ruler Marthanda Verma and in the Battle of Bedara in 1759 against Robert Clive’s
British forces.
*English retaliation brought an end to Dutch aspirations in India, culminating in their
defeat at the Battle of Hooghly in November 1759.
*The Battle of Chinsurah, also known as the Battle of Biderra or the Battle of Hoogly,
was a military engagement which took place on 25 November 1759 near Chinsurah
(then a Dutch outpost) during the Seven Years' War. It took place between a force of
British troops mainly of the British East India Company and a force of the Dutch East
India Company which had been invited by the Nawab of Bengal Mir Jafar to help
him expel the British and establish themselves as the leading commercial company
in Bengal. *Unlike the pursuit of imperial ambitions, the Dutch were primarily
focused on trade in India. Their substantial profits came from their primary
commercial interest in the Indonesian Spice Islands.

4. THE DANISH EAST INDIA COMPANY:

*Denmark, known for its people as Danish or Danes, held colonial territories in India for
225 years. Notable among these were the settlements of Tranquebar in Tamil Nadu,
Serampore in Bengal, and the Nicobar Islands, all constituting part of Denmark’s
possessions in India, with Serampore serving as their Indian headquarters.
*The Danish East India Company, also known as the Danish Asiatic Company, was
established in 1616 and 1620; they founded a factory at Tranquebar near Tanjore, on
the eastern coast of India.

ZTheir principal settlement was at Serampore near Calcutta.

*Dutch explorer Marcelis de Boshouwer played a pivotal role in instigating Danish
engagement in the Indian subcontinent.

*Seeking armed assistance against the Portuguese, de Boshouwer proposed a promise

of exclusive control over all business dealings in return. Christian IV, the King of
Denmark-Norway, was persuaded by his rationale, leading to the authorization of the
Danish East India Company with a 12-year trade monopoly between Denmark and
Asia, as documented in a charter signed in 1616.
*In 1799, Danish missionaries established the Serampore Mission Press in Serampore.
Despite their efforts, the Danes couldn’t firmly establish their presence in India,
ultimately selling all their outposts to the British in 1845.
*The Danes are better known for their missionary activities than for commerce.

5. THE FRENCH EAST INDIA COMPANY:

* It was formed by Colbert under state patronage in 1664

*Trading company: In 1664, during the reign of Louis XIV, Minister Colbert established
the Compagnie des Indes Orientales (French East India Company), which received a 50-
year monopoly on French trade in the Indian and Pacific Oceans.
*The French king also granted the company a concession of perpetuity for the Island
of Madagascar as well as any other territories it could conquer.
* Emperor Aurangzeb granted the French a royal mandate on sep 4th, 1666 allowing
them to start business in surat.
*1st french factory was established at surat by Francois Caron in 1668 * Mercara,a
Persian who accompanied Caron found A factory at Masulipattam was set up in 1669
after obtaining a patent from the sultan of Golconda *Pondicherry: It was founded in
1674 and became the nerve centre of French power in India. in the same year Francois
Martin replaced Caron as the french governor
*In 1673, the French obtained permission from shaista Khan, the Mughal subedar if
Bengal, to establish a township at Chandernagore near calcutta *In 1673, Sherkhan
Lodhi ,the governor of Valikondapuram (under Bijapur sultan), granted Francois
Martin, the Director of Masulipatnam Factory a site for settlement.
*Rivalry with the Dutch:
- Dutch is allied with the English since the revolution of 1688, the Dutch captured
Pondicherry in 1693. Although the Treaty Of Ryswick concluded in September 1697
restored Pondicherry to french. Once again Pondicherry is most important settlement
of them
-The French company faced setbacks during wars with the Dutch and the outbreak of
the War of Spanish Succession broke out in Europe, leading to the abandonment of
factories in Surat, Masulipatnam, and Bantam.
* Another set back is Francois Martin was died in Dec 31,1706
*The company was reorganised as the 'Perpetual Company of the Indies in
1720 and strengthened under the governance of Lenoir and
Dumas(Governors) between 1720 & 1742. They occupied Mahe in the Malabar ,Yanam
in coromandal & Karaikal in Tamilnadu (1739) & Qasim Bazar are few imp trading
centres
* The Anglo - French rivalry in India reflected the traditional Rivalry of
England & France Through out their histories, it began with the outbreak of the
Austrian war of Succession & ended with the conclusion of 7 yrs. In India in the for of 3
Carnatic Wars
* In 1740, Nizam Asaf jah of Hyderabad was old & busy in battling Marathas in the
western deccan & his subordinates are planning to his death. South kingdom
coronandal coast has no strong rulers. Instead there was old vijayanagara empire in
interior Mysore ,Cochin & Travancore on the malabar coast & in the East small states
of Madura(Madurai), Tanjore (Thanjavur),
Trichinopoly(Thiruchirapally) were all weak. At this time English were entered * The
arrival of Dupleix as french governor in India in 1742 saw the beginning of Anglo
french conflict (Carnatic Wars) resulting in their final defeat in India

1st CARNATIC WAR (1746-48):

* It was extension of the Anglo-French war in Europe which was caused by the
Austrian war of Succession
*The war between Commodore Crutis Bennet(English )& under Dupleix
(France)
* The English Navy under Bennet Seized some french ships to provoke France . France
retaliated by seizing Madras in 1746 with the help of Mauritius, the Isle of
France,under Admiral La Bourdonnais, the french governor of Mauritius. So war
began
* The 1st Carnatic war ended in 1748 when the Treaty Of Aix-la-Chapelle was signed
bringing the Austrian war of Succession to a conclusion
* So Madras was handed back to English & the french got their territories in
North America *
Significance :
- In Madras , Battle of St. Thome fought between the french forces & The forces of
Anwaruddin ,the nawab of Carnatic (English helped).
- A small french army under captain paradise defeated the strong indian Army
under Mahfuz khan at St. Thome on the bank of River Adyar
2nd CARNATIC WAR (1749-54):
*In 1748 Nizam-ul-Mulk, the Mughal governor of the Deccan and semiindependent
Nawab of Hyderabad died.
*The war is between Dupleix & Robert Clive
*The succession to his position was contested, and the British and French were soon
dragged into the fighting between the candidates.
*Dupleix, the French governor who had successfully led the French forces in the First
Carnatic War, sought to increase his power and French political influence in southern
India by interfering in local dynastic disputes to defeat the English.
*The resulting Second Carnatic War lasted from 1749 until 1754, and saw the British
strengthen their position in southern India.
*The Cause of the War:
- The opportunity was provided by the death of Nizam-ul-Mulk, the founder of the
independent kingdom of Hyderabad, in 1748, and the release of Chanda Sahib, the
son-in-law of Dost Ali, the Nawab of Carnatic, by the Marathas in the same year.
- In Hyderabad, the accession of Nasir Jang, the son of the Nizam, to the throne of
Hyderabad was opposed by Muzaffar Jang, the grandson of the Nawab, who laid claim
to the throne saying that the Mughal Emperor had appointed him as the governor of
Hyderabad.
*Further south there were two candidates for the Nawabship of the Carnatic, a
subsidiary post officially dependent on the Nizam.Anwar-ud-Din had only been
appointed Nawab of the Carnatic in 1743, after Nizam-ul-Mulk had been forced to
intervene to restore order in the province.
*Anwar-ud-Din was one of the Nizam's officers.
*Appointment of Anwar-ud-Din was resented by Chanda Sahib
*Chanda Sahib was the son-in-law of a previous Nawab of the Carnatic, Dost Ali (1732-
39).
*He had been an effective ally to the French, before in 1741 being besieged in
Trichinopoly by the Marathas.
*The French supported the claims of Muzaffar Jang and Chanda Sahib in the Deccan
and Carnatic, respectively, while the English sided with Nasir Jang and Anwar-ud-din.
*Course of the War:
- The combined armies of Muzaffar Jang, Chanda Sahib and the French defeated
and killed Anwar- ud-din at the Battle of Ambur (near Vellore) in 1749.
- The Nawab was killed early in the war and left behind his son Mohammed Ali to
claim the Nawabship.
*Muzaffar Jang was installed as the Nizam of Hyderabad and the subahdar of Deccan,
and Dupleix was appointed governor of all the Mughal territories to the south of the
River Krishna.
*Territories near Pondicherry and also some areas on the Orissa Coast (including
Masulipatnam) were ceded to the French.
*However, Muzaffar Jung was killed a couple of months later and the French installed
Muzaffar’s uncle Salabat Jung as the new Nizam.
*Having failed to provide effective assistance to Muhammad Ali at
Trichinopoly, Robert Clive of the English company (first British administrator of the
Bengal Presidency), put forward the proposal for a diversionary attack on the Governor
Saunders of Madras.
*He suggested a sudden raid on Arcot (the capital of the Carnatic) to divert the
pressure from Trichinopoly in which the British won.
*After several battles fought, Chanda Sahib(Carnatic/Arcot) was executed by
Muhammad Ali who was later installed as the Nawab of Carnatic.
*Result:
- The French authorities, annoyed at the heavy financial losses that Dupleix’s policy
involved, decided to recall him in 1754.
Charles Robert Godeheu succeeded Dupleix as the French Governor-General in India.
* Godeheu adopted a policy of negotiations with the English and signed the
Treaty of Pondicherry/ Treaty by Godehu(new french governor replaced Dupleix)with
them under which the English and the French agreed not to interfere in the quarrels of
native princes.
*Also, each party was left in possession of the territories actually occupied by them at
the time of the treaty.
*Implications:
-It became evident that the countenance of Indian authority was no longer necessary
for European success; rather Indian authority itself was becoming dependent on
European support.
*Muhammad Ali in the Carnatic and Salabat Jang in Hyderabad became clients rather
than patrons.
3rd CARNATIC WAR (1758- 63):
*In Europe, when Austria wanted to recover Silesia in 1756, the Seven Years War (1756-
63) started.
*Britain and France were once again on opposite sides.
*People involved: Count de Lally (French General), British Lieutenant-General
Sir Eyre Coote
*Course of War in India:
- In 1758, the French army under French General, Count Thomas Arthur de Lally
captured the English forts of St. David and Vizianagaram in 1758.
*Now, the English became offensive and inflicted heavy losses on the French fleet
under Admiral D’Ache at Masulipatnam.
*After the Battle of Plassey in 1757, the British forces wrested Chandannagar (in
Bengal) from the French.
*The French, under Count de Lally, captured Fort St. George and attacked the English
to acquire Madras.
*But he was defeated by English forces under Sir Eyre Coote in the Battle of
Wandiwash in 1760.
*Battle of Wandiwash:
- The decisive battle of the Third Carnatic War was won by the English on January 22,
1760 at Wandiwash (or Vandavasi fort) in Tamil Nadu. *General Eyre Coote of the
English totally routed the French army under Count de Lally and took Marquis de
Bussy as prisoner.
*Pondicherry was gallantly defended by Lally for eight months before he surrendered
on January 16, 1761.
With the loss of Pondicherry, Gingee and Mahe, the French power in India was reduced
to its lowest.
*Lally, after being taken as prisoner of war at London, returned to France where he was
imprisoned and executed in 1766.
*Result and Significance:
- The Third Carnatic War proved decisive.
*The third war ended with the Treaty of Peace of Paris (1763) under which Pondicherry
and Chandannagar were returned to France but they could only have trading activities
in them.
*Although the treaty restored to the French their factories in India, the French political
influence disappeared after the war.
*Thereafter, the French, like their Portuguese and Dutch counterparts in India, confined
themselves to their small enclaves and to commerce.
*The English became the supreme European power in the Indian subcontinent.
*Conclusion
- The victory at Wandiwash left the English East India Company with no European rival
in India. Thus they were ready to take over the rule of the entire Country.

DECLINE OF MUGHAL EMPIRE:

Later Mughals:
*The period between c. 1707 CE and 1761 CE (the time of Aurangzeb’s death to the
period when the Third Battle of Panipat took place, wherein Ahmad Shah Abdali
defeated the Maratha chiefs), witnessed the resurgence of regional identities and
highlighted a sad state of affairs for the once-mighty
Mughals. The Mughal court became the scene of factions among the nobles.
The weakness of the empire was exposed when Nadir Shah imprisoned the Mughal
Emperor and looted Delhi in 1739 CE.
* After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707 CE, a war of succession broke out among his 3
sons – Muazzam (the governor of Kabul), Muhammad Kam
Baksh (the governor of Deccan) and Muhammad Azam Shah (the governor of Gujarat).
Muazzam emerged victorious and ascended the throne with the title of Bahadur Shah
Ⅰ.

1. Bahadur Shah Ⅰ/Shah Alam/Muazzam ( 1707 – 1712 CE):

* Muazzam ascended the throne and assumed the title of Bahadur Shah, at the age of
63.
*He followed a liberal policy towards the nobles, granted them the territories of their
preferences and promoted them. This led to the worsening of the state finances. It is
also believed that the real power was in the hands of the wazir, Zulfiqar Khan.
He showed a tolerant attitude towards Hindus chiefs & rajas so there was no
destruction of temples in his reign, though he never abolished jizya.
* He made an attempt to gain control over the Rajput states of Amber & Marwar
(Jodhpur) by replacing Jai Singh with his younger brother Vijai Singh at Amber & by
forcing Ajit Singh of Marwar to submit to Mughal Authority.
And also he made an attempt to garrison the cities of Amber & Jodhpur. After he
restored their states to them but their demand for high Mansabs & the offices of
Subedars of Imp provinces Such as Malwa & Gujarat was not accepted
*During his reign, the independence of Marwar and Mewar was acknowledged.
*However, the settlement could not restore these states to become fully committed
warriors for the Mughal cause.
* His policy towards the Marathas was also half-hearted reconciliation. He did not
recognize Shahu (whom he released) as the rightful Maratha king. He granted
Maratha the sardeshmukhi of the Deccan, but failed to grant the Chauth and thus
could not satisfy them fully. He let Shahu & Tarabai fight for supremacy over
Marathas kingdom.Marathas, thus, continued to fight among themselves as well as
against the Mughals.
*He maintained peace with High mansab was granted to the tenth Sikh Guru, Guru
Gobind Singh. But after Guru death the Sikhs once again raised the banner of revolt in
Punjab as a rebellion under leadership of Banda Bahadur *Even though he was
succeeded in capturing Lohgarh ,a fort built by Guru Gobind Singh North -East of
Ambala at foothills of Himalayas. After the Sikhs recovered the fort
*He conciliated Jat chief Churaman and the Bundella chief Chattrasal, they joined him
in his campaign against the Sikhs. and it was during the course of his campaign against
Banda Bahadur that he died (in 1712 CE).
* The position of state finances worsened as a result of his reckless grants of
Jagirs & promotions
* He was given the title of “Shah-i-Bekhabar” by Mughal historians like Khafi Khan.
* After his death in 1712 , In the civil war Jahandar shah one of his sons won becoz he
supported by Zulfiqar khan.

2. Jahandar Shah (1712 – 1713 CE):

*After the death of Bahadur Shah, a new form of politics emerged in the Mughals’
political sphere wherein the nobles became ‘king makers’ and the kings mere ‘puppets’
in their hands. Jahandar Shah was the first puppet ruler in Mughal India. *He was
supported by Zulfiqar Khan (wazir) who had the reins of the executive in his hands.
*Zulfiqar Khan built friendly relations with the Marathas, the Rajputs and different
Hindu chieftains.He reversed the policies of Aurangzeb . He abolished jizya and gave
the title of “Maharaja” to Ajit Singh (Marwar) and Mirza Raj Sawai to Jai Singh of
Amber. He confirmed that his deputy in the deccan was Daud khan panni &
concluded with Shahu in 1711.He also granted the Chauth and Sardeshmukhi of the
Deccan to Shahu. *However, the old policy of suppression was continued against
Banda Bahadur and the Sikhs.
* Zulfiqar also tried to improve the financial situation of the empire by checking
reckless grants of jagirs and offices. He also made mansabdars maintain the official
quota of troops. *However, he is infamous in history for introducing the evil practice of
Ijarah (revenue farming). It means instead of collecting revenue at a fixed rate under
Todar Mal's land revenue settlement, the govt began to contract with revenue farmers
& Middlemen To pay the govt a fixed amount of money while they were left free to
collect whatever they could from the peasant. This led to increased oppression of the
peasants * Many jealous nobles secretly worked against Zulfiqar khan & ears poisoned
to Jahandar shah.but he cannot dismiss the powerful wazir. He destructed healthy
administration
*Jahandar Shah’s favourite lady, Lal Kanwar (a dancing girl) dominated the court.
* His reign came to an end in Jan 1713.He was defeated at Agra by Farrukh
siyar,his nephew owed his victory to sayyid brothers (Abdullah Khan & Hussain Ali
Khan Baraha).

3. Farrukh Siyar (1713 – 1719 CE):

*Farrukh Siyar defeated his brother Jahandar Shah at Agra in 1713 CE. *He ascended
the throne with the support of the Saiyyad brothers (the kingmakers) – Saiyyad
Abdullah Khan (Wazir) and Hussain Ali Khan (Mir Bakshi). The Saiyyad brothers killed
Zulfiqar Khan and appointed themselves to key positions.
*The Saiyyad brothers tried to make peace with the Marathas, the Jats, the Rajputs and
were also successful in suppressing the Sikh revolt. It was during this time that Banda
Bahadur, the Sikh leader, was executed.
*In 1717 , Farrukh Siyar granted many trading privileges to the East India
Company and also exempted customs duties for its trading through Bengal. *The
Saiyyad brothers completely did away with jizya and also abolished pilgrimage tax at a
number of places.
*Due to the overwhelming powers of the Saiyyad brothers, differences grew between
Farukh Siyar and the Saiyyad brothers. The emperor plotted thrice against the
brothers, but failed to overpower them.
*In 1719 , the Saiyyad brothers forged an alliance with Balaji Vishwanath (Maratha
ruler) and with the help of Maratha troops, the Saiyyad brothers killed Farrukh Siyar.

4. Rafi-us-Darajat (1719):
*The Saiyyad brothers placed Rafi-us-Darajat at the throne. In fact, within a short span
of eight months three young princes were raised to the throne by the Saiyyad
brothers.
*He died within four months due to excessive consumption.
*Grandson of Aurangzeb, Nikusiyar revolted during his reign and occupied the throne
at Agra with the support of Mitrasen (a Nagar Brahmin).

5. Rafi-us-Daula/Shah Jahan II ( 1719):

*Hussain Ali Khan (the Saiyyad brother) marched upon Agra and imprisoned Nikusiyar.
*Rafi-us-Daula was titled as Shah Jahan Ⅱ.
He ruled for a very short period and died of consumption (Tuberculosis).

6. Mirza Nasir-ud-Din Muhammad Shah (Rangeela)/Roshan Akhtar

(1719 – 1748):
* He was the thirteenth Mughal emperor from 1719 to 1748. He was son of Khujista
Akhtar, the 4th son of BahadurShah-I. Brother of Jahandar Shah who was fond of
dancing and was himself an expert Kathak dancer.
*Sayyid brothers adopted the policy of Religious Tolerance. They believed that India
could be ruled by Hindu chiefs & Muslim nobles
*They abolished Jizyah immediately after farrukh siyar accession to the throne
* The pilgrim tax was also abolished
* They reached an agreement with king shahu by granting him the swarajya(of Shivaji)
& right to collect the Chauth & sardeshmukhi of the 6 provinces. So they give
soldiers to Sayyid brothers
*They led to financial crisis central income was declined because of spread of revenue
farming
* Nijam-ul-mulk & his father's cousin , Muhammad Amin Khan began to conspire them
as murderors of emperor. They had not been True to their salt
(Namak baram)
*They led the Anti Hindu & anti Islamic policies
*Sayyid brothers ruled 1713 until 1720
*In 1720, he successfully dislodged the Saiyyad brothers with the help of Nizam-ul-
Mulk, Chin Qilich Khan and his father’s cousin Muhammad Amin Khan. He appointed
Muhammad Amir Khan, who killed Hussain Ali Khan, as wazir under the title of Itmad-
ud-Daula. However, independent states emerged during his reign, the Deccan under
Nizam-ul-Mulk, Awadh under the leadership of Saadat Khan and Murshid Quli Khan
reigned Bihar, Bengal and Orissa.
*Muhammad shah reign is long uptob30byrs (1719-48). He was weak & ease with
luxury life. So Nijam-ul-mulk appointed as his wazir later in oct 1724, he was marched
towards Hyderabad in the Deccan
*The weakness of the Mughal empire was exposed when Nadir Shah invaded India,
imprisoned the Mughal emperor and looted Delhi in 1739.
Invasion of Nadir Shah (1739):
*Nadir Shah was the Emperor of Iran/Persia. He was a national hero there who drove
the Afghans out of Iran.
*He had risen from shephard boyto shah(king) by saving Persia. Due to weak rule of
Safavi dynasty is declined in Persia (18th century)
*In the East the Abdali tribesman revolted & occupied Herat & the Ghalzai tribesmen
detached the province of Qandahar
*In 1729 he won back Herat after defeatin Abdalis & expelling Ghalzais from Isfahan &
central & southern Persia . He deposed Safavi rulers & made himself shah
* He received back all his territories he signed a treaty with Russia he compelled
turkey
* He reconquered the province of Qandahar. He was attracted to India by the
fabulous wealth .due to his war campaigns he led to bankrupt . So he invaded india
Reasons for invasion:
*When Nadir Shah came to power in 1736, Muhammad Shah Rangeela withdrew his
ambassador from the Persian court and snapped all diplomatic ties with that country.
Nadir Shah sent three envoys to the Mughal court and his third envoy was detained by
Rangeela which enraged him.
*When Nadir Shah invaded Afghanistan, some of the Afghan nobles took shelter under
Rangeela.
*Also, Saadat Khan and Nizam-ul-Mulk invited Nadir Shah to invade India.
Course of invasion:
*He captured Jalalabad, Peshawar (1738) and then Lahore in 1739 defeated the Mughal
army at Karnal called Battle of Karnal (1739)
*Upon hearing of the advancing Persian army, Muhammad Shah marched his forces
out of Delhi in order to meet the invading army and prevent their entry into his capital.
*The two forces met at Karnal for battle (about 120 km north of Delhi). The Persian
soldiers wreaked havoc on the Mughal army.
*Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah surrendered and he had to take Nadir Shah to his
capital. The entire treasury was looted and the soldiers indulged in a gruesome
massacre of the general population including women and children at Delhi.
*The sack of Delhi lasted for several days, after which Nadir Shah asked his men to
cease. In May 1739, Nadir Shah and his troops left the city. *Muhammad Shah was
retained as the emperor of the Mughal empire but was compelled to cede to him all
the provinces of the empire falling west of the river Indus.
*Nadir Shah almost emptied the treasury and also took away the famous Kohinoor and
the jewel studded Peacock throne of Shahjahan & he plundered 70 crores of rupees.
*Nadir Shah’s invasion caused an irreparable loss of prestige and exposed the
weaknesses of the empire to the Maratha Sardars and the foreign trading companies
as well.
7. Ahmad Shah Bahadur (1748 – 1757):
* Son of Muhammad Shah Rangeela and Kudsiya Begum/Udham bai (a dancing
girl).
* Ahmad Shah Abdali (ruler of Afghanistan) invaded Delhi many times, and Punjab
along with Multan was ceded to him.
*The Marathas snatched Malwa and Bundelkhand.
*His wazir, Imad-ul-Mulk, blinded him and imprisoned him at Salimgarh.

8. Alamgir Ⅱ (1754 – 1759)

*He was the second son of Jahandar Shah and was raised to the throne by Imad-ul-
Mulk after he deposed Ahmad Shah.
*Had to face repeated invasions of Ahmad Shah Abdali.
*The famous Battle of Plassey ( 23 June c. 1757 CE) was fought during his tenure. The
Battle of Plassey helped the British East India Company to seize control of Bengal.
*He was also murdered by his wazir, Imad-ul-Mulk.

9.Ali Gauhar/Shah Alam Ⅱ (1759 – 1806):

*During his reign, the Mughal power was so depleted that it led to a saying in Persian
“Sultanat-e-Shah Alam, Az Dili ta Palam”, meaning “The kingdom of Shah Alam is from
Delhi to Palam,” Palam being a suburb of Delhi. *Due to his conflict with the wazir, he
fled to Awadh (c. 1761 – 1764 CE). He returned to Delhi when Marathas re-established
their hold and invited him to the capital.
*The third Battle of Panipat (c. 1761 CE) was fought during his reign between the
Marathas and Ahmad Shah Abdali.
*The Battle of Buxar was fought in 1764 between the forces under the command of the
British East India Company, led by Hector Munro and the combined armies of Mir
Qasim (Nawab of Bengal), Shuja-ud-Daula (Nawab of Awadh) and the Mughal Emperor
Shah Alam Ⅱ. The war was brought to an end by the Treaty of Allahabad (c. 1765 CE)
under which Diwani rights (right to collect land revenue) of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa
were granted to the British East India Company.
*He was the first Mughal ruler who became an East India Company pensioner.
10. Akbar Ⅱ (1806 – 1837):
*He was the son of Shah Alam Ⅱ and remained only under British protection as in
1803 , the British had captured Delhi.
*He conferred the title of “Raja” on Ram Mohan Roy.
*He was a great poet and is credited with the introduction of the HinduMuslim unity
festival Phool Walon Ki Sair.

11.Bahadur Shah Ⅱ/Zafar (1837 – 1857):

*He was the last ruler of the Mughal Empire. He was an accomplished poet and his pen
name was Zafar (victory).
*He participated in the revolt of c. 1857 CE. After the revolt was suppressed, he was
deported to Rangoon (Burma) where he died in 1862 .
Decline of Mughal Empire
*Shifting Allegiance of Zamindars
* Jagirdari Crisis
*Rise of Regional states
*The decline and downfall of the empire was due to economic, social, political and
institutional factors:
1. Orthodox rule of Aurangzeb – The religious and Deccan policies of
Aurangzeb contributed to the empire’s decline. The attempt to extend the
Mughal administration over Golconda, Bijapur and Karnataka stretched the
Mughal administration to a breaking point. It also laid Mughal lines of communication
open to Maratha attacks so much so, that the Mughal nobles in the area found it
impossible to collect their dues from the jagirs assigned to them and sometimes made
private pacts with the Marathas. His failure to respect the susceptibilities of his non-
Muslim subjects on many occasions, his enunciation of a policy that led to the
destruction of many temples and reimposition of jizya alienated the Hindus and
strengthened the hands of the section which were opposed to the Mughal Empire for
political or other reasons.
It is said that by the time Aurangzeb came to the throne, the socio-economic forces of
disintegration were already strong. Aurangzeb lacked the foresight and statesmanship
to effect fundamental changes in the socio-political structure, or to pursue policies
that could, for the time being, reconcile the various competing elements. Thus,
Aurangzeb was both a victim of circumstances and also helped to create the
circumstances of which he became a victim.
2.Weak Successors – The successors of Aurangzeb were weak and were not able to
hold the administration effectively. Most of them were puppets in the hands of
powerful nobles. The war of succession that plagued Delhi from c.1707 – 1719 CE
gradually weakened the empire.
Role of nobility – After the death of Aurangzeb, the nobility assumed a lot of powers
and the course of politics and state activities were guided by their individual interests.
The Mughal court consisted of four groups of nobles – the Turanis, the Iranis, the
Afghans and the Indian born Muslims. These groups constantly fought with each other
for more power, jagirs and high offices which eventually led to the weakening of the
empire.
3.Lack of strong finances and foreign invasions – Due to the emergence of many
autonomous states, the revenue resources got depleted and the continuous wars
further emptied the treasury. Also, the foreign invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad
Shah Abdali took a heavy toll on the imperial treasury. 4. Ineffective Mughal army and
neglect of naval power – The Mughal army gradually became inefficient and de-
motivated after losing several battles. The neglect of naval power by the Mughals also
cost them dearly.
5.The advent of the British – The emergence of British and other European colonial
powers and their arrival to India was the last nail in the coffin of any hope of survival of
the Mughal empire. The western colonial powers were militarily and financially superior
and politically informed of the Indian conditions.
* 1761 - 3rd Battle of Panipat - Abdali(win) vs Marathas
* 1764 - Battle of Buxar - (Mir Qasim)Bengal,(Shuja -ud-
Daula)Awadh,Mughal vs British
I. Economic Policies of British(1757-1857)
Revenue Administration & Economic Policies of the British
(1757-1857):
*The EIC control & administer with suitable methods of govt. The administrative policy
of the company underwent frequent changes during 1757 - 1857.
*EIC control acquired over Bengal in 1765. From 1765 -1772, the dual Govt ,Indian
officials has no power &also not allowed but Company officials had power but no
responsibility & mostly corrupted. So In 1772 ,The British ended Dual Govt &
undertook to administer Bengal directly through its own servants
*The EIC's higher authority was situated in England many thousands of Kms away from
India.
*The company's English servants took advantage of their position to make quick
fortunes through illegal & unequal trade & forcible collection of bribes & gifts from
Indian chiefs & Zamindars. The other English merchants were more jealous
*The rich resources of Bengal fallen in to the hands of company then the English
servants & directors were sharing their dividends alone they were enjoying . But the
Britain wanted to share in the profitable indian trade & riches of India, so they wanted
to destroy company's Monopoly trade
*These officials were given title called Nabobs .. 2 main targets are Clive &
Warren Hastings
*So the British parliament makes an 1st imp parliamentary act regarding the
company's affairs was the Regulating act of 1773 . This act made changes in
constitution of the court of directors of British govt. But it failed to resolve the conflict
between the company & England
* Next It passes Regulating act of 1784/Pitts India Act which gave British govt full
powers to control over its administration in India . It established 6 commissioners in
india called Board of control including 2 cabinet ministers, It guides the court of
directors & govt of India. Bombay & Madras presidencies subordinates to Bengal in
all questions in war,diplomacy& revenues.
* While the EIC became an instrument of British National policy
*By the charter Act of 1813, the trade Monopoly of the company in india was ended &
trade with India was thrown open to all British subjects . But trade in tea& with china
were exclusive to company. The govt & the revenues of India continued to be in the
hands of the company
* The charter Act of 1833 brought the company's Monopoly trade in tea and trade with
china to an end .
*The debts of company were taken over by the govt of India . Govt of India was
continued & run by Board of control in india

ECONOMIC POLICIES(1757-1857)
* In the first phase, Commercial Capitalism, the British focused on establishing
their trading dominance and extracting resources from India. They imposed heavy
tariffs on Indian goods and promoted the export of raw materials to Britain while
restricting the import of manufactured goods from India.
* During the second phase, Industrial Capitalism, which began in the 19th
century, the British implemented policies that aimed to transform India into a supplier
of raw materials and a market for British manufactured goods. They discouraged local
industries by imposing high taxes, tariffs, and import duties on Indian goods while
providing subsidies and protection to British industries. This led to the decline and
deindustrialization of many Indian industries, as they struggled to compete with
cheaper British goods.
* The third phase, Finance Capitalism, occurred towards the end of British colonial
rule. The British established financial institutions and systems that further facilitated
their control over the Indian economy. They introduced modern banking and credit
systems, but these were mainly geared towards serving British interests and promoting
British investments in India.
*3 stages of British colonialism:
1. 1st Phase(The mercantile Phase1757-1813):
* The EIC used it's political power to Monopoly trade in Bengal * Imposition of
inflated prices of goods led to buccaneering(looting) capitalism whereby wealth
flowed out of the barrel of the British traders gun
* Revenues of Bengal were used to finance exports to England
2. 2nd phase (Industrial phase1813-58):
*India was exploited as market for British goods
*Act of 1813 allowed one way trade for the British. Asa result the Indian markets
flooded with cheap & machine made imports . Indian traders lost foreign as well as
home market
* Indians were forced to export raw materials & import finished goods * Heavy import
duty on Indian products to England to discourage them in the market
3. 3rd phase (Financial phase(1860 onwards):
*The British consolidated their position in India & made India a market for
manufacturers & a supplier of food stuffs & raw materials
*Introduction of Railways in 1853, post & telegraph in 1853, Banking system
(Avadh commercial bank 1881)
*Heavy British Investment in India & burden of public debt increases
* Industries came in to existence (Tata Iron & steel in 1907)
....................
British Agrarian Policy :
*It is a well-known fact that India is primarily an agricultural country. The
overwhelming majority of its people depend on agriculture for sustenance. If the crop
is good, prosperity prevails otherwise it leads to famine and starvation.
*Till the 18th century, there was a strong relation between agriculture and cottage
industries in India. India was not only ahead in the field of agriculture than most other
countries but it also held a prominent place in the world in the field of handicraft
production. * The British destroyed handicraft industry in the country while
unleashing far-reaching changes in the country’s agrarian structure by introducing
new systems of land tenures and policies of revenue administration.
* India’s national income, foreign trade, industrial expansion and almost every other
dominion of economic activity, depended on the country’s agriculture. *The British
policies revolved around getting maximum income from land without caring much
about Indian interests of the cultivators.
* They abandoned the age -old system of
revenue administration and adopted in their place a ruthless policy of revenue
collection.

LAND REVENUE POLICY /SYSTEM:

*After their advent, the British principally adopted three types of land tenures.
1.Roughly 19 per cent of the total area under the British rule, i.e., Bengal, Bihar,
Banaras, division of the Northern Western Provinces and northern
Karnatak, were brought under the Zamindari System /Istamarari (Sthayi) /Bandobast/
the Permanent Settlement.
2. The revenue system, called the Mahalwari Settlement, was introduced
in about 30 per cent of the total area under British rule i.e., in major parts of the North
Western Provinces, Central Provinces and the Punjab with some variations.
3. The Ryotwari System covered about
51 per cent of the area under British rule comprising part of the Bombay and Madras
Presidencies, Assam and certain other parts of British India.
1.The Permanent Settlement :
* Introduced by Lord Cornwallis, most conspicuous administrative measure was the
Permanent Land Revenue Settlement of Bengal, which was extended to the provinces
of Bihar and Orissa & Benaras & Northern districts of Madras
* John shore planned the permanent settlement
* It is appropriate to recall that Warren Hastings introduced the annual lease system of
auctioning the land to the highest bidder. It created chaos in the revenue
administration.
* Cornwallis at the time of his appointment was instructed by the Directors to find a
satisfactory and permanent solution to the problems of the land revenue system in
 order to protect the interests of both the Company and the cultivators. It obliged the
Governor- General to make a thorough enquiry into the usages, tenures and rents
prevalent in Bengal.
*The whole problem occupied Lord
Cornwallis for over three years and after a prolonged discussion with his colleagues
like Sir John Shore and James Grant he decided to abolish the annual lease system and
introduce a decennial (Ten years) settlement which was subsequently declared to be
continuous.
main features:
(i) The zamindars of Bengal were recognised as the owners of land as long as they
paid the revenue to the East India Company regularly.
(ii) The amount of revenue that the zamindars had to pay to the Company was
firmly fixed and would not be raised
under any circumstances. In other words the Government of the East India Company
got 89% leaving the rest to
the zamindars. Or 1/11th of the revenue collected to themselves while the British got a
fixed share of 10/11th of the revenue collected. The Zamindars were free to fix rents
(iii) The ryots became tenants since they were considered the tillers of the soil. (iv)
This settlement took away the administrative and judicial functions of the zamindars.
*The Permanent Settlement of Cornwallis was bitterly criticised on the point that it was
adopted with ‘undue haste’. The flagrant defect of this arrangement was that no
attempt was made ever either to survey the lands or to assess their value.
* The assessment was made roughly on the basis of accounts of previous
collections and it was done in an irregular manner.
*The effects of this system both on the zamindars and ryots were disastrous. *As the
revenue fixed by the system was too high, many zamindars defaulted on payments.
* Their property was seized and distress sales were conducted leading to their ruin.
*The rich zamindars who led luxurious lives left their villages and migrated into towns.
They entrusted their rent collection to agents who exacted all kinds of illegal taxes
besides the legal ones from the ryots.
*This had resulted in a great deal of misery amongst the peasants and farmers.
*Therefore Lord Cornwallis’ idea of building a system of benevolent landlordism failed.
* Assured their ownership many Zamindars stayed in towns (Absentee
landlordism) & exploited their tenants
*Baden Powell remarks, “The zamindars as a class did nothing for the tenants”.
*Though initially the Company gained financially, in the long run the Company
suffered financial loss because land productivity was high, income from it was meagre
since it was a fixed sum. It should be noted that in pre- British period a share on the
crop was fixed as land tax.
* Nevertheless, this system proved to be a great boon to the zamindars and to the
government of Bengal. It formed a regular income and stabilised the government of
the Company.
*The zamindars prospered at the cost of the welfare of the tenants.
2.Ryotwari Settlement :
* The Ryotwari settlement was introduced mainly in Madras, Berar, Bombay and
Assam.
* Sir Thomas Munro(Governor of Madras) introduced this system in the Madras
Presidency in 1820 & Charles reed recommended. Under this settlement, the peasant
was recognised as the proprietor of land. There was no intermediary like a Zamindar
between the peasant and the government. So long as he paid the revenue in time, the
peasant was not evicted from the land.
* In this direct settlement was made between the Government & The
ryot(cultivator)
* Besides, the land revenue was fixed not exceed 30 years on the basis of the
quality of the soil & The nature of the crop.
*It was based on the scientific rent theory of Ricardo
* Every peasant was held personally responsible for direct payment of land
revenue to the government.
* However, in the end, this system also failed. Under this settlement it was certainly
not possible to collect revenue in a systematic manner. *The revenue officials indulged
in harsh measures for non payment or delayed
payment. While the cultivator was left with mercy of its officers
*Indigo plantation :By the 13th century, Indian indigo was being used by cloth
manufacturers in Italy, France and Britain to dye cloth. only small amounts of Indian
indigo reached the European market and its price was very high. In the 18th century,
Britain began to industrialise, and its cotton production expanded dramatically,
creating an enormous new demand for cloth dyes.
*While the demand for indigo increased, its existing supplies from the West Indies and
America collapsed for a variety of reasons.Britain took it as an opportunity to persuade
or force Indian cultivators to grow Indigo
*There were two main systems of indigo cultivation – nij and ryoti . *Nij: the
planter produced indigo in lands that he directly controlled. He either bought
the land or rented it from other zamindars and produced indigo by directly
employing hired labourers.
*Ryoti system: the planters forced the ryots to sign a contract, an agreement (satta).
Those who signed the contract got cash advances from the planters at low rates of
interest to produce indigo. When the crop was delivered to the planter after the
harvest, a new loan was given to the ryot, and the cycle started all over. The price they
got for the indigo they produced was very low and the cycle of loans never ended.
* The planters usually insisted that indigo be cultivated on the best soils in which
peasants preferred to cultivate rice. After an indigo harvest, the land could not be
sown with rice.
* The Blue Rebellion was started by ryots .there was A Indigo commission finds
indigo don't get any profit so it stopped .
3. Mahalwari Settlement :
*In 1833,Modified version of Zamindari settlement introduced in Gangetic valley ,
NWFP, parts of central India & punjab
*Revenue settlement was to be made by villages /Estates with landlords . In western
Uttarpradesh,a settlement was made with the village communities ,which
maintained a form of common ownership known as
Bhaichare /with Mahals which were groups of villages
* Under this system the basic unit of revenue settlement was the village or the Mahal.
As the village lands belonged jointly to the village community, the responsibility of
paying the revenue rested with the entire Mahal or the village community. So the
entire land of the village was measured at the time of fixing the revenue.
*Though the Mahalwari system eliminated middlemen between the government and
the village community and brought about
improvement in irrigation facility, yet its benefit was largely enjoyed by the
government.
Transport and Communication:
*The means of transport in India at that time were bullock carts, camels and pack
animals. England on the other hand needed railways that connected the raw material
producing areas with the exporting ports and to facilitate the movement of British
goods to different parts of the country as well as bring raw materials to the ports.
*This opened avenue for British bankers and investors to invest surplus wealth and
material in the construction of railways. Railways benefited the British capitalists in two
important ways.
*First, it made trading in commodities much easier and profitable by connecting the
internal markets with the ports. *Secondly, the rail engines, coaches and the capital
input for building of rail lines came from Britain. The British capitalists who invested in
railways were also guaranteed a minimum profit of 5% by the government.
*Although the railways were set up for the advantage of British trade, they also played
an important role in the national awakening of the country. Though the British had
never anticipated, the extensive transport network and improved education brought
people and ideas closer.
British Policy towards Indian Handicrafts :
*The European companies began arriving on the Indian soil from 16th century. During
this period, they were constantly engaged in fierce competition to establish their
supremacy and monopoly over Indian trade.
* Not surprisingly, therefore, initial objective of the English East India Company
was to have flourishing trade with India.
* Later, this objective was enlarged to acquire a monopoly over this trade and
obtain its entire profit.
* Although the trade monopoly thus acquired by the Company in India was ended
by the Charter Act of 1833, yet the British Policy of exploiting the resources of India
continued unabated.
*In this respect, the nature of the British rule was different from the earlier rulers.
*As far as the traditional handicraft industry and the production of objects of art were
concerned, India was already far ahead of other countries in the world.
*The textiles were the most important
among the Indian industries. Its cotton, silk and woolen products were sought after all
over the world.
*Particularly, the muslin of Dacca, carpets of Lahore, shawls of Kashmir, and the
embroidery works of Banaras were very famous.
* Ivory goods, wood works and jewellery were other widely sought after Indian
commodities.
*Apart from Dacca, which was highly famous for its muslins, the other important
centres of textile production were Krishnanagar, Chanderi,Arni and Banaras.
*Dhotis and dupattas of Ahmedabad, Chikan of Lucknow, and silk borders of Nagpur
had earned a worldwide fame.

* For their silk products some small towns of Bengal besides, Malda and
Murshidabad were very famous.
*Similarly, Kashmir, Punjab and western Rajasthan were famous for their woolen
garments.
*Besides textiles, India was also known widely for its shipping, leather and metal
industries.
*Indian fame as an industrial economy
rested on cutting and polishing of marble and other precious stones and carving of
ivory and sandalwood. Moradabad and Banaras were famous for brass, copper, bronze
utensils. Nasik, Poona, Hyderabad and Tanjore were famous for other metal works.
* Kutch, Sind and Punjab were known for manufacturing arms. Kolhapur, Satara,
Gorakhpur, Agra, Chittor and Palaghat had likewise earned a reputation for their glass
industries.
* Making of gold, silver and diamond jewellery was another important industrial
activity in which many places in India specialized. These entire handicrafts industry
indicated a vibrant economy in India.
*Despite enjoying such fame in the world, the Indian handicraft industry had begun to
decline by the beginning of the 18th century.
* There were many reasons for it. First, the policies followed by the English East
India Company proved to be highly detrimental to the Indian handicrafts industry.
*The Indian market was flooded with the
cheap finished goods from Britain. It resulted in a steep decline in the sale of Indian
products both within and outside of the country.
*In 1769, the Company encouraged the cultivation of raw silk in Bengal while
imposing service restrictions on the sale of its finished products. *In 1813 strategies
were devised by the Company to enhance the consumption of finished goods from
Britain. In this respect the tariff and octroi policies were suitably modified to suit the
British commercial interests.
*To cite an example, in 1835 only a minimal
import of British duty of 2.5 per cent was imposed on the import of British
manufactured cotton cloth whereas a very high 15 per cent export duty was charged
on Indian cotton textiles as per the new maritime regulations. *Moreover, goods from
England could only be brought by the English cargo ships. As a result of all these
policies, the Indian textiles could not enter the British market, whereas the Indian
market was flooded with British goods. *Thus, with the rise of British paramountcy in
India, the process of decline in the power and status of Indian rulers had set in.
*Thus, the demands for the domestic luxury goods like royal attires, armory and
objects of art by the Indian royalty also reduced drastically.
*So, with the disappearance of the traditional dynasties, their nobility also passed into
oblivion. This led to a sharp decline in the demand for traditional luxury goods.
*Besides, the Industrial revolution led to the invention of new machinery in
Europe. Power looms replaced handlooms. In India
also the advent of machines led to the decline of handicraft as now the machine-made
products were available at cheaper rate and more goods could be produced in much
lesser time.
*Finally, the new communication and transport facilities brought about a revolution in
public life. Earlier, goods used to be transported either by bullock carts or by ships.
*Thus, during the rainy season, it was not always convenient to carry on with the
normal transportation.
* But now conditions were changed with the introduction of railways and steamer
services. Concrete roads were laid to connect the country’s agricultural hinterland.
*The import of goods from England
also increased with the simultaneous increase in exports of raw materials from India,
leading to massive loss of jobs among Indian artisans and craftsman who lost their
only means to livelihood.

Colonial Impact of Land revenue systems:

1. The land settlements introduced market economy & did away with customary
rights . cash payment of revenue encouraged money lending activity
2. It sharpened social differentiation. The rich had access to the courts to defend
their property
3. Forcible growing of commercial crops led the peasants to buy food grains at
high prices & sell cash crops at low prices
4. The stability of the Indian villages was shaken & the entire set up of the rural
society began to break up.
Learning Outcome:
1. The objectives of the British agrarian policy.
2. The Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari System and the Mahalwari systems of land
revenue.
3. The economic impact of British land revenue administration.
4. The Indian handicrafts industry and its importance.
5. British policy of exploitation.
6. The decline of the Indian handicrafts

II. Social & cultural policies:

*Till 1813, the British followed a policy of non-interference in social, religious and
cultural life of the country.
*After 1813, measures were taken to transform Indian society and its cultural environs
because of the emergence of new interests and ideas in Britain of the nineteenth
century in the wake of significant changes in Europe during the 18th and the 19th
centuries.
*Some of these changes were:
(i) Industrial Revolution which began in the 18th century and resulted in the
growth of industrial capitalism. The rising industrial interests wanted to make India a
big market for their goods and therefore required partial modernisation and
transformation of Indian society.
(ii) Intellectual Revolution which gave rise to new attitudes of mind, manners, and
morals.
(iii) French Revolution which with its message of liberty, equality and fraternity,
unleashed the forces of democracy and nationalism.
*Some of the characteristics of the new wave of thought were:
(i) Rationalism which advocated faith in reason and a scientific attitude. (ii)Humanism :
which advocated love of man—the belief that every man is an end in himself and
should be respected and prized as such. No man has a right to look upon another man
as a mere agent of his happiness. These ideals gave rise to liberalism, socialism and
individualism.
(iii) Doctrine of Progress according to which nothing is static and all societies must
change with time. Man has the capacity to remodel nature and society on just and
rational lines.
Schools of Thought:
*These new currents of thought caused conflicts among administrators and produced
different schools of thought:
Conservatives:
* They advocated introduction of as few changes as possible. Indian civilisation, they
felt, was different from the European one but not necessarily inferior to it. Many of
these thinkers respected Indian philosophy and culture. If at all, Western ideas and
practices were to be introduced gradually and cautiously. Social stability was a must,
they felt.
*Early representatives of this school of thought were Warren Hastings and
Edmund Burke and later ones included Munro, Metcalfe, and Elphinstone. The
Conservatives remained influential throughout and most of the British officials in India
were generally of a conservative persuasion.
Paternalistic Imperialists:
*They became influential especially after 1800. They were sharply critical of Indian
society and culture and used to justify economic and political enslavement of India.
Radicals:
*They went beyond the narrow criticism and imperialistic outlook of the Conservatives
and the Imperialists and applied advanced humanistic and rational thought to the
Indian situation. They thought that India had the capacity to improve and that they
must help the country do that. *They wanted to make India a part of the modern
progressive world of science and humanism and therefore advocated the introduction
of modern western science, philosophy and literature. Some of the British officials who
came to India after 1820 were Radicals. They were strongly supported by Raja
Rammohan Roy and other like-minded reformers.
*But predominantly, the ruling elements in the British Indian administration continued
to be imperialistic and exploitative. They thought that the modernisation of India had
to occur within broad limits imposed by the needs of an easier and more thorough
exploitation of its resources. In this respect, often the Radicals also towed a
conservative line. They desired most of all the safety and perpetuation of the British
rule in India; every other consideration was secondary.
Dilemma before the Government:
* The Government feared that too much modernisation might generate forces hostile
to their interests; thus it was thought to be appropriate to opt for partial
modernisation— introducing it in some respects and blocking it in others, in other
words, a ‘colonial modernisation’.
Role of Christian Missionaries:
*The missionaries regarded Christianity to be a superior religion and wanted to spread
it in India through westernisation which, they believed, would destroy the faith of the
natives in their own religion and culture. Towards this end, the Christian missionaries
I. Supported the Radicals whose scientific approach, they believed, would
undermine the native culture and beliefs.
II. Supported the Imperialists since law and order and the British supremacy were
essential for their propaganda.
III. Sought business and the capitalist support holding out the hope to them that
the Christian converts would be better customers of their goods. *After 1858, however,
the policy of hesitant modernisation was abandoned, since the Indians proved to be
apt pupils and shifted rapidly towards modernisation of their society and assertion of
their culture and demanded a rule in accordance with the modern principles of liberty,
equality and justice. *Now, the British came to side with the socially orthodox and
conservative elements of society. They also encouraged Casteism and communalism.
*The British had come to India with the idea of making immense profits. This meant
buying of raw materials at very cheap rates and selling finished goods at much higher
prices.
*The British wanted the Indians to be educated and modern enough to consume their
goods but not to the extent that it proved detrimental to British interests.
*Some of the Britishers believed that Western ideas were modern and superior, while
Indian ideas were old and inferior. *This was, of course, not true. Indians had a rich
traditional learning that was still relevant.
*By this time in England there was a group of Radicals who had a humanistic ideology
towards Indians. They wanted India to be a part of the modern, progressive world of
science. But the British government was cautious in undertaking rapid modernisation
of India. *They feared a reaction among the people if too much interference took place
with their religious beliefs and social customs. The English wanted perpetuation of
their rule in India and not a reaction among the people.
*Hence, though they talked about introducing reforms, in reality very few measures
were taken and these were also half-hearted.
Education Policy:*The British took a keen interest in introducing the English language
in India. *They had many reasons for doing so. Educating Indians in the English
language was a part of their strategy.
*The Indians would be ready to work as clerks on low wages while for the same work
the British would demand much higher wages.
* This would reduce the expenditure on administration. It was also expected to create a
class of Indians who were loyal to the British and were not able to relate to other
Indians.
*This class of Indians would be taught to appreciate the culture and opinion of the
British.
* In addition, they would also help to increase the market for British goods.
They wanted to use education as a means to strengthen their political authority in the
country.
*They assumed that a few educated Indians would spread English culture to the
masses and that they would be able to rule through this class of educated Indians.
*The British gave jobs to only those Indians who knew English thereby compelling
many Indians to go in for English education.
*Education soon became a monopoly of the rich and the city dwellers.
*The British Parliament issued the Charter Act of 1813 by which a sum of
Rupees One lakh was sanctioned for promoting western sciences in India.
*But a controversy soon arose. Some wanted the money to be spent on advocating
western ideas only.
*There were others who placed more emphasis on traditional Indian learning. *Some
recommended use of vernaculars (regional languages) as the medium of instruction,
others were for English.
*In this confusion people failed to notice the difference between English as a medium
and English as a subject for study. *The British, of course, decided in favour of teaching
western ideas and literature through the medium of English language alone.
*Another step in this direction was the Woods Despatch of 1854. It asked the
Government of India to assume responsibility for the education of the masses.
*As part of the directive given by the Woods Despatch, Departments of
Education were instituted in all provinces and Affiliated Universities were opened
in Calcutta, Madras and Bombay in 1857. *A few English schools and colleges
were opened instead of many elementary schools. They ignored the education
of the masses.
*But in reality, it was not sufficient to cater to the needs of the Indian people.
*Though the British followed a half-hearted education policy in India, English language
and western ideas also had some positive impact on the society.
*Many reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Swami
Dayanand Saraswati, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, and Swami Vivekananda absorbed western
ideas of liberalism and democracy and used it to reform some of the non-humanitarian
social and religious practices of the time.
*Though education did not reach the masses but some ideas of antiimperialism,
nationalism, social and economic equality took root through political parties,
discussions and debates on public platform and the press. *The spread of English
language and western education helped Indians to adopt modern, rational,
democratic, liberal and patriotic outlook. New fields of knowledge in science,
humanities and literature open to them. English became the lingua franca of the
educated people in India.
*It united them and gradually made them politically conscious of their rights. It also
gave opportunity to the Indians to study in England and learn about the working of
democratic institutions there.
*The writings of John Locke, Ruskin, Mill, Rousseau and many others instilled in them
the ideas of liberty, equality, fraternity, human rights and selfgovernment. The French
and the American Revolutions, and the unifications of Italy and Germany further
strengthened their appreciation of these ideas.
* Cavour, Garibaldi and Mazzini became their favorite heroes. They began to aspire for
these ideals for India.
*Western thinkers like Max Mueller and Annie Besant encouraged vernacular
languages and literary works to instill a sense of pride in Indian heritage and culture.
* It enabled Indians to revive India’s cultural past. Also, the important role of press in
arousing political awakening and exchange in ideas is noteworthy.
The newspapers and journals gave opportunities to share ideas and problems.
*Similarly, novel, drama, short story, poetry, song, dance, theatre, art and cinema were
used to spread views and express resistance to colonial rule.
* They spoke the language of the people, showcasing their everyday lives, joys and
sorrows. Along with newspapers and journals, they promoted the feelings of self
confidence, self respect, awareness and patriotism, thereby developing a feeling of
national consciousness.
*The British devised several strategies to make their rule effective. The early
British administrators in India like Warren Hastings, William Jones, Jonathan Duncan
and others glorified India’s ancient past.
*These scholars and administrators were called Orientalists.
* They thought that a better understanding of Indian languages, literature and culture
would make it easier for them to rule India. Important institutions that came to be
identified with their efforts were the Calcutta Madarsas founded by Warren Hastings
(1781),
1. the Asiatic Society of Bengal founded by William Jones (1784), 2.the Sanskrit
College at Banaras founded by Jonathan Duncan (1794) and
3. the Fort William College founded by Wellesley (1800). *These
institutions, especially
the Asiatic Society and the Fort William College became the epicenter of the study
on Indian culture, languages and literature. * For the first time great ancient Sanskrit
writers like Kalidasa became known to the world through translation of their
monumental work into English.

Socio-EconomicCultural Policies: (Part-1)

LORD CORNWALLIS (1786-1793):
* Lord Cornwallis, a warrior-statesman, succeeded Warren Hastings as Governor-
General in 1786.

* He distinguished himself as a remarkable soldier in the American War of

Independence.

Although he surrendered at York Town in 1781 before the American troops, his
reputation was not spoiled. He still enjoyed the confidence of the authorities at
Home. After his return from
America he was offered the Governor- Generalship in India.

* The Parliament was prepared to give him extraordinary legal powers to carry out
radical reforms in the administration of Bengal. It amended Pitt’s India Act in 1786 so
as enable him to overrule the decision of the majority of his council, if necessary.
*Tipu Sultan and the 3rd Mysore War (1790-92)
The Treaty of Mangalore (1784) exhibited the military strength of Mysore, exposed
English weaknesses and increased Tipu’s strength. Like his father he wanted to
eliminate the English from India. His other designs were to wreak vengeance on the
Nizam and on the Marathas as they had betrayed his father during the hour of need.

* The chief causes for the 3rd Mysore War were:

1. Tipu Sultan strengthened his position by undertaking various internal reforms. This
created worries to the British, the Nizam
of Hyderabad and the Marathas.
2. Moreover, Tipu made attempts to seek the help of France and Turkey by sending
envoys to those countries.
3. He also expanded his territories at the cost of his neighbours, particularly the Raja of
Travancore, who was an ally of the British.
4. In 1789, the British concluded a tripartite alliance with the Nizam and the
Marathas against Tipu. War broke out in May 1790 between the English and
Tipu. It was fought in three phases.

- The first phase commenced when Medows, the Governor of Madras,

initially directed the campaign to invade Mysore but Tipu’s rapid
movements halted the progress of the English troops and inflicted
heavy losses on them. In the meantime, Cornwallis himself assumed
command in December 1790.
- This was the beginning of the second phase of the war. Marching from
Vellore, he captured
Bangalore in March 1791, but Tipu’s brilliant strategies prolonged the war and
Cornwallis was forced to retreat to Mangalore due to lack of provisions. - The third
phase of the war began when timely aid from the Marathas with plenty of provisions
helped him to resume his campaign and marched against
Srirangapattinam again. This time
Tipu was at a disadvantage. Swiftly the English forces occupied the hill forts near
Srirangapattinam and seized it in February 1792. *Tipu Sultan concluded the Treaty of
Srirangapattinam with the British. The terms of the treaty were as follows:
(i) Tipu had to give up half his dominions.
(ii) He had to pay a war indemnity of three crore rupees and surrender two of his sons
as hostages to the English.
(iii) Both sides agreed to release the prisoners of war. The Treaty of
Srirangapattinam is a significant event in the history of South India. The British secured
a large territory on the Malabar Coast. In addition they obtained the Baramahal district
and Dindugal. After this war, although the strength of Mysore had been reduced, it
was not extinguished. Tipu had been defeated but not destroyed.

Reforms :
* The internal reforms of Cornwallis can be studied under three main heads.
(i) Administrative reforms
(ii) Revenue reforms or Permanent Settlement
(iii) Judicial and other reforms

i) Administrative Reforms :
* The greatest work of Cornwallis was the purification of the civil service by the
employment of capable and honest public servants.

* He aimed at economy, simplification and purity. *He found that the servants of
the Company were underpaid. But they received very high commissions on revenues.
In addition to that they conducted forbidden and profitable private trade in the names
of relatives and friends. *Cornwallis, who aimed at cleansing the administration,
abolished the vicious system of paying small salaries and allowing enormous
perquisites. He persuaded the Directors of the Company to pay handsome salaries to
the Company servants in order that they might free themselves from commercial and
corrupting activities. * Further, Cornwallis inaugurated the policy of making
appointments mainly on the basis of merit thereby laying the foundation of the Indian
Civil Service.
To cut down on extravagances,
he abolished a number of surplus posts. Another major reform that Cornwallis
introduced was the separation of the three branches of service, namely commercial,
judicial and revenue. The collectors, the king-pins of the administrative system were
deprived of their judicial powers and their work became merely the collection of
revenue.
ii) Judicial Reforms :
* In the work of judicial reorganization, Cornwallis secured the services of Sir William
Jones, who was a judge and a great scholar. Civil and criminal courts were completely
reorganized.
1. At the top of the judicial system, the highest civil and criminal courts of appeal,
namely Sadar Diwani Adalat and Sadar Nizamat Adalat were functioning at Calcutta.
Both of them were presided over by the GovernorGeneral and his Council.
2. There were four provincial courts of appeal at Calcutta, Dacca, Murshidabad and
Patna, each under three European judges assisted by Indian advisers. 3. District and
City courts functioned each under a European judge. Every district was provided with a
court. As already stated, Cornwallis had taken away from the collectors of their judicial
powers and made them solely responsible for the collection of revenue. As a result,
District Judges were appointed.
4. Indian judges or Munsiffs were appointed to all the courts at the bottom of the
judicial system.

* In criminal cases, Muslim law was improved and followed. In civil cases, Hindu and
Muslim laws were followed according to the religion of the litigants. In suits between
Hindus and Muslims, the judge was the deciding authority. Cornwallis was merciful
by temperament. He hated barbarous punishments and abolished those like
mutilation and trial by ordeal.

* Cornwallis was better known as a law giver than as an administrator. With the help of
his colleague, George Barlow, Cornwallis prepared a comprehensive code, covering
the whole field
of administration’, judicial, police, commercial and fiscal. This Code was based upon
the principle of Montesquieu, “the Separation of Powers”, which was popular in the
West in 18th century. In order to curb undue exercise of authority Cornwallis made
all officials answerable to the courts.

iii) Police Reforms :

* The effective implementation of judicial reforms required the reorganisation of police
administration. The District Judge controlled
the police. Each district was divided into thanas or police circles each of which was
about 20 square miles. It was placed under an Indian officer called the daroga who was
ably assisted by many constables. However, the police organization was not effective.
In the words of Marshman, ‘the daroga enjoyed almost unlimited power of extortion
and became the scourge of the country”.

Other Reforms :
* Cornwallis reformed the Board of Trade which managed the commercial investments
of the Company. With the aid of Charles Grant, he eradicated numerous abuses and
corrupt practices. Fair treatment was given to weavers and Indian workers. He
increased the remuneration for honest service. *As an administrator, he consolidated
the Company’s position in India and started the tradition of efficient and pure
administration.
* Although there were defects in his Permanent
Settlement of Land Revenue, his administrative and judicial reforms were solid
achievements. He may be regarded the parent of the Indian Administrative Service and
founder of anefficient and clean system of administration. * Sir John Shore (1793-98)
succeeded Cornwallis as Governor General and his administration was uneventful.

THE MARQUESS OF WELLESLEY (1798-1805)

* The appointment of Richard Colley Wellesley as Governor- General marks an
epoch in the history of British India.

* He was a great imperialist and called himself ‘a Bengal tiger’. Wellesley came to
India with a determination to launch a forward policy in order to make ‘the British
Empire in India’ into ‘the British Empire of India’.
*The system that he adopted to achieve his object is known as the ‘Subsidiary Alliance’.
*Political Condition of India at the time of Wellesley’s Arrival
- In the north-western India, the danger of Zaman Shah’s
aggression posed a serious threat to the British power in
India. In the north and central India, the Marathas
remained a formidable political power. The Nizam of
Hyderabad employed the Frenchmen to train his
army. The political unrest in the Karnatak region continued and Tipu Sultan had
remained the uncompromising enemy of the British.
* Moreover, the policy of neutrality adopted by Sir John Shore, the successor of
Cornwallis, created a kind of political unrest in India and greatly affected the
prestige of the English.
* His non-intervention policy contributed much to the growth of anti-British feelings.
Further,
Napoleon’s move for an Eastern invasion created a fear among English statesmen. It
was in this light that Wellesley moulded his policy. Preservation of British prestige and
removal of French danger from India were Wellesley’s twin aims.
* He was also thoroughly convinced that only a strong British power in India could
reduce and control the existing tyranny and corruption in Indian states. Therefore, he
reversed the nonintervention policy of his predecessor and formulated his master
plan namely the ‘Subsidiary Alliance’.

The Subsidiary System:* The predecessors of Wellesley concluded alliances with

Indian princes like the Nawab of Oudh and the Nizam of Hyderabad. They
received subsidies from the Indian rulers for the maintenance of British troops, which
were used for the protection of respective Indian states.
Wellesley enlarged and consolidated the already existing system.
* However, his originality was revealed in its application. Main Features of
Subsidiary Alliance
1. Any Indian ruler who entered into the subsidiary alliance with the British had to
maintain a contingent of British troops in his
territory. It was commanded by a British officer. The Indian state was called ‘the
protected state’ and the British hereinafter were referred to as ‘the paramount power’.
It was the duty of the British to safeguard that state from external
aggression and to help its ruler maintain internal peace. The protected state should
give some money or give part of its territory to the British to support the subsidiary
force.
2. The protected state should cut off its connection with European powers other
than the English and with the French in particular. The state was also forbidden to have
any political contact even with other Indian powers without the permission of the
British.
3. The ruler of the protected state should keep a British Resident at his court and
disband his own army. He should not employ Europeans in his service without the
sanction of the paramount power.
4. The paramount power should not interfere in the internal affairs of the protected
state.
* Benefits to the British Wellesley’s Subsidiary System is regarded as one of the master-
strokes of British imperialism. It increased the military strength of the
Company in India at the expense of the protected states. The territories of the
Company were free from the ravages of war thereby establishing the stability of the
British power in India. The position of the British was strengthened against its Indian
and non-Indian enemies. Under the system, expansion of British power became easy.
* Thus Wellesley’s diplomacy made the British the paramount power in India.
* Defects of the Subsidiary System:* The immediate effect of the establishment of
subsidiary forces was the introduction of anarchy because of the unemployment of
thousands of soldiers sent away by the Indian princes.
The freebooting activities of disbanded soldiers were felt much in central India where
the menace of Pindaris affected the people.
* Further, the subsidiary system had a demoralizing effect on the princes of the
protected states. Safeguarded against external danger and internal revolt, they
neglected their administrative responsibilities.
They preferred to lead easy-going and pleasure- seeking lives. As a result
misgovernment followed. In course of time,
the anarchy and misrule in several states had resulted in their annexation by the
British. Thus, the subsidiary system proved to be a preparation for annexation.
* Furthermore, the British collected very heavy subsidies from the protected princes
and this had adversely affected their economy.

Enforcement of the Subsidiary System:

* Hyderabad: Hyderabad was the first state which was brought under Wellesley’s
Subsidiary System in 1798. The treaty concluded in 1798 was an ad hoc measure. It
fixed the amount to be paid annually at Rs.24 lakhs for the subsidiary force. In
accordance with the treaty, all the French troops in Hyderabad were disbanded and
replaced by a subsidiary British force. A new treaty was concluded in 1800 by which
the Nizam ceded large territories to the Company and this constitutes the famous
Ceded Districts.
* Oudh: The threat of invasion by Zaman Shah of Afghanistan was the pretext for
Wellesley to force the Nawab of Oudh to enter into a subsidiary treaty. Accordingly,
the Nawab gave the British the rich lands of Rohilkhand, the lower Doab and
Gorakhpur for the maintenance of an increased army which the British stationed in
the capital of Oudh. The strength of Nawab’s own army was reduced. For the
maintenance of law and order the British were authorised to frame rules and
regulations. By this, the British acquired the right to interfere in the internal matters
of Oudh.
* Although the Company obtained a fertile and populous territory, which increased its
resources,
the highhanded action of Wellesley was severely criticized. Tanjore, Surat and the
Karnatak
Wellesley assumed the administration of Tanjore, Surat and the Karnatak by
concluding treaties with the respective rulers of these states. The Maratha state of
Tanjore witnessed a succession dispute. In 1799, Wellesley concluded a treaty with
Serfoji.
* In accordance with this treaty the British took over the administration of the state and
allowed Serfoji to retain the title of Raja with a pension of 4 lakhs of rupees.
* Raja Sarbhoji was a man of culture and attractive manners. He was the disciple of
Schwarts. He built the Saraswathi Mahal
Library in Tanjore which contains valuable books and manuscripts.
* He patronized art and culture.
* The principality of Surat came under British protection as early as 1759. The Nawab of
this historic city died in 1799 and his brother
succeeded him. The change of succession provided Wellesley an opportunity to take
over the administration of Surat. The Nawab was allowed to retain the title and given
a pension of one lakh of rupees. * The people of Karnatak had been suffering for a
long time by the double government. The Nawab, Umadat-ul-Umara was an
incompetent ruler noted for his extravagance and misrule. He died in the middle of
1801 and his son, Ali Hussain became the Nawab.
* Wellesley asked him to retire with a liberal pension leaving the administration to the
English. Since he refused, Wellesley signed a treaty with Azim-ud daulah, the nephew
of the deceased Nawab in 1801. Accordingly the entire military and civil
administration of the Karnatak came under the British.

The Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799):* The circumstances which led to the
Fourth Mysore War can be summarized as follows: Tipu Sultan wanted to avenge his
humiliating defeat and the terms imposed on him by the British. He
also aimed at making Mysore a strong state. Tipu worked continuously to secure help
to fight British imperialism. He took efforts to seek the help of the France, Arabia,
Kabul and Turkey. * He corresponded with the
Revolutionary French Government in July 1798. At Srirangapattinam, a
Jacobian Club was started and the flag of the
French Republic was hoisted. The tree of Liberty was also planted.
* Later, when Napoleon came to power, Tipu received a friendly letter from Napoleon
(who was in Egypt at that time).
* It was at this juncture that Wellesley reached Calcutta with a mind already filled with
fear of Napoleon. Therefore, he prepared for a
war against Mysore. As a part of his strategy, Wellesley tried to revive the Triple
Alliance of 1790 with the Marathas. Though his proposal was not accepted by the
Marathas, they promised to remain neutral. However, a Subsidiary Alliance with the
Nizam was concluded by the British and as a consequence, the French force at
Hyderabad was disbanded. * Wellesley set out to persuade Tipu to accept a pact of
subsidiary alliance and wrote letters requesting the Tipu to dismiss the French, to
receive an English envoy, and to make terms with the Company and its allies. Tipu
paid scant attention to Wellesley’s letters and thus the 4th Anglo-Mysore war
started.
* The war was short and decisive. As planned, the Bombay army under General Stuart
invaded Mysore from the west. The Madras army, which was led by the Governor-
General’s brother, Arthur Wellesley, forced Tipu to retreat to his capital
Srirangapattinam.
* Although severely wounded, he fought till his capital Srirangapattinam was captured
and he himself was shot dead.
Mysore After the War:* With the fall of Tipu Sultan the kingdom of Mysore fell at the
feet of Wellesley. He restored Hindu rule at the central part of the kingdom. A five year
old boy, Krishnaraja III, a descendant of the dethroned Hindu Raja, was enthroned at
Mysore, which became the capital almost after two hundred years. Purnaiya, the
previous
minister, became Diwan. The remaining parts of the kingdom were divided between
the British and the Nizam. The whole of Kanara,
Wynad, Coimbatore, Dharmapuri and Srirangapattinam were retained by the
British whereas the Nizam was given the areas around Gooty and a part of Chittoor
and Chitaldurg districts.
* A British Resident was stationed at Mysore. Tipu’s family was sent to the fort of
Vellore.
Wellesley and the Marathas
* The only power that remained outside the purview of the subsidiary system was the
Marathas. Nana Fadnavis provided the
leadership to the Marathas. He was responsible for the preservation of
independence of his country from the onslaught of the British. * By extending a
helping hand to Cornwallis against Tipu he was able to acquire a large slice of
territory as the share of the Marathas from the kingdom of Mysore. His death in
1800 removed the last great Maratha leader.
* Peshwa Baji Rao II, despite his stately appearance and immense learning, lacked
political wisdom. The infighting among the
Maratha leaders proved to be self-destructive. Jaswant Rao Holkar and Daulat Rao
Scindia were fighting against each other. The Peshwa
supported Scindia against Holkar. Holkar marched against the Peshwa. The combined
forces of Scindia and the Peshwa were utterly
defeated. The city of Poona fell at the feet of the victor who did not hesitate to commit
all sorts of atrocities, including the torturing of rich inhabitants.
With rich booty Holkar returned to his capital.
*Peshwa Baji Rao II was in great danger, so he fled to Bassein where he signed the
Treaty of Bassein with the British in 1802. It was a subsidiary treaty and the Peshwa was
recognized as the head of the Maratha kingdom. * Although it was nominal, the treaty
was considered the crowning triumph of Wellesley’s Subsidiary System.
* In accordance with this document, the foreign policy of the Marathas came
under British control and therefore any action of the Maratha chiefs against the
British was successfully prevented. That is the reason why the Marathas considered the
treaty as a document of surrendering their independence.
*As an immediate response to the Treaty of Bassein, the British troops marched under
the command of Arthur Wellesley towards Poona and restored the Peshwa to his
position. The forces of Holkar vanished from the Maratha capital.

The Second Maratha War (1803-1805):* Daulat Rao Scindia and

Raghoji Bhonsle took the Treaty of Bassein as an insult to the national honour of the
Marathas. Soon the forces of both the chieftains were united and they crossed the river
Narmada. Wellesley seized this opportunity and declared war in August 1803.
* Arthur Wellesley captured Ahmadnagar in August 1803 and defeated the
combined forces of Scindia and Bhonsle at Assaye near Aurangabad.
* Subsequently, Arthur Wellesley carried the war into Bhonsle’s territory and
completely defeated the Maratha forces on the plains of Argaon. As a result, the
Treaty of Deogaon was signed between Bhonsle and Wellesley. The former signed the
subsidiary treaty which forced him to give up the province of Cuttack in Orissa.
*The campaign of British commander Lord Lake against the forces of Scindia was
rather dramatic. * Lake triumphantly entered the historic city of Delhi and took Shah
Alam, the Mughal Emperor
under British protection. Lake was quick in consolidating his conquests. By negotiating
with the Raja of Bharatpur, he occupied Agra. Sadly this military engagement proved
to be a battle of great slaughter in which thousands of
Maratha soldiers perished. Scindia signed a subsidiary treaty with the British. It is
known as the Treaty of Surji –Arjungaon.
* During the war against Bhonsle and Scindia, Holkar remained aloof because he
was Scindia’s enemy. However, when Wellesley offered an alliance, Holkar made
extreme demands. This made Wellesley to declare war against Holkar.
* The campaign against Holkar was well-organised but the English generals for
the first time committed blunders. Holkar remained unsubdued.
Estimate of Wellesley:* An unscrupulous annexationist and an advocate of forward
policy, Wellesley was one of the greatest empire-builders that England had ever
produced. Wellesley converted the British Empire in India to the British Empire of India.
The establishment of British paramountcy in India was his supreme task. He located
the weak spots of the Indian powers and applied his political technique (namely
Subsidiary Alliance). By the
annexation of Karnatak and Tanjore he paved the way for the formation of the Madras
Presidency. He rightly deserves to be called the maker of the erstwhile Madras
Presidency and the creator of the Province of Agra. In this manner a great part of the
Indian subcontinent was brought under Company protection. “He turned the East India
Company from a trading corporation into an imperial power”
 Lord Hastings (1813-1823)

* Lord Hastings became Governor- General in 1813. He adopted a vigorous forward

policy and waged wars extensively.

* His aggressive and imperialist polices paved the way for the general of expansion of
the British Empire. He further expanded the British power in India.
* The conditions in India when he assumed power posed a serious threat to the British
administration. There was anarchy in central India. The Pindaris plundered the whole
region and the Marathas could not control them. Also, there was infighting among
the Maratha chiefs.
* Yet, they were aiming at the expulsion of the British from India. The Peshwa was
secretly plotting against the British.
* Hastings was also troubled by the expansion of the Gurkha power. Therefore,
Hastings determined to restore order by suppressing the Pindaris and to eliminate
threats to the British power by waging wars with the Marathas and the Gurkhas.

War against the Gurkhas (1814-16) :

* Nepal emerged as a powerful Gurkha state in 1768. This country is situated to the
north of India with its boundary touching China in the north and Bengal and Oudh in
the east and south, respectively.
* In 1801, the British acquired the districts of Gorakhpur and Basti from the
Nawab of Oudh. This move brought the boundary of Nepal to touch the
British frontier. The aggressions of the Gurkhas into the British
territories culminated in a war.
* In May 1814, the Gurkhas attacked the British police post and killed 18 policemen
and their officer.
*Hastings declared war on Nepal. In 1814 several battles were fought between the
British and the Gurkhas. Amar Singh Thapa, the able General of Nepal Army was forced
to surrender.
* In March 1816, the Treaty of Sagauli was concluded. The Gurkhas gave up their claim
over the Tarai region and ceded the areas of Kumaon and Garhwal to the British.
* The British now secured the area around Simla and their north-western borders
touched the Himalayas. The Gurkhas had to withdraw from Sikkim and they also
agreed to keep a British Resident at Katmandu. It was also agreed that the kingdom
of Nepal would not employ any other foreigner in its services other than the English.
* The British had also obtained the sites of hill stations like Simla, Mussoori, Nainital,
Ranikhet and developed them as tourist and health resorts. *After this victory in the
Gurkha War Hastings was honoured with English peerage and he became Marquis of
Hastings.

Suppression of the Pindaris :

* The origin of Pindaris is lost in obscurity. * The first reference about them is during
the Mughal invasion of Maharashtra. They did not belong to any particular caste or
creed. They used to serve the army without any payment but instead were allowed to
plunder.
* During the time of Baji Rao I, they were irregular horsemen attached to the
Maratha army. It is worth mentioning here that they never helped the British. They
were mostly active in the areas of Rajputana and the Central Provinces and subsisted
on plunder.
* Their leaders belonged to both the Hindu as well as the Muslim communities. Chief
amongst them were Wasil Muhammad, Chitu and Karim Khan. They had thousands of
followers.
* In 1812, the Pindaris plundered the districts of Mirzapur and Shahabad and in 1815
they raided the Nizam’s dominions.
* In 1816, they plundered the Northern Circars. Lord Hastings determined to suppress
the Pindaris. For this he gathered a large army of 1,13,000 men and 300 guns and
attacked the Pindaris from four sides. * He himself took command of the force from
the north while Sir Thomas Hislop commanded the force from the south.
* By 1818, the Pindaris were completely suppressed and all their bands disintegrated.
*Karim Khan was given a small estate in the Gorakhpur district of the United Provinces.
Wasil Muhammad took refuge in the Scindia’s camp but the latter handed him over to
the British. Wasil committed suicide in captivity and Chitu escaped to the forest, where
a tiger killed him.
* Thus, by 1824, the menace of the Pindaris came to an end.
* Downfall of the Maratha Confederacy
The 3rd major achievement of Lord Hastings was against the Marathas.
* In reality, the Maratha power had weakened considerably after the 3rd
Battle of Panipat (1761) and the two subsequent wars against the British.
* But the Marathas had not finally crushed
out. The Maratha chiefs fought amongst themselves and their successors were
invariably weak and incapable.
* The relationships of powerful Maratha chiefs like the Bhonsle, Gaekwar, Scindia,
Holkar and the Peshwa were ridden with mutual jealousies. * Peshwa Baji Rao II
wanted to become the head of the Maratha Confederacy and at the same time
wanted freedom from the British control. His Chief Minister Tirimbakji encouraged
him.
* On the advice of the Company, the Gaekwar sent his Prime Minister Gangadhar
Shastri to negotiate with the Peshwa.
* On his way back, Gangadhar Shastri, was murdered at Nasik in July 1815, at the
instance of Triambakji.
* This caused a lot of anger not only among the Marathas but also among the
British.
* The latter asked the Peshwa to handover
Triambakji to them. Peshwa handed over his Minister to the British, who lodged him in
Thana jail from where he escaped.
* Consequently, on 13 June 1817, the British Resident Elphinstone forced the Peshwa
to sign the Treaty of Poona. Baji Rao gave up his desire to become the supreme head
of the Marathas.
Third Maratha War (1817-1819) :
* But soon the Peshwa undid this treaty with the British and on 5 November
1817 attacked the British Residency. He was defeated at a place called Kirkee.
* Similarly, the Bhonsle chief, Appa Sahib
also refused to abide by the Treaty of Nagpur, which he had signed with the British on
17 May 1816.
* According to this treaty, Nagpur came under the control of the Company. He fought
with the British in the Battle of Sitabaldi in November 1817, but was defeated.
* The Peshwa now turned to Holkar for help, but Holkar too was defeated by the
British on 21 December 1817 at Baroda. *Therefore, by December 1817 the dream of
a Mighty Maratha Confederacy was finally shattered.
*In 1818, Scindia was also forced to sign a new treaty with the British on the basis of
which Ajmer was given to the Nawab of Bhopal, who also accepted the British
suzerainty.
*The Gaekwar of Baroda, while accepting the Subsidiary Alliance, agreed to hand over
certain areas of Ahmedabad to the British.
*The Rajput states which were under the Pindaris were freed after the latter’s
suppression.
* The year 1818 was a significant year on account of major political achievements for
the British.
* The Maratha dream of establishing themselves as the paramount power in India was
completely destroyed.
* Thus, the last hurdle in the way of British paramountcy was removed.

Causes of the Defeat of the Marathas:

*There were several reasons for the defeat of the Marathas in the AngloMaratha Wars.
The main reasons were:
1. Lack of capable leadership
2. Military weakness of the Marathas.
3.The major drawback of the Maratha power was mutual bitterness and lack of
cooperation amongst themselves.
4. The Marathas hardly left any positive impact on the conquered territories.
5.The Marathas did not have cordial relations with other princes and Nawabs of India.
6. The Marathas failed to estimate correctly the political and diplomatic strength of the
British.

Reforms of Hastings :
* The Governor-Generalship of Lord Hastings witnessed not only territorial expansion
but also the progress of administration.
*He approved the Ryotwari system of land revenue introduced in the Madras
Presidency by Sir Thomas Munroe.
*In the sphere of judiciary, the Cornwallis Code was improved. The Police system of
Bengal was extended to other regions.
*The importance of Indian Munsiffs had increased during his administration.
*The separation of judicial and revenue departments was not rigidly followed.
Instead, the District Collector acted as Magistrate.
*Hastings had also encouraged the foundation of vernacular schools by missionaries
and others.
*In 1817, the Hindu College was established at Calcutta by the public for the teaching
of English and western science. Hastings was the Patron of this college.
*He encouraged the freedom of the Press and abolished the censorship introduced in
1799.
*The Bengali Weekly, Samachar Darpan was started in 1818 by Marshman, a
Serampore missionary.
Estimate of Lord Hastings:
* Lord Hastings was an able soldier and a brilliant administrator. His liberal views on
education and Press are commendable.
* He suppressed the Pindaris, defeated the Marathas and curbed the power of the
Gurkhas. His territorial gains strengthened the British power in India.
* He was considered the maker of the Bombay Presidency.
*In short, he completed and consolidated the work of Wellesley. *Lord Hastings
was succeeded by Lord Amherst (1823-28) who fought the First Anglo-Mysore
War (1824-26).
Learning Outcome :
* After studying this lesson the student is able to explain
1. The chief tasks that Lord Hastings had to fulfil when he came to India.
2. The Gurkhas were defeated in the war and surrendered to the British.
3. The Pindaris remained a nuisance to the peace and tranquillity of central India and
the efforts taken by Hastings to eliminate them.
4. The weaknesses of the Maratha confederacy and the supremacy of the British, who
overpowered them.
5. The Reforms of Lord Hastings.

Lord William Bentinck (1828-35)

* Lord William Bentinck assumed the office of the Governor-General in 1828. Born in
1774 he commenced his career as a soldier and later at the young age of twenty two
he became a Member of Parliament. * He was appointed the Governor of Madras in
1803. He supported Sir Thomas Munroe on revenue administration. The Vellore
Mutiny of 1806 had resulted in Bentinck’s recall. However, his appointment again to
the higher office as Governor-General shows his real greatness.
* As Governor-General, Bentinck had initiated an era of progress and reforms.
* He was undoubtedly the 1st Governor- General of British India who acted on the
dictum that “the welfare of the subject peoples was a main, perhaps the primary, duty
of the British in India”.
Policy Towards Indian States :
* William Bentinck adopted a policy of non-intervention and non-aggression with
Indian states. If at all he interfered in the affairs of the Indian states, it was only to
end any form of misgovernment and never to annex any territory.
Mysore :
* In Mysore, Hindu rule under Krishnaraja III was restored by Wellesley. In the
beginning, the young Raja functioned well along with his able minister Puranaiya.
 *Later, when the young raja assumed full control of the government he proved
incompetent.
*The peasantry of the state suffered from many grievances. There was no redressal.
*Consequently, a revolt of the peasants broke out in 1830 and it was suppressed with
the help of an army from Madras. *Nonetheless, the British authorities took over the
administration of Mysore State and placed it under the control of a commissioner.
The Raja was given a pension. *Sir Mark Cubbon was commissioner from 1834 to
1861 and his administration was beneficial to the people of Mysore.
* Even today, the famous Cubbon Park in
Bangalore city has been named after him to remind his services to Mysore.
Cachar and Jaintia :
*The principality of Cachar lying in the North East Frontier came under the protection
of the British in accordance with the Treaty of Yandaboo concluded at the end of the
first Burmese War.
*The Raja of this small state was assassinated in 1832 but there was no heir to succeed
him.
* Bentinck annexed this state at the wish of the people. Jaintia was one of the
territories brought under the custody of the British after the first Anglo-Burmese
War.
*The ruler of the small country behaved in an unruly way by abducting a few subjects
of British India with the evil intention of sacrificing them to the goddess Kali.
*Therefore, the Governor-General acted promptly to avert any recurrence of such cruel
abhorrent act and annexed this country.
Coorg :
*Vira Raja was a ruthless ruler of Coorg who treated his people with savage barbarity
and killed all his male relatives. *Lord William Bentinck decided to deal with him
effectively and sent Colonel Lindsay to capture Mercara, the capital of the Coorg state.
The Raja was deposed in 1834 and the state was annexed.
Relations with Ranjit Singh :
* Lord William Bentinck was the first Governor-General to visualise a Russian threat to
India. Hence, he was eager to negotiate friendly relations both with the ruler of
Punjab, Maharajah Ranjit Singh and also with the Amirs of Sind. * His earnest desire
was that Afghanistan should be made a buffer state between India and any possible
invader.
*As an initial measure, an exchange of gifts took place between Lahore, the capital of
Punjab and Calcutta, the seat
of Governor-General. It was then followed by the meeting of Bentinck and Ranjit Singh
on 25 October, 1831 at Rupar on the bank of the river Sutlej amidst show and
splendor.
*The Governor-General was successful in winning the friendship of Ranjit
Singh and the Indus
*Navigation Treaty was concluded between them. This treaty opened up the Sutlej for
navigation.
* In addition, a commercial treaty was
negotiated with Ranjit Singh. A similar treaty was also concluded with the Amirs of
Sind.
Charter Act of 1833 :
* The Regulating Act of 1773 made it compulsory to renew the Company’s
Charter after twenty years. Hence, the Charter Act of 1793 was passed by the
Parliament. It extended the life of Company for another 20 years and introduced minor
changes in the existing set up.
*The Charter Act of 1813 provided one lakh of rupees annually for the promotion of
Indian education. It also extended the Company’s charter for another twenty years.
*The Charter Act of 1833 was a significant constitutional instrument defining the scope
and authority of the East India Company.
*The liberal and utilitarian philosophy of Bentham was made popular by the provisions
of this Act. Following were the important provisions:
(i) The English East India Company ceased to be a commercial agency in India. In
other words, it would function hereafter as the political agent for the Crown.
(ii) The Governor-General of Fort William was hereafter called ‘the Governor- General
of India’. Thus, Bentinck was the first Governor-General of India’.
(iii) A Law Member was appointed to the Governor-General’s Council. T. B.
Macaulay was the first Law Member of the Governor- General-in-Council.
(iv) The Act categorically stated ‘that no native of India, nor any natural born subject of
His Majesty, should be disabled from holding any place, office, or employment, by
reason of his religion,
place of birth, descent or colour”. It was this enactment which laid the foundation for
the Indianisation of public services.
* After twenty years, the Charter Act of 1853 was passed and it was the last in the
series of Charter Acts.
Reforms of Lord William Bentinck :
* The advent of Lord William Bentinck ushered in a new era in the annals of India
in many ways. Although his tenure of office covered only a short span of seven years, it
saw a period of enduring reforms. * They may be classified as financial, administrative,
social and educational.
Financial Reforms :
*When Bentinck assumed the Governor-Generalship in 1828, the financial position of
the Company was poor. The exchequer was very weak. The state budget showed a
deficit of one million rupees.
*It became necessary on the part of the Governor-General to take effective steps to
improve the financial condition. To achieve this he adopted the following measures:
- He reduced the salaries and allowances of all officers and additional staff were
removed. In the military department, he abolished the system of double batta. (Batta
was an allowance to troops on
active service.) By these financial reforms at the time of his departure, he left the
treasury with a surplus of Rs.1.5 millions.
Administrative Reforms :
*Bentinck’s administrative reforms speak of his political maturity and wisdom.
*In the judicial department he abolished the provincial courts of appeal established by
Cornwallis. They were largely
responsible for the huge arrears of cases. *This step was readily accepted by the
Directors since it cut down their expenditure.
*Another good measure of Bentinck was the introduction of local languages in
the lower courts and English in the higher courts in the place of Persian. Even in
matters of revenue Bentinck left his mark. *He launched the revenue settlements of
the North West Province under he control of R.M. Bird.
* This settlement was for a period of 30 years and it was made either with the tillers of
the soil, or with the landowners.
Social Reforms :
*The social reforms of William Bentinck made his name immortal in the history of
British India. These include the abolition of Sati, the suppression of Thugs and the
prevention of female infanticide.
Abolition of Sati :
*The practice of sati, the age old custom of burning of widows alive on the funeral pyre
of their husbands was prevalent in India from ancient times. This inhuman social
custom was very common in northern India more particularly in Bengal. * Bentinck was
greatly distressed when he received a report of 800 cases of sati in a single year and
that from Bengal. He determined to abolish this practice which he considered an
offence against natural justice.
*Therefore, he became a crusader against
it and promulgated his Regulation XVII on 4 December 1829 prohibiting the practice of
sati. Those who practiced sati were made liable for punishment by law courts as
accessories to the crime.
* The Regulation was extended to the Madras and Bombay Presidencies in 1830

.
Suppression of Thugs :
*The most commendable measure which Bentinck undertook and which contributed to
the material welfare of the people was the suppression of the ‘thugs’. They were
hereditary robbers.
*They went about in small groups of fifty to hundred posing as commercial gangs
or pilgrims ‘strangling and robbing peaceful travellers’.
*They increased in number in central and northern India during the 18th century when
anarchy reigned after the disintegration of the Mughal Empire.
*A campaign was systematically organised by Colonel Sleeman from 1830 against the
thugs.
* During the course of five years nearly 2000 of them were captured. A greater
number of them were exterminated and the rest were transported to the Andaman
and Nicobar Islands.
* For his role in the suppression of thugs, Sir William Sleeman was known as
“Thugee Sleeman”.
Female Infanticide :
* Female infanticide was one of the horrible and heartless deeds committed even
by civilized people. This practice killing female infants was very much prevalent in
places like Rajputana, Punjab, Malwa and kutch.
*Bentinck took effective steps to prevent the ritual of child sacrifice at Saugar Island in
Bengal.
*He not only prohibited female infanticide but declared them as punishable crime.
Introduction of English Education :
*The introduction of English Education was a significant event of Lord William
Bentinck’s administration.
* He appointed a committee headed by Lord Macaulay to make recommendations
for the promotion of education. * In his report, Macaulay emphasized the
promotion of European literature and science through English medium to the
people of India.
*This recommendation was wholeheartedly accepted by William Bentinck. The
Government Resolution in 1835 made English the official and literary language of
India.
* In the same year, William Bentinck laid foundation of the Calcutta Medical
College.
Estimate of William Bentinck :
*Bentinck was a “straightforward, honest, upright, benevolent, sensible man”. His social
reforms such as abolition of sati and
prevention of child sacrifice eradicated age old evils from Hindu society. It is gratifying
to note that “Bentinck acted where others
had talked”. To enforce the regulations regarding the prohibition of sati, he was
prepared to risk his own position. Such courage and straightforwardness were seldom
found among the administrators of those days. His educational reforms heralded a
new age in India.
* After William Bentinck, Lord Auckland (1836-42) became GovernorGeneralThe
First Afghan War (1836-42) was fought during his administration. Due to
his failure in Afghanistan he was recalled in 1842. Lord Ellenborough succeeded him
and ended the Afghan War. He also annexed the Sindh. His successor, Lord Hardinge
(1844-48) fought the first Anglo-Sikh War (1845-46) and concluded the Treaty of
Lahore.
Learning Outcome :
*After learning this lesson, the student should be able to explain
1. William Bentinck, despite following the policy of nonintervention, compelled to
annex the states like Mysore.
2. He achieved friendship with Raja Ranjit Singh of Punjab and concluded the Treaty of
Amritsar.
3. The importance of the Charter of 1833.
4. Bentinck’s efficient administrative measures through financial and administrative
reforms
5. Bentinck inaugurated an era of social reforms which included the abolition of sati,
suppression of thugs and prevention of female infanticide.
6. His educational reforms remained the basis for the modernization of India.
Lord Dalhousie (1848-1856) :

* Lord Dalhousie was the youngest

Governor-General of India when he assumed charge at the age of 36 in 1848. *His early
career was remarkable. He studied in Christ Church, Oxford. He became Member of
Parliament and
enjoyed the confidence of Sir Robert Peel, the Prime Minister of England. He did much
for the progress of railway construction in England as the president of the Board of
Trade.
* In 1847, he was offered the Governor-Generalship of India which he accepted and
arrived at Calcutta in January 1848.
Policy of Annexation :
*The most important aspect of Dalhousie’s administration is related to “the great
drama of annexation”. His aims for expanding the Company’s territories were
administrative, imperial, commercial and financial.
* Although he used different reasons for annexation, his main objective was to end
misrule in the annexed states, as in the case of the annexation of Oudh. * He aimed at
providing the beneficent administration to the people of the annexed states.
*At the same time he had in his mind
the advantages of annexation to the British such as imperial defence, commercial and
financial benefits.
* Though Dalhousie did not come to
India to follow a policy of annexation, but he was able to consolidate British rule in
India by his policy of annexation.
*His great annexations include the Punjab, Lower Burma, most of the Central Provinces
and Oudh.
Annexation of Punjab:* At the end of the second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849,
Punjab was annexed by Dalhousie. *He organized the administration of Punjab very
efficiently. The province was divided into small districts under the control of District
Officers who were called Deputy Commissioners. These commissioners with the help
of their assistants came into close contact with people.
*Revenue and judicial departments were combined to secure concentration of power
and responsibility. The laws and procedure were simplified in accordance with the
custom of the people. The overall administration of Punjab was entrusted to the Chief
Commissioner.
* In fact, the Governor-General was the virtual ruler of Punjab. The services of Lawrence
brothers in the administration of Punjab were notable. *Within three years perfect
order was restored in the province. It was efficiently defended from internal and
external enemies.
* In 1859, Sir John Lawrence became the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab.
2nd Burmese War and the Annexation of Lower Burma :
* In 1852, commercial disputes in Rangoon prompted new hostilities between the
British and the Burmese. After the end of the second Burmese War (1852), Dalhousie
annexed Lower Burma with its capital at Pegu.
*Major Arthur Phayre was appointed the Commissioner of the new province.
His administration also proved to be efficient. *The annexation of Lower Burma proved
beneficial to Britain.
* Rangoon, Britain’s most valuable acquisition from the war became one of the biggest
ports in Asia.
Doctrine of Lapse:* Dalhousie also took advantage of every opportunity to acquire
territory by peaceful means.
*The East India Company was rapidly
becoming the predominant power in India. *It had concluded alliances with Indian
rulers. It promised to support them and their heirs in return for various concessions.
*Although this type of agreement favoured the British, Dalhousie sought to acquire
even more power.
* According to the Hindu Law, one can adopt a son in case of no male heir to inherit
the property.
*The question arose whether a Hindu ruler, holding his state subordinate to the
paramount power, could adopt a son to succeed his kingdom. It was customary for a
ruler without a natural heir to ask the
British Government whether he could adopt a son to succeed him. *According to
Dalhousie, if such permission was refused by the British, the state would “lapse” and
thereby become part of the British India. * Dalhousie maintained that there was a
difference in principle between the right to inherit private property and the right to
govern. This principle was called the Doctrine of Lapse.
* The Doctrine of Lapse was applied by Dalhousie to Satara and it was annexed in
1848. Jhansi and Nagpur were annexed in 1854.
* As a result of these annexations, a large part of the Central Provinces came under
the British rule. The new province was governed by a Chief Commissioner from 1861.
*Although the Doctrine of Lapse cannot be regarded as illegal, its application by
Dalhousie was disliked by Indian princes. *The advantages of the annexations of
Satara, Jhansi and Nagpur were substantial to the British. * Dalhousie was blamed for
using the Doctrine of Lapse as an instrument in pursuing his policy of annexation.
*After the Mutiny of 1857, the doctrine of lapse was withdrawn.
*Later during the Mutiny of 1857, Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi played an important role
in fighting against the British.
Annexation of Oudh :
*The British relations with the state of Oudh go back to the Treaty of
Allahabad in 1765. Right from Warren Hastings, many
Governor-Generals advised the Nawab of Oudh to improve the administration. But,
misrule continued there and the Nawab was under the assumption that the British
would not annex Oudh because of his loyalty to them.
*In 1851, William Sleeman, Resident at Lucknow, reported on the “spectacle of human
misery and careless misrule”.
* But Sleeman was against the policy of annexing Oudh. After surveying the situation
in Oudh, Dalhousie annexed it in 1856.
* Nawab Wajid Ali was granted a pension of 12 lakhs of rupees per year. The annexed
territory came under the control of a Chief Commissioner.
* Dalhousie’s annexation of Oudh, the last one among his annexations, created great
political danger.
*The annexation offended the Muslim elite. More dangerous was the effect on the
British army’s Indian troops, many of whom came from Oudh, They had occupied a
privileged position before its annexation.
* Under the British Government they were treated as equals with the rest of the
population. This is a loss of prestige for them. In these various ways, the annexation of
Oudh contributed to the Mutiny of 1857.
Domestic Reforms of Dalhousie :
* Dalhousie’s territorial acquisition transformed the map of India.
* He was not only a conqueror but also a great administrator.
*The appointment of a Lieutenant-Governor to Bengal enabled Dalhousie concentrate
on administration. *His greatest achievement was the molding of the new provinces
into a modern centralized state.
*For the newly acquired territories, he introduced the centralized control called
“Non-Regulation System”. *Under this system a Commissioner was appointed
for a newly acquired territory.
*Under military reforms Dalhousie shifted the headquarters of Bengal Artillery from
Calcutta to Meerut.
*Simla was made the permanent headquarters of the army.
Railways :
* The introduction railways in India inaugurated a new economic era. There were three
major reasons for the British to take interest in its quick development.
* The first reason was commercial.
* The second main reason was administrative.
* The third reason was defense.
*At the time of revolt and disturbance, movement of the forces was much easier
through railways.
*Lord Dalhousie’s contribution in the development of
railways is worth commending.
*In 1853, he penned his Railway Minute formulating the future policy of railways in
India.
*He started the “guarantee system” by which the railway companies were
guaranteed a minimum interest of five percent on their investment. * The
government retained the right of buying the railway at the end of the period of
contract.
*The first railway line connecting
Bombay with Thane was opened in 1853. *Railway lines connecting from Calcutta to
the Raniganj coal-fields was opened in 1854 and from Madras to Arakkonam in 1856.
*The first railway in the world was opened in 1825 in England.
Telegraph :
* Similarly, the use of Telegraph brought marvelous changes in
communication system.
*In India, Lord Dalhousie’s contribution in this respect is
commendable. *In 1852, O’Shaughnessy was appointed the
Superintendent of Telegraph Department.
*Main cities of the country viz., Calcutta, Peshawar, Bombay and Madras were
telegraphically connected.
* About 4000 miles long Telegraph lines were laid before the
departure of Dalhousie.
*During the 1857 Revolt, the system of telegraphic communication proved a boon
for the English and the military value of Dalhousie’s creation was much realized at that
time.
Postal Reform :
*The foundation of modern postal system was laid down by Lord Dalhousie. * A new
Post Office Act was passed in 1854.
*Consequently, irrespective of the distance over which the letter was sent, a uniform
rate of half an anna per post card was charged throughout India.
*Postage stamps were introduced for the first time.
Education :
* Dalhousie had also evinced in the development of education.
* The educational Despatch of Sir Charles Wood (1854) was considered the
“Intellectual Charter of India”. It provided an outline for the comprehensive scheme of
education at primary, secondary and collegiate levels.
"Dalhousie fully accepted the views of Charles Wood and took steps to carry out the
new scheme.
" Departments of Public Instructions
were organized. The Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were founded in
1857.
Public Works Department:* Before the period of Dalhousie, the job of the Public
Works Department was done by the Military Board.
*Dalhousie created a separate Public Works Department and allotted more funds for
cutting canals and roads.
*The Upper Ganges Canal was completed in 1854.
*Many bridges were constructed. By modernizing the Public Works Department he laid
the foundations of the engineering service in India.
Estimate of Dalhousie :
*Dalhousie left India in 1856. The outbreak of Mutiny in the following year led to a
severe criticism of his policy of annexation.
* Exhausted by his years of overwork in India, he fell ill and died in 1860.
There is no doubt that Dalhousie was an able administrator and visionary. *He
increased the extent of British India and consolidated it. He inaugurated an era of
progress on many sides.
*He was the father of Railways and Telegraphs. He introduced the process of
modernization of India. Hence, he is hailed as “the maker of modern India”.
Learning Outcome :
1. Dalhousie’s policy of annexation of states like Oudh was aimed at providing
beneficent rule to Indian states.
2. His annexation of Punjab, Lower Burma and most of central India was nothing but
expansion of British imperialism.
3. The Doctrine of Lapse was a tool in the hands of Dalhousie for his policy of
annexation.
4. Dalhousie remained a progressive reformer by introducing modern methods of
communication such as railways and telegraphs.
5. The student can give an impartial estimate of Dalhousie.

INDIA UNDER ENGLISH EIC: WARREN HASTINGS 1772-85

The English East India Company: * It was established on 31 December
1600 as per the Royal Charter issued by the Queen of England, Elizabeth I.
The Company had sent Captain Hawkins to the court of the Mughal Emperor, Jahangir
in 1608 to secure permission to establish a “factory” (store house of goods) at Surat. It
was turned down initially.
*However, in 1613, Jahangir issued the firman permitting the East India Company to
establish its first trading post at Surat. Subsequently, Sir Thomas Roe obtained more
trading rights and privileges for the East India Company.
Accordingly, the English set up business centres at Agra, Ahmedabad and Broach.
Slowly the English EIC succeeded in expanding its area of trade.
*In 1639, Francis Day established the city of Madras and constructed the Fort St.
George. On the west coast, the Company obtained Bombay on lease from their King,
Charles II for a rent of 10 pounds per annum in 1668. By the year
1690, Job
Charnock, the agent of the East India Company purchased three villages namely,
Sutanuti, Govindpur and Kalikatta, which, in course of time, grew into the city of
Calcutta.
*It was fortified by Job Charnock, who named it Fort William after the English King,
William III. The factories and trading centres which the English established all along the
sea-coast of India were grouped under three presidencies namely Bombay, Madras
and Calcutta.
*After the Battle of Plassey in 1757 and the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the Company
became a political power. India was under the EIC ’s rule till 1858 when it came under
the direct administration of the British Crown.
* Robert Clive was the first Governor of Fort William under the Company’s rule. He was
succeeded by Verelst and Cartier. In 1772, the Company appointed Warren Hastings
as the Governor of Fort William.
* Reforms of Warren Hastings:* When Warren Hastings assumed the administration
of Bengal in 1772, he found it in utter chaos. The financial position of the Company
became worse and the difficulties were intensified by famine. Therefore, he realized
the immediate need for introducing reforms.
* Abolition of the Dual System:* The EIC decided to act as Diwan and to undertake
the collection of revenue by its own agents. Hence, the Dual System introduced by
Robert Clive was abolished. * As a measure to improve the finances of the Company,
Warren Hastings reduced the Nawab’s allowance of 32 lakhs of rupees to half that
amount. * He also stopped the annual payment of 26 lakhs given to the Mughal
Emperor.
Revenue Reforms:*After the abolition of the Dual System, the responsibility of
collecting the revenue fell on the shoulders of the Company. For that purpose, a Board
of Revenue was established at Calcutta to supervise the collection of revenue. English
Collectors were appointed in each district. The treasury was removed from
Murshidabad to Calcutta and an Accountant General was appointed. Calcutta thus
became the capital of Bengal in 1772 and shortly after of British India.
* The Board of Revenue farmed out the lands by auction for a period of five years
instead of one year in order to find out their real value. The zamindars were given
priority in the auction. However, certain good measures were taken to safeguard the
interests of the peasants. Arbitrary cesses and unreasonable fines were abolished.
* Besides, restrictions were imposed on the enhancement of rent. Yet, the system was a
failure. Many zamindars defaulted and the arrears of revenue accumulated.
Reorganisation of the Judicial System:* The judicial system at the time of Warren
Hastings’ ascendancy was a store-house of abuses. The Nawab who was hitherto the
chief administrator of justice, misused his powers. Often, his judgments
were careless. The zamindars who acted as judges at lower levels within their own
areas were highly corrupt and prejudiced. * On the whole, the judicial institution
suffered from extreme corruption.
* Warren Hastings felt the necessity of reorganising the judicial system. Each district
was provided with a civil court under the Collector and a criminal court under an
Indian Judge. To hear appeals
from the district courts two appellate courts, one for civil cases and another for
criminal cases, were established at Calcutta. The highest civil court of appeal was called
Sadar Diwani Adalat, which was to be presided over by the
Governor and two judges recruited from among the members of his council.
* Similarly, the highest appellate criminal court was known as Sadar Nizamat
Adalat which was to function under an Indian judge appointed by the Governor-in-
Council.
* Experts in Hindu and Muslim laws were provided to assist the judges. A digest of
Hindu law was prepared in Sanskrit by learned Pandits and it was translated into
Persian. An English translation of it – Code of Hindu Laws – was prepared by Halhed.
Trade Regulations and other Reforms:*Warren Hastings abolished the system of
dastaks, or free passes and regulated the internal trade.
* He reduced the number of custom houses and enforced a uniform tariff of
2.5 percent for Indian and non-Indian goods. Private trade by the
Company’s servants continued but within enforceable limits. Weavers were given
better treatment and facilities were made to improve their condition.
He also introduced a uniform system of pre-paid postage system. * A bank was
started in Calcutta. He improved the police in Calcutta and the dacoits were
severely dealt with.
The Regulating Act of 1773:*The Regulating Act of 1773 opened a new chapter
in the constitutional history of the Company.
* Previously, the Home government in England consisted of the Court of Directors and
the Court of Proprietors. The Court of Directors were elected annually and practically
managed the affairs of the Company.
*In India, each of the 3 presidencies was independent and responsible only to the
Home Government. The government of the presidency was conducted by a Governor
and a Council.
* The following conditions invited the Parliamentary intervention in the Company’s
affairs. The English East India Company became a territorial power when it acquired a
wide dominion in India and
also the Diwani rights. Its early administration was not only corrupt but
notorious.
* When the Company was in financial trouble, its servants were affluent. The disastrous
famine which broke out in Bengal in 1770 affected the agriculturists. * As a result, the
revenue collection was poor. In short, the Company was on the brink of bankruptcy.
* In 1773, the Company approached the British government for an immediate loan. It
was under these circumstances that the Parliament of England resolved to regulate
the affairs of the Company.
*Lord North, the Prime Minister of England, appointed a select committee to inquire
into the affairs of the Company.
*The report submitted by the Committee paved the way for the enactment of the
Regulating Act.
Provisions of the Act:* The Regulating Act reformed the Company’s
Government at Home and in India. The important provisions of the Act were: (i) The
term of office of the members of the Court of Directors was extended from one year to
four years. One-fourth of them
were to retire every year and the retiring Directors were not eligible for reelection.
(ii) The Governor of Bengal was styled the Governor-General of Fort William whose
tenure of office was for a period of five years.
(iii) A council of four members was appointed to assist the Governor-General. The
government was to be conducted in
accordance with the decision of the majority. The Governor- General had a casting
vote in case of a tie.
(iv) The Governor-General in Council was made supreme over the other Presidencies
in matters of war and peace.
(v) Provision was made in the Act for the establishment of a Supreme Court at
Calcutta consisting of a Chief Justice and three junior judges. It was to be independent
of the Governor- General in Council. In 1774, the Supreme Court was established by a
Royal Charter.
(vi) This Act prevented the servants of the Company including the GovernorGeneral,
members of his council and the judges of
the Supreme Court from receiving directly or indirectly any gifts in kind or cash.
Merits and Demerits of the Act:*The significance of the Regulating Act is that it
brought the affairs of the Company under the control of the Parliament. Besides, it
proved that the Parliament of England was concerned about the welfare of Indians.
*The greatest merit of this Act is that it put an end to the arbitrary rule of the Company
and provided a framework for all future enactments relating to the governing of India.
*The main defect of the Act was that the Governor-General was made powerless
because the council which was given supreme power often created deadlocks by over-
ruling his decision. However, many of these defects were rectified by the Pitt’s India
Act of 1784.

Expansionist Policy of Warren Hastings:

* Warren Hastings was known for his expansionist policy.
*His administration witnessed the Rohilla War, the First Anglo-Maratha War and the
Second Anglo-Mysore War.
The Rohilla War (1774):* Rohilkand was a small kingdom situated in between Oudh
and the Marathas. Its ruler was Hafiz Rahmat Khan. He concluded a defensive treaty in
1772 with the Nawab of Oudh fearing an attack by the Marathas. But no such attack
took place.
*But, the Nawab demanded money. When Rahmat Khan evaded, the Nawab with the
help of the British invaded Rohilkand.
* Warren Hastings, who sent the British troops against Rohilkand was severely crticised
for his policy on Rohilla affair.
First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82):* The Marathas were largely remained disunited
since the 3rd Battle of Panipat (1761). The internal conflict among the Marathas was
best utilized by the British in their expansionist policy. * In 1775, there was a dispute
for the post of Peshwa between Madhav Rao and his uncle Ragunatha Rao. The British
authorities in Bombay concluded the Treaty of Surat with Raghunatha Rao in March
1775.
*Raghunatha Rao promised to cede Bassein and Salsette to the British but later when
he was unwilling to fulfill hispromise, the British captured them.
This action of the Bombay Government was not approved by Warren Hastings. *In 1776,
Warren Hastings sent Colonel
Upton to settle the issue. He cancelled the Treaty of Surat and concluded the
Treaty of Purander with Nana Fadnavis, another Maratha leader.
* According to this treaty Madhava Rao II was accepted as the new Peshwa and
the British retained Salsette along with a heavy war indemnity.
*However, the Home authorities rejected the Treaty of Purander. Warren Hastings
also considered the Treaty of Purandar as a ‘scrap of paper’ and sanctioned
operations against the Marathas. * In the meantime, the British force sent by the
Bombay Government was defeated by the Marathas.
* In 1781, Warren Hastings dispatched British troops under the command of
Captain Popham. He defeated the Maratha chief, Mahadaji Scindia, in a number of
small battles and captured Gwalior.
* Later in May 1782, the Treaty of Salbai was signed between Warren Hastings and
Mahadaji Scindia.
*Accordingly, Salsette and Bassein were given to the British. Raghunath Rao was
pensioned off and Madhav Rao II was accepted as the Peshwa.
* The Treaty of Salbai established the British influence in Indian politics. It provided
the British twenty years of peace with the Marathas. The Treaty also enabled the British
to exert pressure on Mysore with the help of the Marathas in recovering their
territories from Haider Ali.
*Thus, the British, on the one hand, saved themselves from the combined
opposition of Indian powers and on the other, succeeded in dividing the Indian
powers.
The 2nd Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84):*The 1st Anglo-Mysore War took place in
1767-69. Haider Ali emerged victorious against the British and at the end of the War a
defensive treaty was concluded between Haider Ali and the British. After 11 years, the
Second Mysore War broke out and the main causes for the 2nd Anglo-Mysore War
were:
1. The British failed to fulfill the terms of the defensive treaty with Haider when he was
attacked by the Marathas in 1771.
2. There was an outbreak of hostilities between the English and the French (an ally of
Haider) during the American War of Independence.
3. The British captured Mahe, a French settlement within Haider’s territories.
4. Haider Ali formed a grand alliance with the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Marathas
against the British in 1779.
* The War began when the British led their forces through Haider’s territory
without his permission to capture Guntur in the
Northern Sarkars. Haider Ali defeated Colonel Baillie and captured Arcot in 1780. * In
the next year, Warren Hastings, by a clever stroke of diplomacy, divided the
Confederacy. He made peace with the Nizam, won the friendship of Bhonsle and came
to an understanding with the Scindia (both Marathas).
* Consequently, Haider was isolated without any alliance. He was defeated by Sir
Eyre Coote at Porto Novo in March 1781. * In December 1782, Haider died of cancer at
the age of 60 and his death was kept secret till his son Tipu Sultan assumed power.
*The 2nd Mysore War came to an end by the Treaty of Mangalore in 1783.
*Accordingly, all conquests were mutually restored and the prisoners on both sides
were liberated.
Pitt’s India Act, 1784:*The Regulating Act proved to be an unsatisfactory document as
it failed in its objective. In January 1784, Pitt the Younger (who became Prime Minister
of England after the General Elections) introduced the India Bill in the British
Parliament.
* Despite bitter debate in both the Houses, the bill was passed after seven months
and it received royal assent in August 1784. This was the famous Pitt’s India Act of
1784.
Main Provisions:(i) A Board of Control consisting of 6 members was created.
They were appointed by the Crown.
(ii) The Court of Directors was retained without any alteration in its composition.
(iii) The Act also introduced significant changes in the Indian administration. It
reduced the number of the members of the Governor-General’s Council from four to
three including the Commander-in-Chief.
* Pitt’s India Act constitutes a significant landmark with regard to the foreign
policy of the Company. A critical review of the Act reveals that it had introduced a kind
of contradiction in the functions of the Company. The Court of Directors controlled its
commercial functions, whereas the Board of Control maintained its political affairs.
*In fact, the Board represented the King, and the Directors symbolised the
Company.
The Impeachment of Warren Hastings:* The Pitt’s India Act of 1784 was a rude shock
and bitter disappointment for Warren Hastings.
*The Prime Minister’s speech censuring the policy of the Government of Bengal
was considered by Warren Hastings as a reflection on his personal character. His
image and reputation were tarnished in England.
*Therefore, he resigned and left India in June 1785.
* In 1787, Warren Hastings was impeached in the Parliament by Edmund Burke
and the Whigs for his administrative excess. Burke brought forward 22 charges against
him.
*The most important of them were related to the Rohilla War, the Case of
Nanda Kumar, the treatment of Raja Chait Singh of Benares and the pressures on the
Begums of Oudh.
*After a long trail which lasted till 1795, Warren Hastings was completely acquitted. He
received pension from the Company and lived till 1818. * Nanda Kumar was an
influential official in Bengal. He was hanged to death by the verdict of the Supreme
Court at Calcutta for a petty offence of forgery.
The English law was applied in this judgement.
*It was contended that Warren Hastings and Sir Elija Impey, the judge of the Supreme
Court conspired against Nanda Kumar.
*Warren Hastings imposed heavy penalty on the Raja Chait Singh of Benares for his
delay in payment of tribute and deposed him in an unjust manner.
*The Begums of Oudh were mother and grand mother of the Nawab of Oudh. Warren
Hastings helped the Nawab by
sending his troops to the help of Nawab who squeeze money from the Begums. This
was a highhanded policy.

RISE & EXPANSION OF BRITISH RULE:(Part 1)

* During 18th century from the Mughal Empire & it's political system rose alarge no. of
Independent & semi- independent powers such as Bengal,Awadh,
Hyderabad,Mysore, Maratha kingdoms. It is these powers which the British had to
overcome in their attempt at supremacy in India
* Some of these, Bengal, Awadh & Hyderabad called Succession states
* Marathas, Afghans, Jats, Punjab states are Non succession states

1. Hyderabad & The Carnatic:

* The state of Hyderabad was founded by Nijam-ul-mulk Asaf jah in 1724. He

overthrow the sayyid brothers. He worked as wazir of the Mughal Empire from 1722
to 1724 . After he was disgusted with Muhammad shah activities so he decided to go
Deccan & he laid foundations of Hyd state. His administration in the Deccan is on the
basis of Jagirdari system along with the
Mughal pattern . But after his death in 1748, hyd fell in to operative forces of Delhi
* The Carnatic is one of the subah of Mughal Deccan & it came under
Hyderabad authority. Deputy governor of Carnatic known as Nawab of
Carnatic named Nawab Sadatullah khan of Carnatic had made his Nephew Dost Ali as
his successor. after it fell in to EIC

2. Bengal:
*It is the richest province of Mughal empire including present day Bangladesh
& it s Nawab had authority over the region Bihar & odisha (present day)
* Exports From Bengal to Europe consisted of Raw products such as Saltpetre, rice ,
Indigo, pepper, Sugar, Silk, cotton textiles & Handicrafts etc.. EIC was interested in
trading in Bengal. 60 % of goods are taken away from Bengal only

* during 1630's British established factories in Balasore, Hooghly, Kasimbazar, patna &
Dacca.

* During 1690's , the foundation of Calcutta By the English company completed . so

they paid to Mughal emperor per anum to trade freely in Bengal .but it is many times
lower than their exports cost

* In 1700, Murshid quli khan became the diwan of Bengal & ruled till his death in
1727. He was appointed as Bengals Subedar (governor) by Mughal emperor Farrukh
siyar. Grant of the Governorship of Orissa also to him by farrukh siyar in 1719. He
transferred capital of Bengal from Dacca to Murshidabad.

*He reorganized the finances of Bengal by transferring large parts of Jagir lands into
Khalisah lands by carrying out a fresh revenue settlement & by introducing the system
of Revenue farming.

*He also granted Agricultural Loans (Taccavi)

*Mahajans (Money lenders)

*They built roads & rivers rescue from Thiefs & robbers by establishing regular
Thanas(police station)& Chowkies(smaller Police station)
*He was succeeded with his son-in-law Shujauddin who ruled till 1739. He was
granted Governorship of Bihar by Mughal emperor Muhammad shah 'Rangeela' in
1733.
*After that , for a year (1739- 40) Sarfaraz Khan (an incapable son of Murshid Quli
Khan) became the ruler .

*He was killed by Alivardi khan (Deputy Governor of Bihar) in a battle . He paid
Mughal emperor Muhammad shah to own his position Subedar of Begal. Alivardi khan
ruled till 1756 & also stopped paying tributes to Mughal emperor. He ruled 15yrs
during which he fought off the Marathas

*Alivardi Khan, the nawab of Bengal did not permit the English and the French to
fortify their factories in Calcutta and Chandranagar.

* In 1756, Alivardi khan died & he succeeded by his grandson Siraj -ud-Daula, the son
of Alivardi 's Younger daughter

* His rivals are his cousin the nawab of purnea (Shaukat Jang) & a hostile aunt
(Ghasitu begum, a child less widow), a rebellious commander of the army, Mir
Jafar , husband of Alivardi Khan's sister

* There was dominant group in his court Comprising Jagatseth, Amichand,Raj

Ballabh, Rai Durlabh & others opposed him

*He defeated them & appointed Mir Madan as commander.

*He seized the English factory at Kasimbazar on 20th June,1756 , Fort William
surrendered but Robert Clive recovered Calcutta

* on Jan 2, 1757, Treaty of Alinagar was signed where by siraj conceded practically all
the demands . British then captured Chandranagore, the french settlement on March
1757

*Battle of Plassey was fought in June 23, 1757 owing aconspiracy ,the Nawab was
defeated
- The English fortified Calcutta without nawbs permission . They tried to mislead him
so, they said about Krishna das (son of Raj Ballabh) who is sin by giving Asylum but
das was misusing & fled with immense treasures against nawabs will. Because they
want to reduce the trade privileges .

-But Siraj attacked & seized the English fort at Calcutta It brought their rivalry(hostility)
was opened. It was a 'Black hole tragedy'

- Robert Clivevs Siraj -ud-Daula

- Clive forged secret alliance with traitors of nawab= Mir Jafar, Rai Durlabh, Jagatseth
& Amichand ,manikchand, Khadim khan

- After won , they made Mirjafar as nawab

* Mir Jafar(1757-60) : The company was granted undisputed right to free in

Bengal, Bihar, Orissa. It received the Zamindar 24 paraganas. he fell in to
Arrears & forced to abdicate in favour of his son-in-law Mir Qasim

* Mir Qasim (1760-64):

- Mir Jafar was irritated by interference of Clive . He entered into a conspiracy of

Dutch but they are defeated in Battle of Bedera(Nov 1759).

- Miran , the son of Jafar died & then Mir Qasim (son-in-law of Jafar) & Miran's
son was fight for nawabship . Vansittart the governor of Calcutta agreed to support
Mir Qasim by signing a treaty in 1760.

-> It is about Mir Qasim agreed to cede to the company districts of Burdwan ,
Midnapur & Chittagong
-> The company would get half of the share in Chunam trade of Sylhet
-> He promised to some of rs pay towards company's war
-> It was agreed that his enemies were company's enemies & his friends were
company's friends
-> it was agreed that tenants of the nawabs territory would not be allowed to settle in
the lands of the company & vice versa
*Under the pressure of company Mir Jafar resigned in favour of Mir Qasim
* Mir Qasim shifted The capital from Murshidabad to Muger in Bihar
* Battle of Buxar (Oct 22, 1764) :
- Ram Narayan (deputy governor of Bihar), he did not submit the accounts to nawab .
Because he was supported by British officials of patna . - The misuse of the company'
Dastak or Trade permit (a permit which exempted the goods specific from payment
of duties ) by company officials - The misuse of Dastak means the loss of tax
Revenue to the nawab. By an imperial farman, The company had obtained right to
trade without paying dues. But they sold Dastak to Indian merchants as private trade
. So that they can buy the goods at cheaper rates
- so the Nawab was against their will . It started war in 1763 . English gained Katwah,
Murshidabad,Giria, Scooty& Muger.
- He fled to Awadh (oudh) & made alliance with Shuja -ud-Daula (Nawab of Oudh) , &
Mughal emperor Shah Alam II & fought Battle of Buxar between 3 alliances vs Hector
Munro
-After the battle they appointed Mir Jafar as Nawab & he agreed to hand over the
districts of Midnapur, Burdwan & Chittagong for maintenance of their army
- they got Duty free trade in bengal except salt duty 2%. .
- After Mir Jafar death , his minor son Najim-ud-daula appointed as nawab - Treaty of
Allahabad : Robert Clive made 2 imp treaties in August 1765 one with Nawab of
Awadh Shuja -ud-Daula (Surrender Allahabad & Kara to Emperor Shah Alam II) &
other with Shah Alam II ( Reside at Allahabad to be ceded to him by the Nawab of
Awadh under company protection)
* Dual Govt of Bengal (1765-72) : After the Battle of Buxar, The EIC became real
masters of bengal .
- Robert Clive introduced the Dual system of Government i.e. rule of the two - The
Company & The Nawab - in bengal in which both the Diwani i.e. police & judicial
functions came under the control of the company.
- The company exercised Diwani Rights as the Diwan & the Nizamat Rights through its
right to Nominate the deputy Subedar
- The company acquired the diwani functions from the emperor & Nizamat functions
from the Subedar of Bengal
- The Nawab was responsible for maintaining peace & order but he depended on
company becoz they controlled both army & revenues.
- The exercise of diwani functions the company appointed 2 deputy diwans
- it was a breakdown for people of Bengal
- Warren Hastings ended the dual system of Govt in 1772

3. The Wodeyar/Mysore Dynasty:

* After the Battle of Talikota(1565)gave adeadly blow to the great kingdom of
Vijayanagara, so many small kingdoms are formed.

* In 1612 a Hindu Kingdom under the Wodeyars emerged in the region of Mysore.

*Chikka Krishnaraja Wodeyar II ruled from 1734 - 1766

*In the early 18th cen6 2 brothers Nanjaraj (The Sarvadhikari) & Devaraj (The
Dulwai) had reduced Chikka Krishnaraja Wodeyar II to a mere puppet

1. Haider Ali :

*born in 1721 in an obscure family , started his career as a horseman/Soldier in the

service of the Mysore state under the ministers, Nanjaraj & Devaraj.
* Mysore became financially & politically weak so they need a leader with high
degree of military powers & diplomatic skill. Haidar Ali fulfilled that need & Usurped
the royal authority by becoming the defacto ruler of Mysore in 1761.q

*later he became the faujdar of Dindigul with the help of french he set up an arms
factory at Dindigul (Tamilnadu) & also introduced western methods of training for his
army.

* In 1761 , he overthrow the Nanjarajar(The powerful prime minister of Wodeyar king

Krishnaraja I) & Usurped power though he continued to recognise Krishnaraja I as the
lawful ruler.

*He extended full control over the rebellious Poligars(warrior chieftens &
Zamindars) & conquered territories of Bidnur, Sunda ,Sera, Canara, Malabar

* With his excellent military skills, he took over the Nizami army and the Marathas
andcaptured Dod Ballapur, Sera, Bednur and Hoskote in 1761- 63 and brought to
submission the troublesome Poligars of South India (Tamil Nadu).

*Poligars or Palaiyakkarars were appointed as military chiefs and administrative

governors from the time of the Vijayanagara Empire in parts of Southern India. They
also collected taxes from the cultivators.
*Recovering from their defeat, the Marathas under Madhavrao attacked Mysore, and
defeated Haidar Ali in 1764, 1766, and 1771.
* To buy peace, Haidar Ali had to give them large sums of money, but after
Madhavrao’s death in 1772, Haidar Ali raided the Marathas a number of times during
1774-76, and recovered all the territories he had previously lost, besides capturing
new area
* A major reason for his occupation of Malabar was the Desire for access to the Indian
Ocean.

* 1st Anglo -Mysore war(1767-69):

- They concluded a treaty with the Nizam of Hyderabad (1766) persuading him to
give them the Northern Circars(region) in lieu of which they said they would protect
the Nizam from Haidar Ali. Haidar already had territorial disputes with the Nawab of
Arcot & differences with the Marathas -Causes of the War:

Hyder Ali built a strong army and annexed many regions in the South including Bidnur,
Canara, Sera, Malabar and Sunda
He also took French support in training his army. This alarmed the British - Course
of the War:
The British, along with the Marathas and the Nizam of Hyderabad declared war on
Mysore
Hyder Ali was able to bring the Marathas and the Nizam to his side with skilful
diplomacy
He paid the Marathas to turn them neutral
War continued for a year-and-a-half without any conclusion
Haidar changed his strategy and suddenly appeared before the gates of
Madras
- Result of the War:
Following complete chaos and panic at Madras, English was forced to conclude a very
humiliating treaty with Haidar on
April 4, 1769—Treaty of Madras which brought an end to the war
The conquered territories were restored to each other. The treaty provided for the
exchange of prisoners and the conquered areas.
It was also agreed that they would help each other in case of a foreign attack *The
Battle of Chengam, also known as the Battle of Changama, was part of the First Anglo-
Mysore War.

* 2nd Anglo-Mysore war (1780-84):

- The British failed to adhere to the treaty of Madras when Mysore was attacked by the
Maratha army in 1771.

-Haider Ali accused them for breach of faith.

- Moreover, Haider Ali found the French more resourceful in terms of fulfilling the
army requirements of guns, saltpetre and lead.
-Consequently, he started importing French war materials to Mysore through Mahe, a
French possession on the Malabar Coast.
- The increasing friendship between the two raised concern for the British.
- Consequently the British tried to capture Mahe which was under Haider Ali’s
protection.
*Course of War:
-Haidar Ali forged an alliance with the Marathas and the Nizam against the British.
-He attacked the Carnatic and captured Arcot and defeated the English army under
Colonel Baillie in 1781.
-In the meantime, the English (under Sir Eyre Coote) detached both the Marathas and
the Nizam from Haidar’s side, but the undeterred Haidar faced the English boldly only
to suffer a defeat at Porto Novo (present day Parangipettai, Tamil Nadu) in November
1781.
-However, he regrouped his forces and defeated the English and captured their
commander, Braithwaite.
-Haidar Ali died of cancer on December 7, 1782.
-His son Tipu Sultan carried on the war for one year without any positive outcome.
Fed up with an inconclusive war, both sides opted for peace, negotiating the Treaty of
Mangalore (March, 1784) under which both the parties gave back the territories they
had taken from each other.

2. Tippu sultan :

*Born in November 1750, Tipu Sultan was Haidar Ali’s son and a great warrior also
known as the Tiger of Mysore.

*He was a well educated man fluent in Arabic, Persian, Kanarese and Urdu. *Tipu, like
his father Haider Ali, gave maximum care to the raising and maintenance of an efficient
military force.
* He organised his army on the European model with Persian words of command.
* Though he took the help of the French officers to train his soldiers, he never allowed
them (French) to develop into a pressure group.
*Tipu was well aware of the importance of a naval force.
*In 1796, he set up a Board of Admiralty and planned for a fleet of 22 battleships and
20 large frigates.
* He established three dockyards at Mangalore, Wajedabad and Molidabad.
However, his plans did not fructify.
*He was also a patron of science and technology and is credited as the ‘pioneer of
rocket technology’ in India.
* He wrote a military manual explaining the operation of rockets.
* He was also a pioneer in introducing sericulture to the Mysore State. *Tipu was a
great lover of democracy and a great diplomat who gave his support to the French
soldiers at Seringapatam in setting up a Jacobin Club in 1797.
*Tipu himself became a member of the Jacobin Club and allowed himself to be called
Citizen Tipu.
* He planted the Tree of Liberty at Seringapatam.

* introduced a new calendar in 1784, he reformed the new coinage system & invented
special names for the coins

* he also introduced new scales of weights & measures

* He showed a keen interest towards french revolution

* He tried to do away with custom of giving Jagirs & thus increase state income

* He also made an attempt to reduce the hereditary possessions of the

Poligars & to eliminate the intermediaries between the state & cultivator

* He kept himself free from luxury & he was brave & as a commander brilliant

* He was fond of saying that it was " Better to live a day as a lion than a lifetime of a
sheep"

* He encouraged peasantry & labour . Mysore was well cultivated populous

inhabitants, cities newly founded & commerce trading.

* He gave importance of modern trade & industry

* He gave money for the construction of the image of the goddess sarda in the
Shringeri Temple after the latter was looted by Maratha horseman in
1791. He regularly gave gifts to this temple as well as to several other temples

* The Famous Temple of Sri ranganath was situated barely 100 yards from his palace .

* 3rd Anglo-Mysore War( 1790-92) :

* The Treaty of Mangalore was not enough to resolve the conflicts between Tipu Sultan
and the British.

* Both were aiming to establish their own political supremacy over the Deccan. *The
Third Anglo-Mysore War began when Tipu attacked Travancore, an ally of the English
and the only source of pepper for the East India Company.
*Travancore had purchased Jalkottal and Cannanore from the Dutch in the
Cochin state which was a feudatory of Tipu, he considered the act of Travancore as a
violation of his sovereign rights.
*Course of War:
- The British sided with Travancore and attacked Mysore.
- The Nizam and the Marathas who were jealous of Tipu’s growing power joined the
British.
- In 1790, Tipu Sultan defeated the British army under General Meadows. -In 1791,
Lord Cornwallis took the leadership and at the head of a large army marched through
Ambur and Vellore to Bangalore (captured in March 1791) and from there to
Seringapatam.
- Coimbatore fell to them, but they lost it again, and at last with the support of the
Marathas and the Nizam, the British attacked Seringapatam for the second time.
-Tipu offered serious opposition, but the odds were against him.
*The war was concluded with the Treaty of Seringapatam, 1792.
*Under this treaty, nearly half of the Mysorean territory was taken over by the alliance
of the British, Nizam and the Marathas.
*Baramahal, Dindigul and Malabar went to the British, while the Marathas got the
regions surrounding the Tungabhadra and its tributaries and the Nizam acquired the
areas from Krishna to beyond the Pennar.
* Besides, a war damage of three crore rupees was also taken from Tipu.
Half of the war indemnity was to be paid immediately while the rest was to be given in
installments, for which Tipu’s two sons were taken as hostages by the English.
*The Third Anglo-Mysore War destroyed Tipu’s dominant position in the south and
firmly established British supremacy there.

* 4th Anglo-Mysore war( 1799) :

*The period of 1792-99 was used by both the British and Tipu Sultan to recoup their
losses.

* Tipu fulfilled all the terms of the Treaty of Seringapatam and got his sons released.
* In 1796, when the Hindu ruler of the Wodeyar dynasty died, Tipu declared himself as
the Sultan and decided to avenge his humiliating defeat in the previous war.
*In 1798, Lord Wellesley, an imperialist to the core, succeeded Sir John Shore as the
new Governor General.
*Tipu’s growing friendship with the French raised concerns for Wellesley. *Aimed at
annihilating Tipu’s independent existence, he forced him into submission through the
system of Subsidiary Alliance.
*Tipu was accused of plotting against the British by sending emissaries to Arabia,
Afghanistan and to the Isle of France (Mauritius) and Versailles, with treasonable
intent. Tipu’s explanation did not satisfy Wellesley thus the fourth Anglo-Mysore war
began.
*Course of War:
- The war began on April 17, 1799 and ended on May 4, 1799 with the fall of
Seringapatam. Tipu was defeated first by British General Stuart and then by General
Harris.
- Arthur Wellesley, the brother of Lord Wellesley, also participated in the war. - The
Marathas and the Nizam again helped the British as the Marathas had been promised
half of the territory of Tipu and the Nizam had already signed the Subsidiary Alliance.
- Tipu Sultan died in the war and all his treasures were confiscated by the British.
- The British chose a boy from the earlier Hindu royal family of Mysore as the maharaja
and also imposed the subsidiary alliance system on him.
- It had taken the English 32 years to subjugate Mysore. The threat of French revival in
the Deccan was permanently eliminated.
* Post War Scenario:
- Lord Wellesley offered Soonda and Harponelly districts of Mysore Kingdom to the
Marathas, which the latter refused.
- The Nizam was given the districts of Gooty and Gurramkonda.
- The British took possession of Kanara, Wayanad, Coimbatore, Dwaraporam and
Seringapatam.
- The new state of Mysore was handed over to the old Hindu dynasty (Wodeyars)
under a minor ruler Krishnaraja III, who accepted the subsidiary alliance.
Subsidiary Alliance:
* In 1798, Lord Wellesley introduced the Subsidiary Alliance system in India, under
which the ruler of the allying Indian state was compelled to pay a subsidy for the
maintenance of British army in return for getting protection from the British against
their enemies.
* It provided for the posting of a British Resident at the ruler’s court restricting the
ruler from employing any European in his service without the approval of the British.
* Sometimes the ruler ceded part of his territory instead of paying annual subsidy.
* The first Indian ruler to sign the Subsidiary Alliance was the Nizam of
Hydera­bad.
* Those native princes or rulers who would enter into Subsidiary Alliance were not
free to declare war against any other power or enter into negotiations without the
con­sent of the British.
* The princes who were comparatively strong and powerful were permitted to
retain their armies, but their armies were placed under British generals. * The
Subsidiary Alliance was a policy of non-interference in the internal affairs of the allied
state, but this was a promise seldom kept by the British. * The payment of the
arbitrarily-fixed and artificially-bloated subsidy invariably disrupted the economy of
the state and impoverished its people. * On the other hand, the British could now
maintain a large army at the cost of the Indian states.
* They controlled the defence and foreign relations of the protected ally, and had
a powerful force stationed at the very heart of his lands.

British Annexations:
1. Nawab of Bengal - 1713 - Murshid Quli Khan (founder) - Treaty of
Allahabad in1765

2. Maratha confederacy - 1720 - Baji Rao I - Subsidiary Alliance in 1801

3. Nawab of Carnatic/Arcot - 1720 - Sadatullah khan - Subsidiary Alliance in 1801

4. Nawab of Awadh - 1722 - Mir Mahmmad Amin Saadat khan Burhan -ul- Mulk -
Subsidiary Alliance in 1801 ,1856(Dalhousie- Doctrine of Lapse)

5. Nizam of Hyderabad - 1724 - Mir Qamaruddin Chin kilich khan 'Nizam -ul-
Mulk ' - Subsidiary Alliance in 1798
6. Mysore - 1761 - Haidar Ali -Subsidiary Alliance in1799

7. Punjab - 1792 - Ranjit Singh - 1848 (Dalhousie - Doctrine of Lapse)

4.Punjab (The Sikhs)

*Founded at the end of 15th century by Guru Nanak,the Sikh religion spread among
the Jat peasantry & other lower castes of the Punjab . The transformation of the Sikhs
into a militant fighting community was began by Guru Hargobind (1606-45). It was
however under the Leadership of Guru
Gobind Singh (1666-1708). That the became a political & military force . From
1699 onwards He waged constant war against the armies of Aurangzeb & the hill rajas
*Following the murder of Guru Gobind Singh, the last Sikh guru, The Guruship came to
an end & this passes to his trusted disciple , a group of Sikhs under the leadership of
Banda Bahadur rose out against the Mughals during the rule of Bahadur Shah.
*In 1715, Farrukhsiyar overcame Banda Bahadur, and in 1716, he was put to death.
*The Sikh polity subsequently split into the Bandai (Liberal) and Tat Khalsa groupings
after becoming leaderless once more (Orthodox).
*In 1721, Bhai Mani Singh was able to repair this division among the disciples.
*Later, in 1784, Kapur Singh Faizullapuria set up the Sikhs under the Dal Khalsa with
the intention of unifying Sikhs on a political, cultural, and economic level.
*The Khalsa’s entire body was used to construct 1.Taruna Dal, the army of the young
people, and 2. Budha Dal, the army of the veterans.
*Punjab saw a great deal of unrest and instability as a result of the Mughals’ decline
and Ahmad Shah Abdali’s invasions.
*These political conditions helped the organised Dal Khalsa to deepen its
consolidation.
*The Sikhs united in misls, which were democratically governed military brotherhoods.
The Arabic term misl, which meaning “equal” or “alike,” is used.Misl is another word for
“state.” From Saharanpur in the east to Attock in the west, from the mountainous
regions in the north to Multan in the south, many misls started to rule the Punjab
region under Sikh chieftains between 1763 and 1773.
Maharaja Ranjit Singh:
*The first Maharaja of the Sikh Empire, which governed the northwest Indian
subcontinent in the first half of the nineteenth century, was Ranjit Singh, also known as
Sher-e-Punjab or the “Lion of Punjab” and also known as Sher-ePunjab.
*He was born in Pakistani Punjab around 1780 to the Sukerchakia misl of the Sikh
confederacies chief.
*He united 12 Sikh misls in 1801 and sacked a number of petty kingdoms to establish
himself as the “Maharaja of Punjab.”
* He captured Lahore in 1799 & Amritsar in 1802.
*Numerous Afghan raids were successfully thwarted, leading to the conquest of cities
like Lahore, Peshawar, and Multan.
*His capital was Lahore.
* In the northwest, his Sikh Empire extended south of the Himalayas and north of the
Sutlej River. His dominion included the cities of Lahore, Multan, Srinagar (Kashmir),
Attock, Peshawar, Rawalpindi, Jammu, Sialkot, Amritsar, and Kangra.
*He kept friendly connections with the British.
*Reforms, modernization, infrastructure investment, and general prosperity
characterised Ranjit Singh’s administration. *His Khalsa army and government included
Sikhs, Hindus, Muslims, and Europeans.
*His legacy includes the reconstruction of the Harmandir Sahib in Amritsar as well as
other notable gurudwaras, such as Takht Sri Patna Sahib in Bihar and Hazur Sahib
Nanded in Maharashtra. His legacy also includes a period of Sikh cultural and creative
renaissance.
*His army had soldiers of various racial and religious backgrounds.
*In terms of fighting, logistics, and infrastructure, his army was quite effective. *After
his passing in 1839, there was a struggle for control among his various relatives. This
marked the start of the Empire’s decline.
*When Ranjit Singh passed away in June 1839, the collapse of his empire officially
started.
* His legitimate eldest son, Kharak Singh, took over as his successor.

* Misl:
*At the time of Ranjit Singh’s birth (November 2, 1780), there were 12 important misls:
Ahluwaliya, Bhangi, Dallewalia, Faizullapuria, Kanhaiya, Krorasinghia, Nakkai, Nishaniya,
Phulakiya, Ramgarhiya Sukharchakiya, and Shaheed.
*The primary government of the misl was the Gurumatta Sangh, which was essentially
a political, social, and economic entity.
*Mahan Singh, a Sukerchakia misl ruler, was the father of Ranjit Singh. When Mahan
Singh passed away, Ranjit Singh was only 12 years old.
*Ranjit Singh, however, displayed early political astuteness. All of the big misls had
fallen apart by the end of the 18th century, with the exception of Sukarchakia.
The English and Maharaja Ranjit Singh
*The idea of a united Franco-Russian invasion of India by land route alarmed the
English. In 1807, Charles Metcalfe was sent to Lahore by Lord Minto.
* On the condition that the English maintain their neutrality in the case of a Sikh-
Afghan confrontation and acknowledge Ranjit Singh as the ruler of the entire Punjab,
including the Malwa (cis-Sutlej) provinces, Ranjit Singh accepted Metcalfe’s proposal
for an offensive and defensive alliance.
* The negotiations failed, though. Ranjit Singh made the decision to ratify the
Treaty of Amritsar (April 25, 1809) with the Company in the midst of a new political
climate in which the English had gained more sway and the Napoleonic menace had
subsided.
Amritsar Treaty (1809):
*The Amritsar Treaty was significant for its immediate and potential effects. It
prevented Ranjit Singh from achieving one of his most prized goals, which was to
expand his rule over the entire Sikh populace by designating the Sutlej River as the
boundary between his and the Company’s domains.
*He switched his focus to the west, taking Peshawar (1819), Kashmir (1819), and
Multan (1818). (1834). Despite being coerced by political pressures to ratify the
Tripartite Treaty with the English in June 1838, Ranjit Singh refused to let British troops
enter Dost Mohammad, the Afghan Amir, through his territory.
*The dealings between Raja Ranjit Singh and the Company between 1809 and 1839
blatantly show the latter’s precarious status. Even though he was aware of his
dangerous position, he took no steps to form a coalition with other Indian rulers or to
preserve a balance of power. Punjab Kharak Singh, Ranjit Singh’s lone legitimate son
and heir, was ineffective after Ranjit Singh, and during his brief tenure, the court
divides appeared.
Punjab After Ranjit Singh:
*Punjab fell into disorder as a result of Kharak Singh’s premature death in 1839 and the
accidental murder of his son, Prince Nau Nihal Singh.
*The plots and counterplans of several organisations to grab the throne of Lahore
gave the English the opportunity to strike forcefully. *Following its policy of amity
with the English company, the Lahore government permitted British forces to pass
through its territory twice: once on their way into Afghanistan and once again on
their way back to exact revenge for their defeat.
*In Punjab, these marches sparked unrest and economic hardship.
*After Nau Nihal Singh passed away, Sher Singh, another son of Ranjit Singh, took
over, but he was killed in late 1843.
*Soon after, Ranjit Singh’s minor son Daleep Singh was crowned as Maharaja, with Hira
Singh Dogra serving as wazir and Rani Jindan serving as regent.
*As a result of royal intrigue, Hira Singh was killed in 1844.
*Brother of Rani Jindan and the new wazir, Jawahar Singh, immediately infuriated the
army and was deposed and put to death in 1845.
*In the same year, Teja Singh was named commander of the troops, while Lal Singh, a
lover of Rani Jindan, won over the army to his cause and was given the title of Wazir.
Anglo-Sikh War I (1845–46):
*The first Anglo-Sikh war is said to have begun on December 11, 1845, when the Sikh
army crossed the Sutlej River.
*This was perceived as an aggressive action that justified England’s entry into the war.
* A power struggle for supremacy between the Lahore court and the everpowerful
and more local army culminated in the unrest that broke out in the Lahore kingdom
after Maharaja Ranjit Singh’s death.
* The English military’s attempts to seize Gwalior and Sindh in 1841 and the battle
in Afghanistan in 1842 led to mistrust within the Sikh army.
*An increase in the number of English soldiers stationed close to the border with the
Lahore kingdom The war’s progress:
*At the start of the fight in December 1845, the British side had between 20,000 and
30,000 soldiers, but the Sikhs, led by Lal Singh, had about 50,000 men.
*Lal Singh and Teja Singh’s treachery, however, caused the Sikhs to lose five battles in
a succession at Mudki (December 18, 1845), Ferozeshah (December 21–22, 1845),
Buddelwal, Aliwal (January 28, 1846), and Sobraon (February 10, 1846).
*On February 20, 1846, Lahore submitted to British troops without a battle. *Treaty of
Lahore as a result of the war *The First Anglo-Sikh War ended on March 8, 1846, and
the Sikhs were forced to accept a demeaning peace. *The English were supposed to
receive a more significant war compensation. main features:
1. More than one crore rupees in war indemnity was to be awarded to the English.
2. The Company aimed to annex the Jalandhar Doab (located between the Beas and
the Sutlej).
3. Henry Lawrence planned to establish a British residency in Lahore. The Sikh army’s
power was diminished.
4. Rani Jindan served as the regent, Lal Singh as the wazir, and Daleep Singh was
acknowledged as the sovereign.
5. The strength of the Sikh army was reduced.
6. Gulab Singh was forced to pay the Company 75 lakh rupees as the purchase price
because the Sikhs were unable to pay the entire war indemnity and Kashmir,
including Jammu, was sold to him.
*The formal handover of Kashmir to Gulab Singh was made possible by a second treaty
signed on March 16, 1846.
*The Sikhs rebelled against the Treaty of Lahore because they were unhappy with its
resolution of the Kashmir issue.
*The Treaty of Bhairowal was signed in December 1846. A council of regency for
Punjab was constituted in accordance with the treaty’s conditions after Rani Jindan’s
removal as regent.
*"8 Sikh sardars made up the council, which was presided over by Henry Lawrence, the
English Resident.
Anglo-Sikh War II (1848–49):
*The First Anglo-Sikh War’s defeat of the Sikhs and the terms of the treaties of Lahore
and Bhairowal left them in a very humiliating position. *Sikh rage was stoked by the
cruel treatment shown to Rani Jindan, a pensioner transferred to Benares.
*Due to a rise in yearly earnings, Mulraj, Multan’s previous governor, was replaced by a
new Sikh governor.
*Mulraj overthrew the new governor and murdered two English officers who were with
him.
*Sher Singh was sent to put an end to the uprising, but instead, he joined Mulraj, which
caused a general uprising throughout Multan.
*One could argue that this is what started the dispute.
*Lord Dalhousie, India’s then-Governor General and a fervent expansionist were given
the green light to seize Punjab completely.
*Lord Dalhousie went to Punjab on his own throughout the war. There were three
significant conflicts fought prior to the final conquest of the Punjab. *Here are the details
of these three fights: 1.In January 1849, Sir Hugh Gough, the Company’s prominent
commander, commanded the Battle of Ramnagar,
2. Chillianwala Battle, January 1849, 3.Gujarat Battle, February 21, 1849, On
February 21, 1849, the Sikh army capitulated at Rawalpindi, and their Afghan allies
were driven from India.
The outcome of the conflict:
* The Sikh army’s surrender and Sher Singh’s annexation of Punjab in 1849; as a result
of his efforts, the British Parliament thanked the Earl of Dalhousie and promoted him
to the peerage to the title of Marquess.
*The Lawrence brothers (Henry and John) and Charles Mansel were appointed to a
three-person board to rule Punjab.
*In 1853, the board was disbanded, and a chief commissioner was granted control of
Punjab.
* The first Chief Commissioner was chosen, and his name was John Lawrence.
Conclusion:
* In accordance with Queen Victoria Queen’s Proclamation, Punjab and the rest of
British India came under the direct rule of the British crown in 1858. The region was
formerly known as Sapta Sindhu, the Vedic nation of the seven rivers that flowed into
the ocean. One of the last areas of the Indian subcontinent to come under British
control was the Punjab region, which was mostly taken over by the East India
Company in 1849.
* In 1858, Punjab was placed under direct British rule along with the rest of British
India. The Anglo-Sikh fights fostered respect for one another’s fighting skills. The
Sikhs fought alongside the British in the Revolt of 1857 and a number of other battles
and conflicts up until Indian independence in 1947.

5.Marathas:
*Shahu ,the grand son of Shivaji had been prisoner of Aurangzeb since 1689.
He was released in 1707after Aurangzeb death.
* A civil war broke out between shahu at satara & his aunt Tarabai (Anti
Mughal struggler)at Kolhapur her son Shivaji II after the death of her husband
Rajaram
* A new system of Govt raised under the leadership of Peshwa (Mukhpradhan
/Chief minister)Balaji Vishwanath of king Shahu
*Balaji Vishwanath son is Bajirao I. He has described as the Greatest exponent of
Guirella tactics after shivaji
*Baji Rao's son Balaji Baji Rao(Nanasaheb)(18yrs) was the peshwa from 1740 -
1761. King shahu died in 1749
* They were in Lahore by the middle of the 18th century and were considering
ruling the North Indian empire and serving as king-makers at the Mughal court.
* Although Ahmad Shah Abdali defeated them in the Third Battle of Panipat
(1761), which altered the situation, they were able to regroup, regain their strength,
and take control of India within a decade.
* The most renowned Peshwa of all time, Bajirao I (1720–40), founded a coalition
of prominent Maratha chiefs to oversee the rapidly expanding Maratha power and, to
some extent, appease the Kshatriya faction of the Marathas, led by Senapati Dabodi.
* Each prominent family under a chief was given a sphere of influence within the
Maratha confederacy’s organisational structure, which he was expected to subdue and
rule over in the name of the then-Maratha monarch, Shahu.
* Under Bajirao I to Madhavrao I, the confederacy ran smoothly, until the Third
Battle of Panipat (1761) changed everything.
* Although the confederacy’s leaders occasionally united, such as when fighting
the British (1775–82), they usually fought among themselves.

Peshwa Bajirao (1720–40):

*Shrimant, the 7th Peshwa Peshwa the Maratha Empire was expanded by Baji Rao I,
also known as Bajirao Ballal, to include a major portion of presentday India.
* On August 18, 1700, Balaji Vishwanath and his wife Radhabhai Barve had a son
named Baji Rao.
* Baji Rao I directed the Maratha’s focus away from Deccan and toward the north.
* He is recognised as the first Indian to see the Mughals’ weakness and waning
power. * He was well aware of Delhi’s vulnerability to the Mughal emperors.
* The idiom “Attock to Cuttack” refers to the Maratha Kingdom that Baji Rao-I
imagined and wanted to raise the Saffron Flag above the ramparts of Attock.
*Baji Rao-I participated in 41 wars and never suffered a defeat.
*This astute Maratha Prime Minister was successful in uniting the Marathas who had
scattered after Shivaji’s demise.
*1.The Scindias(Sindhias), under the leadership of Ranoji Shinde of Gwalior,
2.the Holkars, under Malharrao of Indore,
3. the Gaekwads, under Pilaji of Baroda,
4. the Pawars, under Udaiji of Dhar,
5. The Bhonsle of Nagpur
6. The peshwa of Poona are all members of the Confederacy.
*He was able to acquire one-third of Bundelkhand upon the passing of Maharaja
Chhattrasal.
*Mastani, his half-Muslim sweetheart from Bundelkhand, was not accepted into
Maratha culture.
*He moved the Marathas’ administrative centre from Satara to Pune. * Balaji Baji Rao
succeeded his father Baji Rao-I when the latter passed away in 1740 due to sickness.
Marathas versus British:
* The English finally prevailed in 3 battles between the Marathas and the English for
governmental hegemony during the latter quarter of the 18th century and the first
quarter of the 19th century. These conflicts resulted from the English’s great ambition
and the Marathas’ split house, which gave them a reason to believe their endeavour
would succeed.
* The English in Bombay planned to establish an administration resembling that of
Clive in Orissa, Bihar, and Bengal. *The Marathas’ disagreement over succession
provided the English with a long-awaited opportunity.

Causes of the Conflicts:

*The Anglo-Maratha Wars refer to the 3 conflicts fought in India between the
British East India Company and the Maratha confederacy
* The Maratha Empire in India was destroyed along with the British victory in the wars,
which started in 1777 and ended in 1818.
* The 3rd Peshwa, Balaji Baji Rao, passed away on June 23, 1761, the day after the
Marathas were beaten at the Battle of Panipat.
* After his death, his son Madhav Rao took over as ruler.
* He was a capable and competent commander who kept his nobles and chiefs united
and swiftly succeeded in regaining the lost power and dignity of the Marathas.
* As the Marathas’ authority increased, the British grew more cautious of them and
worked to prevent their restoration.
* The British were free to assault the Marathas after Madhav Rao’s death in 1772.
Anglo-Maratha War I (1775–82):
* The British’s increasing intervention in Maratha internal and external matters, as well
as the rivalry for power between Madhav Rao and Raghunath Rao, were the primary
causes of the first Maratha war.
*When Peshwa Madhav Rao passed away, his younger brother Narayan Rao succeeded
him as 5th Peshwa, the younger brother of Balaji Baji Rao,
Raghunath Rao had his nephew assasinated & named himself as peshwa * He was
not legal heir , Gangabai wife of Narayan Rao gave birth to Sawai(1 nd half)
Madhavrao & legally he was next peshwa .
* 12 Maratha chiefs (Barabhai) led by Nana Phadnavis support to infant . * Treaties of
Surat & Purandhar, Raghunath Rao not give up to his position so he seek help from
British at Bombay & Signed the Treaty of Surat in 1775. *So, in exchange for Salsette
and Bessien as well as income from the Surat and Bharuch provinces, he asked the
English to help kill him and make him Peshwa.
* Raghunath Rao received help from the British, who also provided him with 2,500
troops.
* The Peshwa was invaded and defeated by the English and Raghunath Rao’s
combined force.
* The Pact of Surat was signed on March 6, 1775, but it was not approved by the British
Calcutta Council. They sent Colonel Uptonto annual it & make a new treaty (Treaty of
Purandhar,1776).
*Raghunath was given shelter not with standing the Bombay administration’s denial of
this & regency renouncing Raghunath & promising him a pension
* Nana Phadnis gave the French a port on the west coast in 1777, breaking the
agreement with the Calcutta Council.
*As a result, fighting broke out between British and Maratha forces at Wadgaon, just
outside of Pune.
Course of War:
* The Maratha army was commanded by a brilliant general named Mahadji sindhia
(Mahadji Shinde). He lured English to the ghats (Mountain passes) near Talegaon &
trapped them all sides & attacked at Khopali .
* the Maratha also utilised a scorched earth policy , burning farmland & poisoning
wells
*English began to withdraw to Talegaon, but they attacked & forced them to retreat
the village of Wadgaon. They surrendered Jan,1779 & signed the
Treaty of Wadgaon
* Treaty of Salbai(1782) : end of 1st phase of struggle Warren Hastings,The governor
general of Bengal rejected the Treaty of Wadgaon & sent a large force under Colonel
Goddard who captured Ahmedabad in Feb 1779 &
Bassein in Dec 1980
*Captain Popham captured Gwalior in aug 1980
* In Feb 1781 the English under General Camac finally defeated Scindia at Sipri
*Scindia proposed a new treaty between peshwa & English & the Treaty of
Salbai was signed in May 1782 & it was ratified by Hastings in June 1782 & by
Phadnavis in Feb 1783
* The Treaty Guaranteed peace between the 2 sides for 20 yrs . main features are:
- As per the treaty, the areas of Salsette and Broach (Bharuch) were to be retained by
the Company.
- They also promised not to allow any French settlements in their regions. - The British,
in turn, accepted Narayanrao’s son Madhavrao II as the rightful Peshwa and
pensioned off Raghunathrao.
- They also acknowledged Mahadaji Shinde’s territories west of the River Yamuna. All
the territories acquired by them after the Treaty of Purandar were given back to the
Marathas.
- The Marathas also gave it a guarantee that they would get their Deccan holdings
back from Hyder Ali of Mysore.
- Following the Purandar Treaty, the British handed over to the Marathas all areas they
had taken by force.
- The English should not offer Any help from Raghunath Rao & nit grant him a
maintenance allowance
- The English should enjoy trade privileges as before

Anglo-Maratha War II (1803–05):

* After Peshwa Madhavrao Narayan death in 1795. Bajirao II the worthless son of
Raghunath Rao became peshwa. Nanaphadnavis a bitter foe of Bajirao II became
Chief minister. After Nanaphadnavis death the British had advantage to intervene
Maratha affairs Course of War :
* On April 1 ,1801 the peshwa killed the brother of Yaswantrao Holkar, Vithuji.
So Yaswantrao Holkar arrayed his forces against the combined armies of Scindia &
Bajirao II. He defeated bajirao II at Hadaspar near poona & placed vinayakrao son of
Amritrao on peshwa seat . A terrified Bajirao II fled to
Bassein on Dec 31, 1802, he signed a treaty with the English
* Treaty of Bassein (1802): the peshwa agreed to
- To surrender the city of Surat to the British East India Company. - To receive a native
infantry from the British which would be stationed permanently in his territories
- The territories to the South of River Tapti, territories that lie in between Narmada and
Tapti, few territories near the river Tungabhadra and Gujarat were ceded to the
British East India Company. These territories yielded an income of about Rs 26 lakhs
to the British.
- In case of differences between the him and the Gaekwad or Nizam, the
Company’s arbitration was to be accepted
- Not to employ any Europeans of the nations which are at war with the British.
- Not to enter into any trade or communication with any other ruler without the prior
consent of the British.
-Not to resort to arms against Gaekwad.
* The British East India Company and the Maratha Empire engaged in combat in
Central India between 1803 and 1805 during the 2nd Anglo-Maratha War. * The 2nd
Maratha war was primarily sparked by the Holkars, one of the major Maratha clans,
defeating Peshwa Baji Rao II.
*As a result, Peshwa Baji Rao II signed the Treaty of Bassein in December 1802,
requesting British protection.
* Other Maratha kings, such as the Gwalior-based Scindia rulers and the Nagpur
and Berar-based Bhonsle rulers, would not accept this and attempted to fight the
British.
*British army under Arthur Wellesley defeated the combined armies of Sindhias and
Bhonsle and they were forced to accept Subsidiary alliance and conclude separate
treaties with the British regarding the same.
*Yashwant Rao Holkar formed a coalition of Indian rulers and fought against the British
in 1804. However, the British defeated the Marathas and isolated them from one
another.
*The Sindhia army was defeated in September 1803 and the Treaty of Surji
Anjangaon was concluded on December 30, 1803
- Treaty of Surji Anjangaon: Under this treaty, Sindhias handed over
Ahmednagar, Broach, region between Ganga and Yamuna, and parts of
Bundelkhand to the British
* The Bhonsle was defeated in November 1803 and the Treaty of Devgaon was
concluded with them on December 17, 1803.
- Treaty of Devgaon: Under this treaty, the Subsidiary alliance was agreed, and also the
provinces of Cuttack, Balasore, and land to the West of the Wardha river were
submitted to the British.
*Treaty of Rajpurghat was concluded with Holkar in 1806 and Jaswanth Rao Holkar
agreed to surrender all the areas to the North of Bundi Hill. *As a result, in Central
India, the second Anglo-Maratha war broke out in 1803.
outcome:
*In these battles, the Maratha army was completely routed by the British.
*An infant was installed on the throne under British guidance.
*The Peshwa gave up in 1818.
*After being removed, he withdrew to a small estate in Bithur (near Kanpur).
The Bombay Presidency took over most of his territory.
*His adopted son, Nana Saheb, served as the revolt’s leader in Kanpur in 1857.
*The Central Provinces of British India were created from the Pindaris’ territories.
*The outcome of this fight was the demise of the Maratha Empire. The Maratha
kingdoms were all seized by the British.
*An unidentified Chhatrapati Shivaji ancestor was appointed as the Maratha
Confederacy’s ceremonial leader in Satara.
*The British were given the territory of Rohtak, Ganga-Yamuna Doab, Gurgaon, the
Delhi-Agra region, Broach, numerous Gujarati districts, portions of Bundelkhand, and
the Ahmednagar fort when the Scindias signed the SurjiAnjangaon Treaty in 1803.
*The Treaty of Deogaon, which was signed by the Bhonsle in 1803, gave the
English control over Cuttack, Balasore, and the area west of the Wardha River.
*In 1805, the Holkars agreed to the Treaty of Rajghat, which gave the British Tonk,
Bundi, and Rampura.
*The British took over substantial portions of central India as a result of the conflict.
Anglo-Maratha War III (1817–19):
*Lord Hastings had imposing British Paramountancy . by the charter act of 1813 ,The
EIC Monopoly of Trade in china(except tea) ended & hence the company needed more
markets
* The pindaris made up of many castes & classes were attached to Maratha armies as
mercenaries. When Marathas were became weak . The pindaris could not get regular
employment
* The English charged the Marathas with giving shelter to them .
* pindaris leaders like Amir Khan & Karim khan surrendered while Chitu Khan fled to
the jungles
*The rising Maratha desire to restore their lost territory(Treaty of Bassein)and the
British’s oppressive rule over Maratha nobles and chiefs were the two main factors that
led to the third and final conflict between the British and the Marathas.
*The British dispute with the Pindaris, who the British thought was being protected by
the Marathas, was another factor in the war.
* lord Hastings action taken against pindaris so they were unite & turn against to
English Course of War:
* The peshwa attacked the British residency at Poona. appa sahib of Nagpur attacked
the residency of Nagpur & Holkar made preparation for war * The Peshwa defeated
the Maratha chiefs in places like Ashti, Nagpur, and Mahidpur when they invaded the
British Residency in November 1817. * After the death of Yaswantrao Holkar, Tulsi
bai,held the affairs in poona. She did not administrate properly & the bhonsle at
Nagpur & The Scindia at
Gwalior become weak
*During the years 1817 and 1818, the conflict took place in Maharashtra and the
neighbouring areas.
Result:
* 1. The peshwa was defeated at Khirki , He signed Treaty of Poona on June
1817
2. Bhonsle at Sitalbuldi ,
3. Holkar at Mahidpur, they signed Treaty of Mandausor on Jan 1818
4. Scindia signed Treaty of Gwalior on Nov 1817
*On November 5, 1817, the Treaty of Gwalior was signed, and Sindia was relegated to
the role of a bystander in the fight.
*Malhar Rao Holkar and the British agreed to the Treaty of Mandsaur on
January 6, 1818, which led to the deposition of the Peshwa and his pension. * The
British seized more of his holdings, thus solidifying their control over India.
RISE & EXPANSION OF BRITISH RULE:(Part 3)
Extension of British Paramountancy of through Administrative
policy:

*The process of Imperial expansion & consolidation of British Paramountancy was

carried on by the company during 1757-1857 period through a two -fold method

1. The Policy Of Annexation by conquest or war

2. The policy of Annexation by Diplomacy & Administrative Mechanisms

* But next they Applied Diplomatic & Administrative Policies

1. Warren Hastings - Ring Fence policy

2. Wellesley System of Subsidiary Alliance

3. Dalhousie 's Doctrine of Lapse

* By these policies British Dominion Expanded in Indian Territory

I. The Policy Of Ring Fence(1813-22):

*Warren Hastings charged as Governor general at a critical period when they

Encountered with Marathas, Mysore & Hyderabad

* It was the policy of Defence of Their Neighbours frontiers for safeguarding their own
territories .

* This policy was reflected in his war Against The Marathas & Mysore
* The chief danger to the company territories was from the Afghan Invaders & the
Marathas . To safegu9 against these dangers , the company undertook to organise
the defence of the frontiers of Awadh on the condition that the nawab would defray
the expenses of the defending army.
* The defence of Awadh constituted the defence of Bengal * This the states brought
under this system were assured of Military assistance against external aggression but
at their own expense * In other words these allies were acquired to maintain
 subsidiary forces which were to be organised , equipped & commanded by the
officers of the company who ,in turn, were to be paid by the rulers of these states
* Wellesley 's policy of Subsidiary Alliance was infact an extension of the Ring Fence
policy system.

II. Subsidiary Alliance(1798-1805):

*This system was used by Lord Wellesley( 4th Governor-General of Bengal)who was
governor general of India.

* It was termed as Non-Intervention Policy.

* the pioneer of ‘Subsidiary Alliance = French EIC Governor Dupleix

* Under the system the allying Indians states ruler was compelled to accept the
permanent stationing of a British forces with in his territory & to pay a subsidy for its
maintainance .

* An Indian ruler entering into Subsidiary Alliance with the British had to dissolve his
own armed forces and accept British forces in his territory.

*He also had to pay for the British army’s maintenance. If he failed to make the
payment, a portion of his territory would be taken away and ceded to the
British.
* The Indian ruler had to agree to the posting of a british resident in his court. *The
Indian ruler could not employ any European in his service without the prior
consultation with the company. Nor could he go to war or negotiate with any other
Indian ruler without consulting the Governor general

* In return for all this , the British would defend the ruler from his enemies & adopt
apolicy of non- interference in the internal matters of the allied state.

* One of the objectives behind Wellesley's strengthening of this system waa to keep
the french from reviving & expanding their influence in India

*Hence the clause in the alliance treaty requiring the Indian rulers to dismiss
Europeans other than British from their service & not employ any
* The Indian rulers lost their independence by buying security. They lost much of their
revenue , paying British troops

* He could also not employ any other foreign nationals other than Englishmen in his
service. And, if he were employing any, on the signing of the alliance, he had to
terminate them from his service. The idea was to curb the influence of the French.

* When the 2nd Anglo-Maratha war, He compelled Scindia to accept British suzerainity
& defeated the armies of the peshwa , Bhonsle & Holkar.

*The peshwa was dethroned & pensioned off at Bithur near khanpur. His territories
Annexed & enlarged presidency of Bombay brought into existence *Holkar & Bhonsle
accepted Subsidiary forces. Where the small kingdom of satara was founded out
Peshwa's lands & given to descendant of Chatrapati
Shivaji, who ruled then by totally dependent on British
* It was probably Dupleix , who 1st gave on hire European troops to Indian rulers to
fight their wars . Since then almost all governor generals from Clive onwards applied
the system to the Indian states
*The Nawab of Awadh was the first ruler to enter into the subsidiary alliance with the
British after the Battle of Buxar. However, the Nizam of Hyderabad was the first to
accept a well-framed subsidiary alliance.
Effects of the Subsidiary Alliance:
*As a result of Indian rulers disbanding their armies, many people were rendered
unemployed.
*Many Indian states lost their independence and slowly, most parts of India were
coming under British control.
*The Nizam of Hyderabad was the first to accept the Subsidiary Alliance in 1798.
*Lord Clive also introduced the subsidiary system in Oudh and the Treaty of Allahabad
was signed where the British promised the Oudh territory from enemies like Marathas.
1. The Nizam of Hyderabad (September 1798 & 1800)
2. Mysore (1799 – After Tipu Sultan was defeated in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore
War)
3. Tanjore (October 1799)
4. The Nawab of Awadh (November 1801)
5. Peshwa (Marathas) (December 1801/ 1802)
6. The Bhonsle Raja of berar(Marathas )(December 1803)
7. The Scindia (Marathas) (February 1803)
8. Gaekwad (Marathas) (1803)
9. The Rajput states of Jodhpur, Jaipur, Macheri,Bundi & the ruler of
Bharatpur (1818)
10.The Holkar State of Indore was the last Maratha confederation member to accept
the Subsidiary Alliance in 1818.
III. Doctrine of Lapse:

* The Doctrine of Lapse was an annexation policy followed widely by Lord

Dalhousie when he was India’s Governor-General from 1848 to 1856. It was used as an
administrative policy for the extension of British Paramountcy.

* James Andrew Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie, known commonly as

Lord Dalhousie, was the Governor-General of India from 1848 to 1856. He had been a
famous Scottish statesman.

*The Doctrine of Lapse was an annexation policy extensively applied by East India
Company in India until 1859. The doctrine stated that any princely state under the
vassalage of the company will how its territory annexed should the ruler of the said
state fail to produce an heir. The doctrine and its application were regarded by many
Indians as illegitimate.

*The Doctrine of Lapse was one of the underlying factors that led to the revolt of 1857.
* It was stated to be based on Hindu law & Indian customs but Hindu law seemed
to be inconclusive on this point & the instances of an Indian sovereign annexing the
state of his vassal on account of Lapse( i.e. leaving no issue as heir)
* Maharaja Ranjit Singh had Annexed a few cis -sutlej states on the absence of
heirs in 1820
Features of Doctrine of Lapse:
*Before the introduction of this doctrine, the princely states had a ritualised method of
adoption practised for centuries An heir apparent would eventually be selected from a
pool of candidates, who were groomed for succession from an early age, called
bhayats if no competent born-to son were produced (an obviously unsuitable or
treasonous born-to son could be excluded from the succession).
*If the ruler died before adopting a successor, one of his widows could adopt an heir,
who would immediately accede to the throne. The adoptee would cut all ties with his
birth family. Once the Doctrine of Lapse came into place the following features were
now faced by the Indian rulers.
*According to this doctrine, any princely state under the direct or indirect (as a vassal)
control of the East India Company, should the ruler not produce a legal male heir,
would be annexed by the company.
This was not introduced by Lord Dalhousie even though it was he who documented
it and used it widely to acquire territories for the British. *As per this, any adopted
son of the Indian ruler could not be proclaimed as heir to the kingdom. The adopted
son would only inherit his foster father’s personal property and estates.
*The adopted son would also not be entitled to any pension that his father had been
receiving or to any of his father’s titles.
*This challenged the Indian ruler’s long-held authority to appoint an heir of their
choice.
*States Annexed by Doctrine of Lapse Year of Annexation
1. Satara - 1848
2. Jaitpur/Bundelkhand - 1849
3. Sambalpur(Orissa) - 1849
4. Baghat (Madhyapradesh) -1850
5. Udaipur - 1852
6. Jhansi - 1853
7. Nagpur - 1854
8.The final moment straw came when Awadh(on charge of Mal
Administration )was annexed to the English East India Company under the terms of the
Doctrine of Lapse on the grounds of internal misrule on 7 February 1856 .
* In 1824, before the time of Dalhousie, the princely state of Kithur was acquired by the
East India Company by this doctrine.
*It was as per this policy that Nana Sahib, the adopted son of the Maratha Peshwa Baji
Rao II was denied his titles and pension.
* Thus Dalhousie in 8 yrs tenure Annexed 8 states during this period
* His reign almost completed the process of expansion of British power in
India which began with victory over
Siraj -ud-Daula at Plassey 1857
*This annexation was one of the reasons for the Revolt of 1857.
 S-R-R-M in 19th century (part -1)
THE RISE OF SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS IN 19TH CENTURY:

*A number of Socio-Religious Reform Movements were carried out throughout India in

the 19th century. These socio-religious reform movements aimed to modernise Indian
society through social restructuring. The Socio-Religious Reform Movements and their
leaders were characterised by a recognition of the interconnection between religious
and social issues. The British invasion of India in the 18th and 19th centuries exposed
some significant flaws and shortcomings in Indian social institutions.

*As a result, a number of people and movements worked to change social and
religious customs with the goal of reforming and reviving society. This also has to do
with how Indian society was changing and how new classes were emerging. According
to this viewpoint, the socio-religious movements represent the social aspirations of
colonial India's newly emerging middle class.
Factors Leading to Socio-Religious Reform Movements: *The impact of
modern Western education soon gave birth to a new awakening in India.
*Western conquest exposed the weakness and decay of Indian society. They exposed
practices such as sati, infanticide, child marriage etc
*The British rule in India created conditions favourable to intellectual growth. For
example, the freedom of press made it possible to educate society about evil social
practices.
*Thoughtful Indians began to look for the defects of their society and for ways and
means of removing them through legislation as well as social work. *While a large
number of Indians refused to come to terms with the West and still put their faith in
traditional Indian ideas and institutions, others gradually came to hold that modern
Western thought provided the key to the regeneration of their society.
*They were particularly impressed by modern science and the doctrines of reason and
humanism.
*Moreover, the new social groups, the capitalist class, the working class, the modern
intelligentsia etc., demanded modernisation due to their own interests.
Features: The nineteenth-century Socio-Religious Reform Movements advocated for
religious reform for political advantage and social comfort. They recognised the
interconnection between religious and social issues and used religious ideas to change
social institutions and practices, such as eradicating caste distinctions.

I. HINDUS
Reformers / Reform Movements =. Features of Socio-Religious Reform
Movements

1. Raja Rammohun Roy :

*Raja Rammohun Roy, regarded as the 1st great leader of modern India, played a key
role in the awakening.
- He was distressed by the stagnation and corruption of caste and convention-driven
Indian society at the time.
- He represented a synthesis of Eastern and Western thought.
* Atmiya Sabha (1814): Founded by Rammohun Roy with a band of young men in
Bengal, mainly to debate philosophical topics such as monotheism in Hindu texts.
- He waged a tenacious battle against the social and religious injustices that Bengali
Hindus were notorious for.
- He was particularly opposed to idolatry, caste rigidity, and the prevalence of pointless
religious rituals.
- He criticised the priestly class for promoting and fostering these customs. - He
believed that monotheism, or the worship of one God, was taught in all of the major
ancient Hindu texts.
- To support his claims, he published Bengali translations of the Vedas and five of the
most important Upanishads.
*He was the earliest propagator of modern education.
- Hindu College (1817): Roy gave the most enthusiastic assistance to David Hare in
the foundation of the college.
- English School in Calcutta (1817): Roy maintained the school at his own cost.
- In this school, mechanics and Voltaire's philosophy were taught alongside other
subjects.
- Vedanta College (1825): Founded by Rammohun Roy, in which courses both in
Western social and physical sciences were offered.
*Brahmo Samaj (1828): New religious society founded by Rammohun Roy.
- Its objectives were to preach monotheism and purify Hinduism.
- Based on twin pillars of,
Reason -Vedas and Upanishads.
- Additionally, the teachings of other religions were to be included. - It placed a strong
emphasis on human dignity, condemned idolatry, and criticised social ills like Sati.
*He is known as a pioneer of Indian journalism.
- Sambad Kaumudi (1821): A Bengali weekly started by Raja Rammohan Roy.
It emphasised issues such as the Indian demand for a jury trial in provincial courts.It
became the main vehicle of Raja Rammohan Roy’s campaign against Sati.It paved the
way for the rise of nationalist journalism in India.
- Mirat-ul-Akhbar (1822): It was India’s first Persian weekly started by Roy.It was
primarily concerned with the political events of the time.Roy criticised the British
constitution, their foreign policy, how they treated Indians on the roads and other
things.
* Internationalism: Roy firmly believed in internationalism and unrestricted cross-
national collaboration.
- The poet Rabindranath Tagore rightly remarked: “Rammohun was the only person in
his time, in the whole world of man, to realise completely the significance of the
Modern Age.”
* Opposition by Dharma Sabha: It was an orthodox Hindu society, established mainly
to counter the ongoing Socio-Religious Reform Movements led by reformers like
Henry Derozio and Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
- Associates:
David Hare
Dwarkanath Tagore
Prasanna Kumar Tagore
Chandrashekhar Deb
The first secretary of the Brahmo Sabha, Tarachand Chakravarti.
*Raja Rammohun Roy’s Brahmo tradition was carried forward after 1843 by
Devendranath Tagore and after 1866 by Keshub Chandra Sen.
* It made an effort to reform the Hindu religion by, -
Removing abuses.
- Establishing it on the doctrine of the Vedas and Upanishads, as well as the worship of
one God.
- Including the best aspects of modern Western thought.
*Most of all, it was based on human reason.
- It was to serve as the deciding factor for what religious practices and principles from
the past or present were valuable and what was not. - The Brahmo Samaj rejected the
requirement for a priestly class to interpret religious texts as a result.
- Every person had the right and capacity to determine, with the aid of his or her own
intellect, what was right and wrong in a religious book or principle, it was stated.
* Keshab Chandra Sen: He expanded Samaj's activities beyond Bengal to include the
states of UP, Punjab, Madras, and Bombay.He radicalised the
Samaj by
- Attacking the caste system
- Underlining women’s rights
- Promoting widow remarriage
- Raising the issue of caste status of Brahmo preachers, which was earlier reserved for
Brahmins
-He laid stress on universalism in religion.
Due to his radicalism, he and Debendranath were in conflict.
-In 1866, the Samaj was formally divided into Adi Brahmo Samaj (headed by
Debendranath) and the Brahmo Samaj of India (headed by Keshab Chandra).
2. Young Bengal Movement :
* Young Anglo-Indian Henry Vivian Derozio was its leader.
- This Socio-Religious Reform Movement was part of a radical trend in Bengal that
arose in the late 1820s and the 1830s.
- From 1826 to 1831, he taught at Hindu College.
- He gave students the inspiration they needed to think critically and freely, to
challenge all forms of authority, to value liberty, equality, and freedom, and to admire
truth.
* Old and decadent customs, rites, and traditions were attacked by the Derozians.
- Derozians advocated for women’s rights and demanded education for them.
- Social conditions were not yet ripe for Derozians ideas to flourish, thus they failed to
create a movement.
- Derozians failed to take up the peasant’s cause.
- Also, their ideas were ahead of their time, which no social class was able to absorb.
-Derozians did not succeed in maintaining their links with the people. * Public
agitation on public questions was carried on by the Derozians, such as,
- The revision of the Company’s Charter
Freedom of the Press,
- Indian labourers to be treated properly in British colonies abroad.
- Trial by jury
- Protecting ryots from oppressive zamindars, and - Employing Indians in the higher
grades of services.

3. Debendranath Tagore :
* Debendranath was imbibed with traditional Indian learning and the modern thoughts
of the West.
*Tattvabodhini Sabha (1839): Founded by Debendranath Tagore to propagate
Rammohun Roy’s ideas independent of the Brahmo Samaj.
- It countered the rapid progress of Christianity in India - It advocated the
development of Vedantism.
- Under its aegis, the emphasis on indigenous language and culture became much
more pronounced.
- Bengali texts in all subjects were published.
- With time, it included most of the prominent followers of Rammohun and
Derozio
- Other independent followers included Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar and Akshay Kumar
Dutt.
- A systematic study of India’s past in the Bengali language was promoted by its organ
Tatvabodhini Patrika.
- It spread a rational outlook among the intellectuals of Bengal.
* Debendranath Tagore reorganised the Brahmo Samaj in 1843 and put new life into it.
- The Samaj actively supported, the
movement for widow remarriage,
--abolition of polygamy,
--women’s education,
-- improvement of the ryot’s condition and temperance.
-He repudiated the doctrine that the Vedic scriptures were infallible.

4.Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar :

*He endured hardship to further his education and became principal of the Sanskrit
College in 1851.
*He put in place the study of Western thought in the Sanskrit College.
* He opened the gates of Sanskrit College to non-Brahmin students. * He wrote a
Bengali Primer and helped evolve a distinct modern prose style in Bengali.
*He contributed largely to the field offemale emancipation.
- It was due to his active mobilisation of support that the Widows’
Remarriage Act was passed in 1856, legalising all widow remarriages.
- Under Vidyasagar's supervision, the first legal Hindu widow marriage among the
upper castes in India was celebrated in 1856.
* Bethune School (1849): With Vidyasagar’s help, John Elliot Drinkwater Bethune
established the first permanent girls' school in India.
- As Secretary to the Bethune School, he was instrumental in leading the movement for
women’s education.
* He also campaigned against child marriage and polygamy.

5. Jyotiba Phule:
* He was a prominent social reformer and thinker of nineteenth-century India. -
Emancipation of human beings: He dedicated his entire life to relentlessly fighting
against social domination by the majority and striving for the freedom of all people
who were oppressed by this social inequality. - Enlightenment: In his views, the
enlightenment of women and lower castes was the sole solution to combat social evils.
- Girl's school: He established a girls' school along with Savitribai in 1851 and
later opened two more schools for the girls and an indigenous school for the lower
castes, especially for the Mahars and Mangs.
- Widows and abandoned women: He also established an ashram for young
widows and advocated for Widow Remarriage, as society was patriarchal and women
were often left without family support.
- Orphanage: In 1854, Jyotiba established an orphanage to shelter these widows
and abandoned women from perishing at the hands of society.
- Opposed authoritarianism: He opposed upper-caste authoritarianism and urged
peasants to resist restrictions.
- Gender equality: He believed in gender equality and involved his wife in all his
social reform activities.
- Accusations: The orthodox Brahmins of the society were furious at his activities
and accused him of acting on behalf of the Christian Missionaries. -->He, however, was
supported by Brahmin friends to make the movement successful.
- Satya Shodhak Samaj (Society of Seekers of Truth): He formed this in 1873 to
educate society about caste prejudice and to free downtrodden lower-caste people
from the stigmas created by Brahmins.
-->Membership to the Samaj was open to all, irrespective of caste and class. -->Dalit
term: Jyotiba coined the term ‘Dalit’ to apply to all people considered lower caste and
untouchables by the Brahmins.
* His works:
- Gulamgiri (Slavery): It critiques the social and political structure of Indian
society under British colonialism.It argues against the domination of the Brahmin caste
and addresses the issues of social inequality, caste-based discrimination, and the
exploitation of the lower castes.
- Sarvajanik Satyadharma Pustak: Published in 1879, this work emphasises the
principles of equality, justice, and human rights.It criticises the hierarchical social order,
arguing for the equal treatment of all individuals regardless of caste or gender.
- Satyashodhak Samaj Prakash: This book provides an overview of Phule's social
reform organisation, the Satyashodhak Samaj.

6. Savitribai Phule :
* Social reformer and poet who played an important role in women's education and
upliftment in the nineteenth century.
- Mahila Seva Mandal: Started in 1852, it aimed to raise awareness among women
about their rights, dignity, and social issues.
-She actively worked towards empowering women and fighting against customs like
shaving the heads of widows.
She successfully organised a barbers' strike in Mumbai and Pune to oppose his
practice.
* Night School and Stipends: In 1855, Jyotiba and Savitribai established a night school
for agricultural labourers and workers who could not attend during the day.
* Balhatya Pratibandhak Griha (1863): An infanticide prohibition home started with
Jyotiba.
* Satya Shodhak Samaj: She led the women’s section after the demise of Jyotiba
Phule.After that, she became the chairperson of the Samaj.
* Famine relief: She and her husband worked dauntlessly during the famines starting
in 1876, distributing free food in different areas and persuading the British
government to initiate relief work during the 1897 drought.
* Gender discrimination: She also raised her voice against caste and gender
discrimination.
* Literary works:
- Kavya Phule (1934) and
- Bavan Kashi Subodh Ratnakar (1982)
7. Bal Shastri Jambhekar :
*One of the first reformers in Bombay.
- Attacking Brahmanical orthodoxy, he tried to reform popular Hinduism.
- The Darpan (1832): A weekly started by Jambhekar.
Objective: ‘Chasing away the mists of error and ignorance which clouded men’s minds,
and shedding over them the light of knowledge, in which the people of Europe have
advanced so far before the other nations of the world’.

8.Paramahamsa Mandali (1849) :

- Founded in Maharashtra by Durgaram Mehtaji and Dadoba Pandurang.
The Mandali carried out its activities secretly.
- Its founders believed in one God and were primarily interested in breaking caste
rules.
- It fought against idolatry and the caste system
- Members of the Mandali shared food cooked by low-caste people.
- It advocated women's education and widow remarriage.
- Branches of the Mandali were formed in Poona, Satara, and other towns in
Maharashtra.

9. Gopal Hari Deshmukh:

- He was a champion of social reform and new learning in Maharashtra.
- Famous by the pen-name ‘Lokahitawadi’.
- Broadening the scope of the social movement was his main contribution. - In the
Prabhakar, a Marathi Weekly, he wrote his hundred letters, the famous ‘Shatpatre’,
between 1848 and 1850.All letters are comprehensive in dimension. Very few aspects
of society are untouched by these letters. - He also said that ‘if religion did not

-
 sanction social reforms then religion should be changed, for after all religion was
made by human beings’.

II. ALL INDIAN MOVEMENTS

* Many Indians realised that social and religious reformation was an essential condition
for the all-round development of the country on modern lines and for the growth of
national unity and solidarity. It strengthened because of the following factors:

- Growth of nationalist sentiments

- The emergence of new economic forces
- Spread of education
- Western ideas and culture
Increased awareness of the world.
1. Ramakrishna Paramhansa:
*Ramakrishna Paramhansa (1834-86) was a saintly person who sought religious
salvation in the traditional ways of renunciation, meditation, and devotion.
- In search of religious truth and the realisation of God, he lived with mystics of
other faiths, Muslims and Christians.
- He emphasised that there are various paths to salvation and man's service as the
embodiment of God.
- He advocated for the preservation of Hinduism's rituals and beliefs as well as the
universality of all religions.

2. Swami Vivekananda (1863–1902):

- A great disciple of his, he popularised his religious message and attempted to adapt
it to the requirements of modern Indian society.
- Swami Vivekananda stressed social action.
- During his travels from 1893 to 1897, he promoted spiritual Hinduism in America and
Europe.

-
- He established the Ramakrishna Mission in 1897 to carry out humanitarian relief and
social work.
- He set up a Math at Belur
- Vivekananda opposed superstitions, rigid caste systems, untouchability, religious
degeneration, and other issues.
- He remarked, “There is a danger of our religion getting into the kitchen. We are
neither Vedantists, most of us now, nor Pauranics nor Tantrics. We are just ‘don’t
touchists’. Our religion is in the kitchen. Our God is in the cooking pot, and our
religion is ‘Don’t touch me, I am holy’. If this goes on for another century, every one
of us will be in a lunatic asylum.”
He made an effort to establish Hindu spiritual superiority over the arrogant West.
- However, he believed that India had to learn work ethics, forms of organisation and
technological advances from the West.
- He believed in the Indian philosophical tradition's superior approach and subscribed
to Vedanta, which according to him, was a fully rational system. - Regarding liberty of
thought, he said, “Liberty in thought and action is the only condition of life, growth
and well-being: Where it does not exist, the man, the race, and the nation must go
down”.

3. Veda Samaj (1864):

*It was an extremely important social reform in Southern India.
- Established in Madras by Sridharalu Naidu and Keshab Chandra Sen.
- It was highly inspired by Brahmo Samaj, at least in their theistic principles. - It
considered marriage and funeral rituals as matters of routine, irrespective of religious
significance.
- Strong voices were raised in favour of eliminating all sectarian beliefs, gradually
eradicating caste distinctions, and tolerating the viewpoint of outsiders.
- Samaj was against polygamy and child marriage and supported widow remarriage.

-
4.Arya Samaj (1875):
* Founded in Bombay by Swami Dayanand Saraswati(1824-1883), earlier known as
Mool Shankar.
- The important task of this Socio-Religious Reform Movement was reforming the
Hindu religion in North India.
- It promoted social reform.
- It made an effort to better women's conditions.
It promoted social equality while combating untouchability and the rigidities
of the hereditary caste system.
- He made his ideas accessible to the people of Northern India by the use of the Hindi
language in which he wrote and preached.
- Arya Samaj also played a significant part in the national movement by inculcating the
idea of self-respect and self-reliance.
- The Arya Samaj played a commendable role in encouraging education among the
masses
* Swami Dayanand Saraswati:
- Vedas were considered infallible and the foundation of all knowledge by him.
-Any religious thought which was in conflict with the Vedas was rejected by him.
-He gave the slogan "Back to the Vedas”.
-As per his beliefs, every Individual had the right to direct access to God. -Shuddhi
Movement was started by him with the aim of bringing back those Hindus who had
converted to Islam and Christianity.
- Satyarth Prakash was his most important book.
- Swami opposed idolatry, polytheism, Brahmin-sponsored religion, and superstition.
- He advocated for female education and inter-caste marriages.
- However, his inclination towards the Vedas gave his teachings an orthodox flavour.
*His followers' work:

-
* They started a network of schools and colleges in the country to impart education on
Western lines.
* Lala Hansraj was the principal of Dayanand Anglo-Vedic School.
* Gurukul was started by Swami Shradhananda.
* He propagated traditional ideals in education.
* The leaders who opposed Anglo-Vedic education included Swami
Shraddhanand, Gurudatt, Lekh Ram and others.
* They insisted that the Samaj’s focus must be on Sanskrit, Aryan ideology and
Vedic scriptures.
* The militant branch believed that Dayanand's words were infallible and that the
meaning of Satyarth Prakash was infallible.
* On the other hand moderate wing believed that Dayanand was a reformer and
not a rishi or sadhu.
* The differences led to a division of the Arya Samaj in 1893 when Munshiram
broke away along with his supporters to initiate a gurukul-based education. * Thus,
two groups emerged after 1893, the DAV group and the Gurukul group

5. Prarthana Samaj (1876):

* Founded by Atmaram Pandurang and Mahadev Govind Ranade.
- This Socio-Religious Reform Movement was founded with the intention of revising
Hindu religious doctrine and practises to reflect current understanding.
- It advocated for the devotion of a single God and worked to rid religion of priestly
dominance and caste orthodoxy.
- The Samaj opposed polytheism and condemned idolatry, priestly dominance, and
caste rigidities.
- It drew inspiration from Buddhism and Christianity in addition to Hindu sects.
- It sought truth in all religions.
- Ranade aimed to establish the idea of a single compassionate God by drawing
inspiration from the Maratha Bhakti saints of the mediaeval era.
- R.G. Bhandarkar, the famous Sanskrit scholar, was one of its great leaders.
- The Brahmo Samaj had a significant impact on it.
- Viresalingam, a Telugu reformer, was responsible for its activities spreading to South
India.

6. Theosophical Society :
* The history of Indian society, religion, and culture has been significantly influenced by
Theosophical society.
- Madame H.P. Blavatsky, a Russian spiritualist, and Col. H.S. Olcott, an American,
founded it in the United States in 1875.
- The goal was to promote ancient religions, philosophies, and science and
establish a universal brotherhood.
- Introduced in India in 1879, its headquarters were set up at Adyar near Madras in
1886.
* It spread its influence under Annie Beasant, who played an important role in India’s
struggle for freedom.
- She and her associates advocated the revival and strengthening of the ancient
religions of Hinduism, Zoroastrianism and Buddhism.
- They recognised the doctrine of the transmigration of the soul.
- They also preached the universal brotherhood of man.
- They contributed to instilling a sense of national pride in the educated Indians.
- The Westerners who promoted Indian religious and philosophical traditions were the
leaders and backers of Annie Besant's movement.
- This helped Indians recover their self-confidence.
- The work done by the Theosophical Movement to awaken the Indians was
remarkable, despite the fact that it did not enjoy widespread popularity. - The
society promoted the advancement of women and fought against untouchability.
- Annie Besant spent her entire life advancing Indian society.She described her mission
in these words: “The Indian work is first of all the revival, the strengthening and
uplifting of the ancient religions. This has brought with it a new self-respect, pride in
the past, belief in the future, and as an inevitable result, a great wave of patriotic life,
the beginning of the rebuilding of a nation”.
- Branches of the Theosophical Society were opened all over India, and its Journal
Theosophist had a wide circulation.
- The Central Hindu School at Benaras, which Madan Mohan Malaviya later
transformed into the Benaras Hindu University, was one of Besant's numerous
accomplishments in India.

7. Deccan Education Society (1884)

* Deccan Education Society was an influential social reform and political organisation
formed in the Pune district in Maharashtra.
- The establishment of the New English School in Pune resulted in the foundation of
the Deccan Education Society by Gopal Ganesh Agarkar and Lokmanya Bal
Gangadhar Tilak.
- It was an unprecedented move because the only organisations involved in mass
education were governmental institutions and Christian missionaries. - As a fervent
reformist, Agarkar took a keen interest in social reform initiatives.
- Tilak was a Puritan when it came to social reforms.Once political freedom was
attained, he thought, laws could implement such social reform measures.
- Other leaders of the Society:
Vishnushastri Chiplunkar
Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade
Mahadev Ballal
Namjoshi
V S Apte
V B Kelkar
M S Gole and
N K Dharap
- Society established Fergusson College, Pune's first higher education institution
Dev Samaj (1887)
Founder: Pandit Shiv Narayan Agnihotri
Place of establishment: Lahore
- Dev Samaj rejected contemporary Hinduism.
- Its rituals and deities were replaced by worship of the true ‘guru’, Dev Bhagvan Atma.
- All caste restrictions were rejected.
- Dev Samaj members were expected to practice inter-dining and inter-caste marriage.
- It advocated the education of both men and women. To further this end, it opened a
coeducational school at Moga, which later became the Dev Samaj
High School. In 1901, the Samaj opened a separate girls` school, the Dev Samaj Balika
Vidyalaya.
- Dev Samaj emphasised morality, prohibiting lying, theft, cheating, bribery, and
gambling.
- Pandit Shiv Narayan Agnihotri:Initially, he accepted the reformist ideology of the
Brahmo Samaj.He advocated for marriage reform, opposed child marriage, and
supported vegetarianism.He defended Brahmo ideals against the new
Arya Samaj.Agnihotri defended Sikhism against Arya Samaj attacks in 188889.Factional
strife made Agnihotri part its ways from Brahmo Samaj and led to the founding of Dev
Samaj.With time, it moved away from Brahmo Samaj and made guru-ship as the
central principle.

8.Veeresalingam :
* In the South of India, a leading light of the Socio-Religious Reform Movement in the
early stages was Kandukari Veeresalingam.
- By profession, he was a school teacher.
- Proficient writer, authored numerous tracts and pamphlets on this SocioReligious
Reform Movement in Telugu, thus considered the father of modern Telugu prose
literature.
- He became the father figure of the subsequent generation of Andhra social reformers
due to his missionary zeal on issues like the remarriage of widows, female education,
the advancement of women, and the elimination of social vices.
- In 1874, he started a school in Dowlaiswaram.
- He is frequently compared to Raja Rammohun Roy in Andhra because he built
the "Brahmo Mandir" in Rajahmundry in 1887.
 III. Muslims

1. Wahabi Movement (1830-1860):

- Leader: Syed Ahmed Barelvi of Rae Bareilly

- He was greatly influenced by the teachings of Abdul Wahab of Arabia and Shah
Waliullah, a Delhi saint.
- The roots of this Socio-Religious Reform Movement were primarily religious. - Patna
served as the key hub for the Wahabi movement in India. Additionally, it had
missions in Bombay, Bengal, UP, Hyderabad, and Madras.
- In some places, particularly Bengal, it quickly took on the characteristics of a class
struggle.
- Regardless of communal differences, peasants banded together to fight their
landlords.

2. Faraizi Movement (1838-48):

- Shariatullah Khan and Dadu Mian spearheaded the first-ever anti-tax campaign
against the British government.
- Their volunteer group bravely engaged the armed band of zamindars and indigo
planters.
- It united all of Bengal's farmers in opposition to landlord tyranny and unlawful
extractions.
- In the districts of Dhaka, Faridpur, Barisal, Mymensingh, and Comilla, the Faraizi
movement was well received.

3. The Mohammedan Literary Society of Calcutta :

- Founded by Abdul Latif in 1863.
- It aimed to spread modern education and remove social practices like polygamy
among upper and middle-class Muslims - It was crucial in advancing Hindu-Muslim
unity.

4. Deoband Movement (1866):

* The Dar al-Uloom Deoband was a revivalist movement founded in Deoband,
United Province, British India, by Muhammad Qasim Nanautavi and Rashid Ahmad
Gangohi.
- In general, the Deobandis have been outspoken opponents of Sufi devotional
practices.
- ThisSocio-Religious Reform Movement spreaded among Muslims the clear teachings
of the Quran and the Hadis.
- It opposed the thoughts propagated by the Aligarh Movement. - It was aimed at the
moral and religious regeneration of the Muslim community.
- The formation of the Indian National Congress was welcomed by it.

5. Sayyid Ahmed Khan and the Aligarh School

* Only after the 1860s, the Indian Muslims started the Socio-Religious Reform
Movements.
- Sayyid Ahmed Khan (1817-98) urged the Muslims to reject the decadent mediaeval
thought and to imbibe modern scientific knowledge and outlook. - He supported the
abolition of purdah and the expansion of women's education while denouncing the
practice of polygamy.
- He advocated for freedom of thought and tolerance in the populace. - He spent his
entire life working to advance modern education because it was a cause that deeply
concerned him.
- In order to spread Western education, he established the Mohammedan Anglo-
Oriental College in Aligarh in 1875.
This eventually became the Aligarh Muslim University.
- He believed that for Muslims, the Quran is the most authoritative and rational
religious text.
- He spoke out against religious fanaticism and bigotry while valuing all religions.
- Some of his supporters chose not to participate in the growing national movement
because they thought the two groups might grow in different directions.
- The liberal, social and cultural movement started by him among the Muslims is
known as the Aligarh Movement, as it originated in Aligarh.The ensuing Muslim
revival was largely brought on by the Aligarh Movement.For the dispersed Muslim
 population spread across the nation, it served as a focal point.It provided them with a
shared knowledge base and a language, namely Urdu.A Muslim press was established
for the collection of Urdu-language works.
- He demanded that European science and technology be studied.
- In 1866, he formed the British Indian Association at Aligarh.
- He wrote ‘The Causes of the Indian Revolt’ (1858), in which he criticised the British for
their aggressive expansion into India and their ignorance of Indian culture.
- In order to create a bridge between India and their British rulers, he argued for Indian
representation in governance and for the education of the Indian populace.
Muhammad Iqbal (1876-1938) He was one of the greatest poets of modern
India.
- Through his poetry, he had a significant impact on both Hindus and Muslims of
younger generations in terms of their philosophical and religious outlook.
- He emphasised the necessity of ongoing change and nonstop action while decrying
resignation, introspection, and peaceful contentment.
- He urged people to adopt a progressive mindset that would contribute to world
change.
- He was basically a humanist.In actuality, he elevated human action to the rank of a
fundamental virtue.He asserted that instead of submitting to nature or the powers
that be, man should exert constant control over this world. - The passive acceptance
of things as they were, in his opinion, was the greatest sin.
- He urged men to work for and find happiness in this world of the living by
denouncing ritualism, asceticism, and otherworldly attitudes.
- He praised patriotism in his earlier poetry, but later he promoted Muslim separatism.

6.Ahmadiyya Movement (1889):

*Founded in Punjab by eminent scholar and defender of Islam Hazrat Mirza Ghulam
Ahmad.
- Through this Socio-Religious Reform Movement, numerous schools and colleges
across the nation were opened as a result of this movement.They emphasised the
 universal and humanitarian character of Islam.They favoured unity among Hindus and
Muslims.
- Hazrat Mirza established a Muslim movement and community in order,
-->to defend and spread Islam throughout the entire world and
-->to awaken the Islamic principles of mercy, forgiveness, and compassion for all people.
- He named it Ahmadiyya, after the Holy Prophet Muhammad’s other name Ahmad
which symbolises the qualities of tenderness, gentleness, love and mercy.

IV. Sikhs
1.Kuka Movement (Namdhari Movement, 1872) :

*Leaders: Bhagat Jawaharmal and Baba Balak Singh

- This Socio-Religious Reform movement became a powerful force of
religiopolitical revival among the Sikhs under Baba Ram Singh, a disciple of Baba Balak
Singh.Baba Ram Singh particularly enjoined upon his followers the worship of one God
through prayer and meditation.All of his followers were urged to be involved in
worshipping God at all times by the Rehatnamas (moral codes) he created and
enforced.He also preached against social evils such as the caste system, infanticide,
early marriage and barter of daughters in marriage and popularised simple and
inexpensive Anand Marriage.The teachings of Baba Ram Singh seem to have had a
wide appeal to the Sikh masses.
- The rising popularity of Baba Ram Singh's mission was of great concern to
modern European officials.

2.Singh Sabha Movement (1873):

* The year following the persecution of the Kukas and the suppression of their
movement saw the birth of this Socio-Religious Reform Movement. - Its activities had a
much wider appeal among the Sikh masses and, consequently, made a far greater
impact.
- The majority of the Singh Sabha movement's supporters, who were from the
educated middle class, also had ties to other social and religious movements in Punjab.
- Through the dissemination of education, the Singh Sabha primarily sought social
and religious reform.Hence they consciously refrained from discussing political
questions.
- The Singh Sabha leadership did not want to offend the British authorities, either
because of their own vested interests as large landholders or because of their
conception of the 'interests of the Sikhs'.
- They contrasted the current deplorable state of the Sikhs with the past sufferings
under the Mughals, citing the prosperous times of Ranjit Singh's rule in Punjab.
- The major contribution of the Singh Sabha leadership lay in the creation of a
network of Khalsa schools, colleges and other centres of learning.The founding of
Khalsa College in Amritsar in 1892 contributed to the advancement of Punjabi
literature, Sikh education, and Gurmukhi.British assistance was used to establish the
college.

3. Akali Movement (1920-1925) :

* The formation of the two Singh Sabhas at Amritsar and Lahore in the 1870s was the
beginning of this Socio-Religious Reform Movement among the Sikhs.
- It rose in Punjab in 1920.
* The Akalis' main aim was to clean up the administration of the Gurudwaras, or Sikh
shrines.These gurudwaras had been heavily endowed with land and money by devout
Sikhs, but they had come to be managed autocratically by corrupt and selfish mahants.A
powerful Satyagraha against the mahants and the government, which supported them,
was launched by the Sikh masses under the leadership of the Akalis in 1921.A new Sikh
Gurudwaras Act was passed in 1922 as a result of pressure from the Akalis.It was later
revised in 1925. In a few instances, with the aid of this Act, and more through direct
action, the Sikhs gradually turned out of the gurudwaras, the corrupt mahants.

V. Parsis
The Rehnumai Mazdayasan Sabha by Dadabhai Naoroji:

*Leading social reform society of Bombay.

- Also known asthe Religious Reform Association, it was started by Naoroji
Furdonji, Dadabhai Naoroji, S.S. Bengalee and others.It waged a campaign against the
deeply ingrained orthodoxy in the religious community.It started the modernisation of
Parsi social customs relating to women's education, marriage, and general social
status.It agitated for uniform laws of inheritance and marriage for the Parsis.
- In the course of time, the Parsis became socially the most Westernised section of
Indian society.
 SOCIAL PROTEST MOVEMENTS
1. Jyotiba & Savithribai Phule:
* Savitribai Phule was born in the Satara District of Maharashtra on January 3, 1831.
* She belonged to the Mali Community and was the youngest daughter of Lakshmi
and Khandoji Nevase Patil.
* At the age of nine, she married Jyotirao Phule, who was 13.
* No children were born to Savitribai and Jyotirao.
* Yashawantrao, a son born to a Brahmin widow, is claimed to have been adopted by
them.
* When Yashwantrao was going to marry, no one would give him a bride as he was
born to a widow.
* As a result, Savitribai arranged his marriage to a worker in her organization and it was
an inter-caste marriage.
* Savitri Bai was uneducated and never went to school till she was unmarried. * She
and Sagunabai Kshirsagar, Jyotirao’s cousin sisters, were educated at their house by
Jyotirao.
* After finishing school, Savitri Bai enrolled in two teacher-training programmes. The
first of which was at an institution in Ahmednagar which was managed by an
American missionary named Cynthia Farrar while the second was at a Normal School
in Pune.
* Savitribai may have been the first Indian woman teacher and headmistress who
trained for that work.
Jyotirao Phule:
* He was an Indian social activist, thinker, anti-caste social reformer and writer from
Maharashtra.
* He is also known as Jyotiba Phule.
* Education: In 1841, Phule was enrolled at the Scottish Missionary High School (Pune),
where he completed education.
* Ideology: His Ideology was based on: Liberty, Egalitarianism, Socialism. - Phule was
influenced by Thomas Paine’s book titled The Rights of Man and believed that the
only solution to combat the social evils was the enlightenment of women and
members of the lower castes.
* Major Publications: Tritiya Ratna (1855), Powada: Chatrapati Shivajiraje Bhosle
Yancha (1869), Gulamgiri (1873), Shetkarayacha Aasud (1881). * Title of Mahatma:
He was bestowed with the title of Mahatma on 11th May, 1888 by a Maharashtrian
social activist Vithalrao Krishnaji Vandekar.
* Social Reforms: Jyotirao, the revolutionary that he was, observed the lack of
opportunities for education for young girls and women.
* He started to educate his wife at home and trained her to become a teacher. * He
realised the pathetic conditions of widows and established an ashram for young
widows and eventually became an advocate of the idea of Widow Remarriage.
* He attacked the orthodox Brahmins and other upper castes and termed them as
"hypocrites".
* In 1868, Jyotirao constructed a common bathing tank outside his house to exhibit his
embracing attitude towards all human beings and wished to dine with everyone,
regardless of their caste.
* He started awareness campaigns that ultimately inspired the likes of Dr. B.R.
Ambedkar and Mahatma Gandhi, stalwarts who undertook major initiatives against
caste discrimination later.
* It is believed by many that it was Phule who first used the term ‘Dalit’ for the
depiction of oppressed masses often placed outside the ‘varna system’.
Savitribai Phule:

* In 1852, Savitribai started the Mahila Seva Mandal to raise awareness about women’s
rights.
Savitribai called for a women’s gathering where members from all castes were
welcome and everybody was expected to sit on the same mattress. * She published
Kavya Phule in 1854 and Bavan Kashi Subodh Ratnakar in 1892.
* In her poem, Go, Get Education, she urges the oppressed communities to get an
education and break free from the chains of oppression.
* She simultaneously campaigned against child marriage, while supporting widow
remarriage.
* She initiated the first Satyashodhak marriage—a marriage without a dowry, Brahmin
priests or Brahminical rituals in 1873.
Savitri Bai Phule: Pioneer of Women’s Education:
* Public education was uncommon in the nineteenth century, with only a few
missionary establishments that were “open to all.”
* Jyotirao Phule, then 21 years old, and Savitri, then 17 years old, founded a women’s
school in 1848 at Bhide Wada, Pune. It was the country’s first women’s school which
was founded by Indians.
* When she started educating girls in Maharwada, Pune many people opposed her.
* As she had completed the teacher’s training course, the orthodox group’s allegations
that women cannot teach were countered.
* She became the first female educator in India in 1848.
* Savitribai along with Jyotirao Phule established three schools in Pune by the end of
1851 with roughly 150 female students.
* Their teaching methods were thought to be superior to those of government schools,
and the number of girls enrolled in Phule’s schools rapidly outnumbered the number
of boys enrolled in other official schools. * Jyotiba and Savitri Bai had to leave their
family home in 1849 as their family opposed them.
* The education of women was considered evil at that time, so their actions were
deemed anti-social by their families.
* Savitribai met Fatima Begum Sheikh while staying with a friend’s family,
Usman Sheikh. Fatima Sheikh and Savitribai both attended Normal School in Pune and
graduated together. Fatima Sheikh became India’s first Muslim female teacher.
* Jyotiba and Savitri Bai Phule founded two Educational Trusts in the 1850s.
* * These were the Native Female School, Pune, and The Society for Promoting the
Education of Mahars, Mangs, and Etceteras, both of which grew to include a number
of schools in Pune.
* Savitri Bai Phule: Social Reformer of Pune
* Savitribai established the Mahila Seva Mandal in 1852 to promote women’s rights.
* The purpose was to raise women’s awareness of their human rights, and other social
issues.
* A successful barbers’ strike was organised by Savitribai in Mumbai and Pune to
protest the practice of shaving widows’ heads after they became widows.
* She convened a women’s gathering, inviting ladies of all castes to attend and all of
them to sit on the same mattress, to eliminate caste discrimination. * She
campaigned against child marriage while also advocating for widow remarriage.
* In 1863, they established a home in their own house to avoid infanticide and to care
for pregnant, exploited Brahman widows and their infants.
* In 1873, she performed the first Satyashodhak Marriage, which entailed no dowry,
and it was without Brahmin priests and had no Brahminical ceremonies.
* In 1890, her husband Jyotirao died and she defied societal conventions by lighting
the pyre of his husband’s funeral.
* Even after the death of Jyotirao, she didn’t stop and she continued the work of the
Satya Shodhak Samaj.
* She led the annual session of Satya Shodhak Samaj in Saswad in 1893.
Savitribai & Jyotirao Phule Founded Satya Shodhak Samaj (Truth Seekers Society):

* Together, by 1848, the Phules started a school for girls, Shudras and AtiShudras in
Poona.
* In the 1850s, the Phule couple initiated two educational trusts—the Native Female
School, Pune and The Society for Promoting the Education of Mahars, Mangs and
Etceteras—which came to have many schools under them. * In 1853, they opened a
care centre for pregnant widows to have safe deliveries and to end the practice of
 infanticide owing to social norms. * The Balhatya Pratibandhak Griha (Home for the
Prevention of Infanticide) started in their own house.
* On September 24, 1873, Jyotiba Phule along with Savitribai formed the Satyashodhak
Samaj in Pune, Maharashtra which means Truth-seekers’ Society.
* It advocated for educational opportunities as well as increased social and political
rights for underprivileged groups in Maharashtra.
* The main focal point was the upliftment of women, Shudras, and Dalits. * Savitribai
became Satyashodhak Samaj’s female section leader. * During the 1930s, the Samaj
was disbanded when its leaders joined the Indian National Congress.
* The Savitribai Phule’s ideology had a significant impact on India’s intellectual and
feminist movement, particularly in terms of Non-Brahman, Dalit and women politics.
* Phule’s teachings of universal rights and equality, as well as her arguments against
brahmin dominance of social, religious, and political life, influenced the Non-
Brahman Movement greatly.
* Her teachings influenced the Dalit and women’s educational movement into the early
twentieth century, which was distinct from the Non-Brahman Movement.
* Along with B. R. Ambedkar, Jyotiba Phule and Savitribai Phule have become a symbol
for the backward people.
* On the Jayanti of Savitribai, women in local branches organize the Human Rights
Campaign.
* In 1983, the Pune City Corporation erected a memorial for Savitribai Phule and India
Post also issued a stamp in honour of Phule in 1998.
* The 3rd of January, Savitribai’s birthday, is observed as Balika Din which means ‘Girl
Child Day’ throughout Maharashtra.
* In her honour, The University of Pune was renamed to ‘Savitribai Phule University‘ in
2015.
Famous Poetry & Books by Savitri Bai Phule
* Savitribai Phule was the first Indian woman whose poems were recognised by the
British India Empire.
* She was also the first Dalit woman as she belonged to the Mali community to achieve
this achievement.
* She is known as the “Mother of Modern Poetry,” and she emphasized the importance
of English and education in her poems.
* She published her assertive works Kavya Phule in 1854 and Bavan Kashi Subodh
Ratnakar in 1892, both in Marathi.
* Savitribai Phule argued against women’s exploitation in her poem
‘Should they be Called Humans?‘
*She wrote the inspiring line in her poem, ‘Rise, to learn and act‘

2) Mahatma Ayyankali:
* The Prime Minister of India paid tribute to social reformer Mahatma Ayyankali on his
157th birth anniversary.
* Ayyankali (1863-1914), born in Kerala, was a leader of the lower castes and
Dalits. With his efforts, Dalits got the freedom to walk on public roads, and Dalit
children were allowed to join schools.
*He formed Sadhu Jana Paripalana Sangham (SJPS) to work for low castes. * Efforts to
organise the “depressed classes” and particularly the untouchable castes predated the
nationalist movement, having begun in the second half of the nineteenth century.
*This was an initiative taken from both ends of the caste spectrum – by upper caste
progressive reformers as well as by members of the lower castes such as Mahatma
Jotiba Phule and Babasaheb Ambedkar in western India, Ayyankali, Sri Narayana Guru,
Iyothee Das and Periyar (E.V. Ramaswamy Naickar) in the South.
Constitutional and Legal Provisions Against Discrimination of Dalits * Social
Safeguards:
- Article 17 of the constitution abolishes the practice
of “untouchability” and punishes the enforcement of any disability arising out of the
practice.
- Article 21 guarantees the right to life and liberty. The Supreme Court has interpreted
this right to include the right to be free from degrading and inhuman treatment, the
right to integrity and dignity of the person, and the right to speedy justice.
- When read with Article 39A on equal justice and free legal aid, Article 21 also
encompasses the right to legal aid for those faced with imprisonment and those too
poor to afford counsel.
- Article 23 prohibits traffic in human beings and other similar forms of forced labor.
- Article 24 provides that no child under the age of fourteen shall work in any factory
or mine or engage in any hazardous employment.
* Economic Safeguards:
- Article 15(4) empowers the state to make any special provisions for the
advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens, or for
scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.
- Through Article 16(4), the state is empowered to make “any provision for the
reservation of appointments or posts in favour of any backward class of citizens which,
in the opinion of the State, is not adequately represented in the services under the
State”.
* Political Safeguards: Article 330 provides reservations for seats for scheduled castes
and scheduled tribes in the Lok Sabha (the House of the People), while Article 332
provides for reservations in the state legislative assemblies.
- Article 338 establishes the National Commission for Scheduled Castes.
Related Directive Principles of State Policy:
- Article 43 calls on the state to secure to all workers, agricultural, industrial or
otherwise, a living wage and conditions of work ensuring a decent standard of life.
- Article 45 charges that the state shall endeavor to provide free and compulsory
education for all children until they reach the age of six. - Article 46 states that the
State shall promote with special care the educational and economic interests of the
weaker sections of the people, and in particular, of the Scheduled Castes and the
Scheduled Tribes, and shall protect them from social injustice and forms of
exploitation

3) Narayana Guru:
* The Shree Narayan Guru Dharma Paripalana (SNDP) Movement was an example of a
regional movement that arose from the conflict between the lower and upper castes.
 Sree Narayana Guru Swamy (1856– 1928) founded it among the Ezhavas of Kerala, a
backward caste of toddy-tappers who were considered untouchables and were
denied education and entry into temples. * During the pre-independence period, a
number of backward class movements arose. The backward classes banded together
against the Brahmanas in particular, believing that they monopolized much of the
socioeconomic benefits, leaving the agricultural intermediate castes and communities
in the lurch.
Aravipuram Movement: Evolution of SNDP Movement
* The Ezhavas were Kerala’s most populous caste, accounting for 26% of the total
population.
* On Sivaratri in 1888, Narayana Guru, himself of the Ezhava caste, took a stone from
the Neyyar river and installed it as a Sivalinga at Aruvippuram(Kerala).
* It was meant to demonstrate that the consecration of an idol was not limited to the
upper castes.
* With this, he launched a revolution that resulted in the abolition of many
discriminations in Kerala’s society.
* As a disciple of Narayana Guru, the movement (Aruvippuram Movement) drew the
famous poet Kumaran Asan.
* The Aruvippuram Kshetra Yogam was founded in 1889, with the intention of growing
into a large organisation to assist the Ezhavas in their material and spiritual
advancement.
* The Aruvippuram Sree Narayana Guru Dharma Paripalana Yogam was established in
1903 under the Indian Companies Act, with Narayana Guru serving as its permanent
chairman and Kumaran Asan serving as its general secretary.
* Dr. Palpu’s efforts in the formation of the SNDP must be recognized. * He had begun
the fight for social justice through movements such as the Ezhava Memorial and the
Malayali Memorial, among others.
Shree Narayan Guru Swami:
* He was born in Chempazhanthy on August 22, 1856, to Madan Asan and Kuttiyamma
(a village near Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala).
* He was a member of the Ezhavas Community and was known as ‘Avarna.’ * Since he
was a child, he has cherished solitude and spent a lot of time in deep meditation. He
went to local temples to worship and wrote devotional songs and hymns.
* Narayan Guru himself created a Shivalinga at Aruvippuram atop Siviratri in 1888,
using a stone from the Neyyar river.
* He triggered a revolution in Kerala that resulted in the removal of many sorts of
bigotry as a result of this.
* “One Caste, One Religion, One God for All,” he coined the now-famous slogan. “Oru
Jathi, Oru Matham, Oru Daivan, Manushyanu”
* He preached equality, but he did not feel that inequities should be used to carry out
conversions and thereby produce social upheaval.
* Animal sacrifices of any kind were abhorrent to him.
* Under the Indian Companies Act, the Shree Guru Narayan Dharma
Paripalana Yogam was established in 1903. He was appointed as the chairman. * The
Ezhavas’ right to attend public schools, access to government services, temple admission,
road access, and political representation were all addressed by the SNDP.
Objectives of SNDP Movement
* To oppose the predominance of Brahmanas and other upper castes in general
* To enhance the position of the backward castes in the caste hierarchy by copying
upper-caste lifestyles, such as higher education and distinguished occupations.
* ‘Ethnic’ awareness and politicization were generally established as a result of these
activities among diverse caste groupings.
Reforms under SNDP Movement Educational Reforms:
* The first task is to help the Ezhava Community, a depressed Kerala community.
* Narayana Guru (Asan) established a number of schools and institutions around Kerala
in order to provide widespread education to society.
Religious Reforms
* Sri Narayana Guru constructed a number of temples and streamlined the worship,
marriage, and death ceremonies.
* He wished to assist his neighbors in both secular and spiritual things. * He traveled
around Kerala for 15 years, assisting community members in developing self-
confidence, social awareness, and a clean environment.
Sri Narayana Guru instituted three religious reforms:
* To begin, he consecrated higher Gods in place of inferior Gods and appointed priests
from his own group of devout sanyasis.
* Second, he advised his disciples to construct additional temples in a simple and cost-
effective manner.
* Third, he made a significant modification in his mission of establishing new temples.
He never forced his followers to worship idols.
* For example, instead of an idol, he consecrated “Sivalikha,” a massive brass oil lamp
(Kammukha Kshetham in Thrissur in 1920) with the phrase “Let there be light.”
* He consecrated a plain stone with the inscription “Truth, Charity, Love, and Mercy” in
another shrine at Murukkunpuzha.
Establishment of 3 types of the temple:
* There are temples where poojas, or regular worship, are performed, as well as
festivals.
There are temples with idols, but no poojas or festivals are held.
* There are temples that are devoid of idols and images. It is self-evident that he
consecrated many types of temples to meet the people’s various emotional and
spiritual requirements.
Social Reforms of SNDP Yogam
Emphasis on Education and Sanskritization – * Using two methods, contemporary
education and Sanskritization, in about 30 years, Sri Narayana
Guru was able to change the Ezhavas from an untouchable population in Kerala to a
background caste community.
* In collaboration with the Nair Service Society (NSS), he began temple admission
programs.
He urged his community members to abandon costly practices such as “mock marriage”
(Thalikattu Sampradhayam), puberty celebration for girls (Thirukkuli), and Puaikuli, a
festival commemorating pregnancy after marriage.
* He was against the consumption of alcoholic beverages.
* Jati Mimasa is the essence of his art (A critique of caste).
* Admission to public schools.
* Recruitment to government services.
* Road access and temple entry.
* Political representation.
Conclusion: Within the Hindu religion, the Shri Narayana Movement arose as a
reforming and reaffirming movement. He was in charge of a whole lifestyle change that
included new religious beliefs, rituals, and perspectives. He offered an ideology of
seclusion and self-organization that improved people’s self-esteem, honor, and worth. It
was a protest ideology against the hierarchical and polluting Brahminical value system.
The movement as a whole resulted in structural changes such as increased social
mobility, a shift in conventional power distribution, and the consolidation of ‘backward
castes’ into a vast aggregation

4) Periyer Ramaswamy Naicker :

* The Self Respect Movement was founded in 1925 by E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker
(also known as Periyar), a Balija Naidu.
* The movement's goal was to reject the brahmanical religion and culture, which
Naicker saw as the primary tool of exploitation of the lower castes. * It was an
egalitarian movement that advocated for the abolition of Brahminical hegemony,
equal rights for backward classes and women in society, and the revitalization of
Dravidian languages such as Telugu, Tamil, Kannada, and Malayalam. Depressed castes
organized numerous satyagraha movements across India to protest the ban on their
entry into temples and other such restrictions.
What is the Self Respect Movement?
* S. Ramanathan invited E.V. Ramaswamy to start this movement in Tamil Nadu,
where it was very influential, in 1925.
* The Self Respect Movement, also known as the Dravidian Movement, advocated
for equal rights for the backward castes, with a focus on women's rights.
* Most importantly, as the movement's leaders stated, the movement fought for
people of the lower castes to have "self-respect" in society. * The Self-Respect
Movement was a dynamic social movement aimed at completely destroying the
contemporary Hindu social order and establishing a new, rational society free of caste,
religion, and god.
* Inspired by the emphasis on self-respect in Tamil literature – known as
tanmaanam or suya mariyadai – Ramanathan and Periyar Ramaswamy sought to
advance the philosophy that developing self-respect in individuals will end caste
discrimination.
* Annai Meenanmbal and Veeramal were two of the movement's female leaders
Objectives:
* The three main objectives advocated by this movement were the dissolution of
Brahminical rule, equal chances for the weaker sections and women in the workplace,
and the resurrection of the Dravidian languages, which included Telugu, Malayalam,
Kannada, and Tamil.
* The propounders of the movement outlined the objectives in two pamphlets
“Namathu Kurikkol” and “Tiravitakkalaka Lateiyam”. The following were the major
objectives of the movement:
- To build a society in which backward castes have the same basic civil rights as
higher castes.
- To work towards providing equal possibilities for growth and development
should to all persons.
Complete eradication of untouchability and establishment of a just and harmonious
society.
- It aimed at a social transformation after which friendship and a sense of
belonging comes naturally to everyone.
- To provide shelter for the destitute, orphans, and widows and to establish
schools and colleges.
- To deter people from constructing additional temples, mutts, chlorites, or Vedic
schools. The movement wanted to discourage people from using their caste names in
their names, and other similar practices that were blindly followed.
Significance:
* Following E.V.R.'s never-ending anti-orthodoxy campaign, the Brahmins'
monopoly of power and influence was gradually eroded.
* People were energized with the feeling of self-respect and, above all,
selfconfidence, as it prepared to confront societal injustice perpetuated by the
Brahmins.
* It resulted in the encouragement of inter-caste and interreligious weddings, as
well as the legalization of marriages performed without the presence of a Brahman
priest.
* Tamil Nadu was the first state after independence to approve legislation allowing
Hindu marriages without the use of a Brahmin priest.
* The method of allocating separate seats in Municipal Councils for Harijan
members was also abolished.
* The name boards of the hotels were changed from "Brahmins Hotel" to
"Vegetarian Hotel" as a result of the movement's unwavering support.
People began to take pride in abandoning their caste name.
Contemporary Relevance of Self Respect Movement:
* Periyar came up with the idea of forming a self-respect movement as a means of
achieving his goal of freeing society from some of the harmful social practices that go
by the names of dharma and karma. * The Self-Respect Movement has grown into a
prominent anti-caste movement that has questioned India's social system.
* Inter-caste marriages, as well as women's physical autonomy, were highlighted
by the movement.
* The feminist movement fought for a society where women could choose their
own sexual, reproductive, and physical decisions. The campaign was a breakthrough
moment for feminism in India.
* It placed a high priority on ensuring that women had access to permanent birth
control as well as contraception.
* One of the major societal revolutions brought about by the self-respect
movement was the Self-Respect Marriage System.
Conclusion: Indian societies have historically been dominated by Brahminical ideologies
and people have been under continuous oppression. Various incidents and movements
have occurred in the past to counteract this domination. The Self Respect Movement is
one of the movements that resisted Brahmin dominance in Indian society. The fact
remains that the SelfRespect Movement's strong ideals and demands paved the way for
true democracy.

5) Mahatma Gandhi:
* The Gandhian era of national struggle began in 1919 and lasted until India
gained independence from British rule in 1947.
* The early Gandhian movements' success, such as Champaran Satyagraha (1917),
Ahmedabad Mill Satyagraha (1918), and Kheda Satyagraha (1918), paved the way for
Gandhiji's meteoric rise. Gandhi emerged as a leader during the freedom struggle.
About Mahatma Gandhi:
* Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, also known as Gandhi, was an Indian lawyer,
anti-colonial nationalist, and political ethicist who used nonviolent resistance to lead
India's successful campaign for independence from British rule, and to later inspire
movements for civil rights and freedom around the world. * The honorific Mahatma,
which was first applied to him in South Africa in 1914, is now used all over the world.
* When Gandhi became president of the Indian National Congress in 1921, he led
nationwide campaigns to alleviate poverty, expand women's rights, foster religious and
ethnic harmony, abolish untouchability, and, most importantly, achieve swaraj, or self-
rule.
* Gandhi adopted the short dhoti made of hand-spun yarn as a symbol of
identification with India's rural poor.
* He began to live in a self-sufficient residential community and to fast for
extended periods of time as a form of introspection and political protest. * Gandhi
popularized anti-colonial nationalism among ordinary Indians by leading them in the
400-kilometer Dandi Salt March in 1930, which challenged the British-imposed salt tax,
and by calling for the British to leave India in 1942.
* He was imprisoned numerous times and for a long period of time in both South
Africa and India.
Rise of Mahatma Gandhi:
* The emergence of Mahatma Gandhi as the supreme leader of the national
movement between 1919 and 1920 marked the beginning of a new era in India's
struggle against colonial and exploitative British rule.
* The Gandhian era of national struggle began in 1919 and lasted until India
gained independence from British rule in 1947.
* The early Gandhian movements' success, such as Champaran Satyagraha (1917),
Ahmedabad Mill Satyagraha (1918), and Kheda Satyagraha (1918), persuaded the
masses that only the Gandhi method could defeat British rule.
* The situation in India in 1919-20 was extremely volatile due to a combination of
factors such as a leadership vacuum, failure of moderate and extremist policies, and
the Jalliawala Bagh massacre, which pushed Gandhiji to the forefront of the Indian
national freedom struggle.
* The typical character of the Gandhian movement, as well as the success of the
South African experiment, had also played a significant role in his ascension to the
position of a supreme national leader.
* Gandhiji lived like most ordinary Indians and spoke commoners' language.
Gandhiji fought for commoners' issues, and as a result, every section of Indian society
developed a strong faith in Gandhian leadership.
* During the years 1919-20, he became a symbol of hope and inspiration for the
common people, leading to his ascension to the position of an undisputed supreme
national leader.
Nature of Gandhian Movements:
* The Gandhian movement was a true mass movement, similar to moderate and
extremist movements. He was adamant that no struggle against British rule would
succeed unless the masses joined in.
* It was nonviolent in nature, egalitarian in outlook, secular and progressive in
nature, strongly anti-colonial in appearance, and distinguished by the use of both
constitutional and extra-constitutional methods.
* Gandhi's movement was a pan-India movement because it reached millions of
Indians and was easily embraced by all segments of Indian society. * Villagers had
begun to participate in the national movement, which was no longer limited to towns
and cities.
* Under Gandhiji's leadership, peasants, workers, women, students, and the
business class had joined the nationalist struggle.
* Gandhiji defined the goal of Swaraj for the first time at the Nagpur session of
Congress in December 1920.
* In Gandhiji's leadership, the Congress adopted the goal of 'Purna Swaraj' in order
to strengthen the freedom movement on a large scale.
* The Gandhian movement was fundamentally a Satyagraha, or "search for truth."
The Champaran Satyagraha of 1917 was Gandhiji's first Satyagraha movement.
* Gandhiji was always a staunch supporter of the truth, regardless of the
consequences.
* He believed that it was humanity's responsibility to cooperate with good and
avoid cooperation with evil. He saw British rule as a bad thing, which is why he
opposed it.
* Because Gandhiji always emphasized using the right methods to achieve the
right goals, the Gandhian movement was fundamentally an ethical and moral struggle.
He never took advantage of anyone's weakness.
* Furthermore, it was distinguished by a transition between active and passive
phases. During the active phase, Mahatma Gandhi led a mass agitation, and during the
passive phase, he oversaw a village reconstruction program. * It was centered on
several themes, including the promotion of HinduMuslim unity, the abolition of
untouchability, the promotion of cottage industry, the upliftment of women and lower
castes, the prohibition of liquor alcohol, and the spread of vocational education.
* The Gandhian movement also made extensive use of STS (Struggle-
TruceStruggle) and PCP (Pressure-Compromise-Pressure) strategies.
* It was extremely successful because it was only due to the pressure exerted by
the Gandhian movement that the British were forced to leave India in 1947 Gandhian
Movements - Significance:
* The Gandhian movement made a significant contribution to the success of
India's struggle against British rule, but it should be noted that the Gandhian
movement was not without limitations.
* Subhash Chandra Bose called the sudden withdrawal of the NonCooperation
Movement in February 1922, following the Chauri-Chaura incident, a "national
calamity."
* The Non-Cooperation Movement was an important stage in India's struggle for
independence from British rule.
* From August 1920 to February 1922, this movement was active. It was launched
from the Khilafat platform, led by Mahatma Gandhi, and was backed by the Indian
National Congress.
* The Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM) was suspended as an example of this. It
was the second great mass movement, launched on March 12, 1930, by Congress
under Gandhiji's leadership.
* Gandhiji suspended the CDM on March 5, 1931, through a pact signed with Lord
Irwin.
* It created a disillusioned atmosphere in the national struggle because Gandhiji
completely failed to take all of the leaders into confidence when making decisions.
Contribution of Gandhian Movements:
1. Champaran Satyagraha (1917):
* Gandhi's first active involvement in Indian freedom politics was the Champaran
agitation in Bihar.
* Farmers in Champaran were being forced to grow Indigo and were being
tortured if they objected.
* The farmers sought Gandhi's assistance, and Gandhi was able to gain
concessions from the authorities through a calculated nonviolent protest.
2. Kheda Satyagraha (1918):
* When floods devastated Kheda, a village in Gujarat, the local farmers petitioned
the rulers to waive the taxes. Here, Gandhi launched a signature campaign in which
peasants pledged not to pay taxes.
* In addition, he organized a social boycott of mamlatdars and talatdars (revenue
officials). In 1918, the government relaxed the terms of revenue tax payment until the
famine ended.
3. Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918):
* Gandhi used Satyagraha and hunger strike for the first time during an industrial
dispute between the owners and workers of a cotton mill in Ahmedabad.
* The owners wanted to withdraw the plague bonus from the workers, while the
workers demanded a wage increase of 35%.
* During Gandhi's peaceful strike, he went on hunger strike.
* The Ahmedabad Mill strike was successful, and the workers received the wage
increase they desired.
4. Khilafat Movement (1919):
* Gandhi had a significant impact on the Muslim population. This was evident in
his participation in the Khilafat Movement.
* Following World War I, Muslims feared for the safety of their Caliph or religious
leader, and a worldwide protest was organized to combat the Caliph's collapsing
status.
* Gandhi became a prominent spokesperson for the All India Muslim Conference
and returned the Empire medals he had received while serving in the Indian
Ambulance Corps in South Africa.
His role in the Khilafat quickly elevated him to the position of a national leader.
5. Movement Against Non-Cooperation (1920):
* Gandhi realized that the British were only able to stay in India because of the
Indians' cooperation. In light of this, he called for a non-cooperation movement.
* With the help of Congress and his indomitable spirit, he persuaded the people
that peaceful non-cooperation was the key to independence. * The foreboding day of
the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre sparked the noncooperation movement.
* Gandhi established the goal of Swaraj, or self-government, which has since
become the motto of the Indian freedom movement.
6. Civil Disobedience Movement, 1930
* Mahatma Gandhi is credited for starting the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930,
which paved the road for India's independence.
* The movement began in 1930, following the celebration of Independence Day.
* On March 12, 1930, the Dandi March marked the start of the movement.
* Gandhi ji travelled on foot from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi with 78 other people in
order to violate the salt prohibition.
* The government had jurisdiction over and regarded salt manufacture to be unlawful.
* Following this incident, the civil disobedience movement gained popularity all
throughout the nation.
7. Quit India Movement, 1942:
* In an effort to remove British rule in India, Mahatma Gandhi started the Quit
India Movement, also known as the Bharat Chhodo Andolan, during the All
India Congress Committee meeting in Bombay on August 8, 1942, during World War II.
* Gandhi's Quit India movement, which he announced in Bombay on August 8, 1942, at
the Gowalia Tank Maidan, was a call to Do or Die after the British failed to win Indian
support for the British war effort with Cripps Mission. * The movement was described
as "by far the most serious rebellion since 1857" by Viceroy Linlithgow.
Conclusion:
Mahatma Gandhi was the visionary who led India to independence. For over
250 years, India was ruled by the British. At the request of Gopal Krishna Gokhale,
Gandhi returned to India from South Africa in 1915. Gandhi's contribution to the Indian
freedom movement is incalculable in words. He and other freedom fighters forced the
British to leave India. His policies and agendas were nonviolent, and his words inspired
millions of people.

6) Dr. B.R.Ambedkar:
* Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (14 April 1891 – 6 December 1956), known colloquially
as Babasaheb, was an Indian jurist, economist, politician, and social reformer who
chaired the Constituent Assembly's Drafting Committee and served as India's First
Minister for Law and Justice.
* He is recognized as the 'Father of the Indian Constitution.
Dr. B.R Ambedkar - Background:
* He was born into an untouchable caste and hence endured various injustices and
discrimination in society.
* He was born to a Marathi family with roots in the Ambawade town of Ratnagiri,
Maharashtra, in Mhow, Central Provinces (modern-day Madhya Pradesh).
* His family was able to provide schooling to the children since they were better off
than other untouchables at the time.
* Even at school, Dalit students such as Ambedkar were forced to sit outside the
classroom.
* They had to rely on an upper-caste student or the school peon to pour water into
their mouths if they were thirsty, as they were not allowed to touch the water or the
jug in which it was kept.
* He obtained Ph.D. degrees in economics from Columbia University and the London
School of Economics, and he was a good student.
* In 1918, he was appointed Professor of Political Economy at the Sydenham College of
Commerce and Economics in Bombay, and despite being well-liked by his students,
he faced discrimination from his colleagues.
* During this time, Babasaheb became more interested in politics after being invited to
testify before the Southborough Committee, which was drafting the Government of
India Act 1919.
* He argued for separate electorates and reservations for untouchables and other
religious communities during this hearing.
* With the assistance of Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj, Maharaja of Kolhapur, he
launched the weekly Mooknayak in Mumbai in 1920.
* Ambedkar was an outspoken opponent of caste-based inequality in society,
advocating for Dalits to band together and demand their rights.
* He was an Indian politician, philosopher, writer, economist, academic, and social
reformer who dedicated his life to ending untouchability and other forms of social
inequity.
Architect of Indian Constitution:
* Babasaheb Ambedkar's legal expertise and understanding of many countries'
constitutions aided in the drafting of the constitution. He was appointed Chairman of
the Constituent Assembly's Drafting Committee and played a key role in the drafting
of the Indian Constitution.
* His most significant contributions were in the fields of fundamental rights, strong
central government, and minority protection, among others. * Article 32 ensures that
the Fundamental Rights are protected by the courts, which gives them significance.
Article 32 was the most significant article in his opinion, and he referred to it as the
"spirit of the Constitution and its very heart."
* He advocated for a powerful central government. He was concerned that Casteism is
more dominant at the municipal and provincial levels, and that the government at
these levels might not be able to protect the interests of lower castes from upper
caste pressure.
* Because the national government is less swayed by these forces, lower castes will be
protected.
* He was particularly concerned that the nation's most vulnerable segment, the
minority, would become political minorities.
* As a result, the democratic principle of "one man, one vote" is insufficient, and
minorities must be guaranteed a portion of power.
* He opposed the "Majoritarianism Syndrome" and included various safeguards for
minorities in the Constitution.
* Because additional administrative details have been included, the Indian constitution
is the world's longest constitution.
* Babasaheb defended it, claiming that "in a traditional community, we have developed
a democratic political structure."
* Future leaders may misuse the Constitution without officially violating it if all specifics
are not given. These precautions are essential.
* This demonstrates that he was aware of the practical challenges that India would face
after the Constitution was implemented.
Social Reforms:
* Babasaheb has dedicated his life to eradicating the concept of untouchability. He
believed that the nation's growth could not be accomplished without the abolition of
untouchability, which he defined as the ultimate annihilation of the caste system.
* He investigated Hindu philosophical traditions and gave them a critical evaluation.
* Untouchability, in his opinion, is the enslavement of the entire Hindu society.
* While Untouchables are exploited by Caste Hindus, religious statues enslave Caste
Hindus as well.
* As a result, the emancipation of the untouchables leads to the emancipation of Hindu
society as a whole.
* He thought that economic and political issues should be addressed only after social
justice had been achieved.
* If political emancipation comes before social liberation, it will result in upper-caste
Hindu hegemony and atrocities against lower caste Hindus. * The notion that
economic progress would inevitably lead to social justice is false. Casteism is a
manifestation of Hindus' mental slavery. As a result, Casteism must be abolished in
order to achieve social transformation. * Family and religious reforms were two types
of social changes. Child marriage, for example, was abolished as part of the family
reforms.
* He is a firm believer in women's empowerment. He is a supporter of women's
property rights, which he has settled through the Hindu Code Bill. Eradication of
 Untouchability: Babasaheb took many steps to ensure the eradication of
Untouchability. Some of them are discussed below:
1. Education:
* Knowledge is a liberating force for Babasaheb. Untouchables were degraded for a
variety of reasons, one of which was their lack of access to education.
* He chastised the British for failing to do enough to educate the lower castes. * He
insisted on students receiving a secular education in order to instill ideas of liberty and
equality in them.
2. Political strength:
* He wished for the untouchables to form a political organization. * Untouchables
would be able to protect, safeguard, and implement new emancipatory policies if
they had political power.
3. Religion:
* When he saw that Hinduism could not change, he converted to Buddhism and
encouraged his followers to do the same.
* Buddhism, in his opinion, was founded on humanism and was based on the
principles of equality and brotherhood.
4. Economic Progress:
* He wanted untouchables to be free of the local community's shackles and
customary jobs.
* He wanted people to learn new skills, start new jobs, and relocate to cities to
take advantage of the industrial revolution.
* Villages, he said, were a "sink of localism, a lair of ignorance, narrowmindedness,
and communalism." Dr. B.R Ambedkar - Ideology:
* He was a firm believer in Democracy. He agreed with other national leaders that
parliamentary democracy is the best form of democracy.
* He highlighted the need for 'democracy as a way of life,' which includes
democracy not only in the political realm but also in the personal, social, and economic
realms.
* For him, democracy must result in a significant change in society's social
conditions, or else the spirit of political democracy, i.e. "one man, one vote," will be
lost.
* Ambedkar was concerned with both the social and economic aspects of his work.
Parliamentary democracy, he claims, ignores social and economic inequalities.
Conclusion:
Dr B.R. Ambedkar, according to historian R.C. Guha, is a unique example of success in
the face of adversity. Babasaheb had to work hard for everything he achieved, so
struggle was a part of his life. While he will be remembered for his unwavering crusade
for a new social order, the Indian nation will always be grateful to him for providing us
with a Constitution that defines our core values as a nation. He was the man who
established us as a nation of equals

THE REVOLT OF 1857

* In 1757,after the Battle of Plassey the British laid the 1st step towards getting
power in Northern India & in 1857 took place revolt
* It is an important landmark in the history of India which occurred during the
governor Generalship of Lord canning
*The 1857 Revolt sowed the seeds of Indian nationalism, which lay dormant in the
subconscious of the Indian people. It started the movement which was a continuous
struggle against the British rule till 1947. Hence, the nature, character and causes of this
Great Revolt of 1857 should be studied in order to understand the subsequent events.
Nature of the Revolt :
* The historical writings of the British scholars underplayed the character of the
Revolt of 1857. Sir John Lawrence was of the opinion that the Revolt was purely a
military outbreak, and not a conspiracy to overthrow British rule. *On the other hand
the Revolt of 1857 is hailed by the Indian scholars, especially by Vir Savarkar as the
First War of Indian Independence. * Two distinguished Indian historians, R.C.
Majumdar and S.N. Sen, have analysed the Revolt of 1857 in depth.
*The two scholars differ in their opinion. S.N. Sen believes that the 1857 Revolt
was part of the struggle for Indian independence.
*R.C. Majumdar maintains that the outbreaks before 1857, whether civil or military,
were “a series of isolated incidents” ultimately culminated in the Great Revolt of 1857.

Causes of the Revolt :

1. Political Causes :
*The discontent and disaffection manifested in the form of revolts against the British
Government were not confined to the ruling chiefs and royal families alone.
*On the contrary, the British rule was disliked by the people at large in any region
when it was newly introduced.
* Anti-British feelings were particularly strong in those regions like Burma,
Assam, Coorg, Sind, and the Punjab which were unjustly annexed to the British Empire.
* The Doctrine of Lapse, particularly
its practical application by Lord Dalhousie, produced grave discontent and alarm
among the native princes, who were directly affected.
* Because of subsidiary Alliance & Doctrine of Lapse made the collapse of
Indian rulers ruling

2. Economic Causes:
*The huge drain of wealth, the destruction of its industry and increasing land revenue
had become the common features of the latter half of the 18th century.
*The EIC, after attaining political power, used it to fund the growth of British trade
and commerce at the cost of Indians.
*The British damaged the Indian trade and manufacture by imposing a high tariff in
Britain against Indian goods, and by encouraging all means the import of British goods
to India.
* In England the ruin of the old handloom weavers was accompanied by the
growth of the machine industry.
* But in India the ruin of the millions of artisans and craftsmen was not
accompanied by any alternative growth of new industrial forms.
* A new plantation system introduced in the year 1833 resulted in incalculable
misery for the Indian peasants.
* This was the result of permitting Englishmen to acquire land plantations in India.
*The hard hit were the peasants on the indigo plantations in Bengal and Bihar.

3. Socio- Religious Causes:

* The Englishmen showed an arrogant attitude towards the Indians.
*Indiscriminate assaults on Indians by Englishmen became quite common. Also, a
general alarm was raised among the Hindus and Muslims by the activities of the
Christian missionaries.
* The attempts of Socio- Religious reforms such as Abolition of satu, support to widow
remarriage & women's education. They interferes in these reforms of Indian society
by outsiders
* These fears were compounded by the govt decision to tax Mosque &
Temple lands & making such laws such as Religious Disabilities
Act ,1856which modified Hindu customs,for instance ,declaring that achange if religion
did not debar a son from inheriting the property of his heathen father
*The educational institutions established by the missionaries inculcated western
education and culture in the place of oriental learning.
*The native population felt that were losing their social identity.

4. Military causes:
* Discontent against the British Raj was widely prevalent among the Indian soldiers
in the British army. The Indian sepoys in the British Indian army nursed a sense of strong
resentment at their low salary and poor prospects of promotion.
*The British military officers at times
showed least respect to the social values and religious sentiments of Indian sepoys in
the army. Thus, although generally faithful to their masters, the sepoys were provoked
to revolt.
* In 1856, Lord canning's Govt passed the General service enlistment act which
decreed that all future recruits to the Bengal army would have to give an undertaking to
serve anywhere their services might be required by the govt. This caused resentment to
sepoys
*The Vellore mutiny of 1806,In Bengal(1764) & Barrackpore (1825) & during the Afghan
wars (1838-42),a precursor to the 1857 Great Revolt, was the outcome of such
tendencies on the part of the military authorities. * Another important cause of the
sepoys’ dissatisfaction was the order that They would not be given Foreign service
Allowance (Bhatta) who serving in Sindh or in Punjab.They abolished the foreign
allowance or bhatta when they served in foreign territories.
*All that needed was only a spark to set it a fire.

The Beginning of the Revolt :

* The reports about the mixing of Bone dust in Atta(fluor) & introduction of the
Enfield rifle enhanced sepoys growing dissatisfaction with the govt *The 1857 Revolt was
sparked off by the episode of the greased cartridges.
The new Enfield rifle had been introduced for the first time in the Indian army. Its
cartridges had a greased paper cover whose end had to be bitten off before the
cartridge was loaded into the rifle. The grease was composed of fat taken from beef and
pig.
* The cow was sacred to Hindus while the Pig was Taboo for the Muslims * The
religious feelings of the Hindu and Muslim sepoys were terribly wounded. The sepoys
believed that the government was deliberately trying to destroy their religious and
cultural identity. Hence they
raised the banner of revolt.
* The events that led to the Revolt began on 29 feb-March 1857 at
Barrackpore(Near Calcutta). Mangal Pandey (a sepoy) refused to use the greased
cartridges and single-handedly attacked and killed 2 officers- Hugeson & Baughon on
parade . Mangal Pandey was hanged. The regiment to which he belonged was
disbanded and sepoys guilty of rebellion punished. * The British instead of diffusing the
explosive situation, paved the way for a mighty crisis by the above act. A chain reaction
was set in motion.
* At Meerut in May 1857, 85 sepoys of the 3rd Native Cavalry regiment were
sentenced to 10 yrs of imprisonment for refusing to use the greased catridges.
*Therefore, on 10 May the sepoys broke out in open rebellion, shot their officers,
released their fellow sepoys and headed towards Delhi. The soldiers along with another
groups of civilians went on rampage shouting 'Maro firangi ko'.
*General Hewitt, the officer commanding at Meerut was
helpless to prevent the army’s march.
*Next morning the rebellious army reached Delhi. The city of Delhi fell into the hands
of the rebellious soldiers on 12 May 1857.
*Lieutenant Willtashby, the officer in charge of Delhi could not prevent the mutineers.
*Soon, the mutineers proclaimed the aged nominal king, Bahadur Shah II
/Bahadur Shah Zafarof the Mughal dynasty as the Emperor of
India/Shahanshah-i-Hindustan. Very soon the rebellion spread throughout northern and
central India at Lucknow, Allahabad, Kanpur, Banares, in parts of Bihar, Jhansi and other
places.

Delhi:
* The leadership at Delhi was nominally in the hands of Bahadur Shah, but the real
control was exercised by General Bakht Khan.
* On the side of the British the combined effort of Nicholson, Wilson, Baird
Smith and Neville Chamberlain enabled the recapture Delhi by September 1857.
* In Delhi, Emperor Bahadur Shah II was arrested and deported to Rangoon, where he
remained in exile till he died in 1862.

Kanpur:
* At Kanpur the revolt was led by Nana
Saheb(Dhundhu pant), the adopted son of Baji Rao II, the last Peshwa.
*Nana Saheb expelled the English from
Kanpur with the help of the sepoys and proclaimed himself the Peshwa. Acknowledged
Bahadur Shah II as his emperor of India ,declared himself to be his Governor.
* Nana Saheb in his efforts against the British was ably supported by two of his
lieutenants. One was Tantia Tope, the other was Azimullah.
* Sir Hugh Wheeler the commander of
the British garrison at Kanpur surrendered on the 27 June 1857. But, soon Kanpur was

recaptured by the British commander Sir Colin Campbell. Lucknow:* The principal
person responsible for the
revolt in Lucknow was the Begum Hazrat Mahal of Oudh. Begum took over the reigns
at Lucknow where the rebellion broke out on June 4,1857 *Her son, Birjis Qadir ,was
proclaimed the nawab & aregular administration was organised with important
offices shared equally by Muslims & hindus
* With the assistance of the sepoys, the zamindars and peasants, the Begum organised
an all out attack on the British. *Sir Henry lawrance, the British resident,the European
inhabitants & a few 100 loyal sepoys took shelter in the residency . The residency was
beseized by Indian rebels .
* Henry Lawrence, the chief commissioner tried to defend the British.
Lawrence was killed in a bomb blast during the fight.
*The final relief in March 1858 for the British forces in Lucknow came in the form of Sir
Colin Campbell, who suppressed the revolt with the help of

Ghorka regiments Jhansi:

* Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi, the widowed queen of Gangadhar Rao played a heroic
role in this revolt.
* She gave battle cry---- " main apni jhansi nahi doongi"( I shall not give away my
jhansi)
* Rani Lakshmi Bai was affected by Dalhousie’s Doctrine of Lapse, was joined by Tantia
Tope( Ramchandra pandurang), who was close associate of
Nanasaheb after the loss of khanpur
*The combined efforts of Rani and Tantia Tope saw the capture of Gwalior.
*Meanwhile, Sir Hugh Rose defeated Tantia Tope and stormed Jhansi on 3 April 1858.
* He then captured Gwalior. The Rani of Jhansi died a soldier’s death on 17 June 1858.
Tantia Tope was captured and hanged on charges of rebellion and murder in the
massacre of Kanpur.
* Shah Mahal ,a local villager in parganas baraut (baghpat, UP). He sent supplies to
mutineers in Delhi & prevented all official communication between British
headquarters & Meerut. At last he was killed & cut in to pieces & his head displayed
on July 21 1857 to terrify the public

* Bihar:
* Kunwar Singh, a ruined and discontented zamindar of Jagdishpur near Oudh, was the
chief organiser of the revolt in Bihar.
* He fought the British in Bihar. Kunwar Singh sustained a fatal wound in the battle and
died on 27 April 1858 at Jagdishpur.
* Ultimately the 1857 Revolt came to an end with the victory of the British.
*Viceroy Canning proclaimed peace throughout India.
*Maulvi Ahmadullah, of faizabad was another outstanding leader of the revolt . He was
native of Madras & had moved to faizabad in the north where he joined the sepoys
against British troops in Awadh in May 1857.

Causes for the Failure of the Revolt:

*It was unsuccessful but was aheroic effort to eliminate foreign rule . Main causes were:
1. Disunity of Indians & poor organisation
2. Lack of complete nationalism - Scindias,Holkars,Nizam,& others helped the British
3. Lack of coordination between sepoys ,peasants , Zamindars & other classes
4. many had different motives for participating in the revolt
5. Poor Arms & Equipment
6. All Indian participation was absent
7. Uncoordinated & poorly organised
8. No unified ideology

Significance and Effects of the Mutiny

*Bahadur Shah II was deported to Rangoon where he died in 1862, His. Son were dead
*Nanasaheb,Begum Hazrat Mahal, Khan Bahadur Khan escaped to Nepal
*Tantiya tope was captured & executed on 15th April 1859
*The Revolt of 1857 though completely suppressed had shaken the very foundations of
British rule in India, for the simple reason that the Revolt exhibited the popular
character. It brought together the disgruntled sections of society to rise against the
British rule.
*The common people rose up in arms often fighting with spears and axes, bows and
arrows, lathis and scythes, and crude mulkets.
*However, this civilian revolt was not universal but sporadic and inconsistent.
Nevertheless, it added a new dimension to the character of the 1857 Revolt.
*Another significant aspect of the 1857 Revolt was the Hindu-Muslim unity. * As far as
the effects of the Revolt are concerned, it brought about fundamental changes in the
character of Indian administration which was transferred from the East India Company
to the Crown by the Queen’s Proclamation of 1,November, 1858.
*At the same time the Governor-General received the new title of Viceroy. Lord
Canning had the unique opportunity to become the Governor-General as well as the
first Viceroy according to the Act of 1858.
* Lord Canning proclaimed the new Government at Allahabad on 1 November 1858 in
accordance with the Queen’s Proclamation.
* The latter has been called the Magna Carta of the Indian people; it disclaimed any
extension of territory, promised religious toleration,guaranteed the rights of Indian
princes and pledged equal treatment to her subjects, Indians and Europeans.
* The Revolt of 1857 ended an era and sowed the seeds of a new one. The year 1857 is
a great divide between the two landmarks in Indian history. One was that of British
paramountcy in the first half, and the other is that of the growth of Indian
nationalism in the second half of the nineteenth century.

Nature of the Revolt:

* There are 2 main views about this
1. SEPOY MUTINY: Syed Ahmed Khan,Munshi jeevan Lal & Durgdas
Bandopadhyaya( contemporary historian's), stenley(secretary for state of
India ), John Lowerence,John Seeley,malleson, R.C.Mazumdar
2. NATIONAL STRUGGLE/WAR OF INDEPENDENCE: Benjamin Disrarly,
KarlMarx, V.D. Savarkar, K.M.Pannikkar, Ishwari Prasad ,A.L.Shrivastva,
Tarachand
*Other views:
1. Racial Struggle/Black-white struggle = Medley
2. Religious struggle/Hindu-Muslim-Christian struggle = Rees
3. Civilisation - Barbarism conflict /
English -Indian conflict = T.R.Holmes
4. Hindu-Muslim conspiracy against Christians = Outram & Taylor

Imp books on 1857:

* Th 1st Indian war of independence -1857-59 = Karl Marx (1859)
* Causes of Indian revolt =Syed Ahmed Khan 1873
* The Indian war of independence= V.D.Savarkar 1909
* The sepoy mutiny & the rebellion of 857 = R.C.Mazumdar 1957
* Civil rebellion in Indian mutinied = S.B.Chowdhury 1957
*Rebellion 1857: A symposium= P.C.Joshi 1957
* 1857 = S.N.Sen 1957

Select Opinions on 1857:

* " It was wholly unpatriotic & selfish sepoy mutiny with no native leadership
& no popular support" - John Seeley
* " The so-called 1dt national war of independence is neither 1st nor National nor a
war of independence " - R.C.Mazumdar
* " A National revolt rooted in deep mistrust " - Benjamin Disraely (opposition leader)
* "The revolt of 1857 was the 1st War of Independence " - V.D.Savarkar
* " What began as afight for religion ended as awar for independence " -
S.N.Sen

Impact of the Revolt 1857:

1.In Aug61858,the British parliament passed an act , which put an end to rule of the
company. The control of British govt in India transferred from the company to the
British crown
2. A minister of the British govt ,called the secretary of state for India was made
responsible for governance of India
3. The British governor-general of India was now also given the title of viceroy who was
also the representative of monarch
4. Marked the end of British imperialism & princely states were assured against the
Annexation. Doctrine of Lapse was withdrawn
5. After the revolt ,the British pursued the policy of "Divide & rule"
6. Far-reaching changes were made in the administration & increase of white soldiers
in the army
7. Total expenses of the suppression was thrown on the Indian people
8. The revolt had brought units trial a difficult financial problem. The Govt was
burdened with a heavy debt . 2 British financial expert ,James Wilson & Samuel
Leing, cut down govt expenditure & introduced an incometax (), a paper currency()
& Annual Budget (). With these measures the deficit was converted in to surplus by
1864
9. It has been said that judius Caesar dead was more powerful than Julius Caesar alive.
The same way be said about the revolt of 1857 . Whatever might have been it's
original character ,it soon became a symbol of challenge to the mighty British
Empire in India & remained a shining star for the rise g growth of the Indian national
movement

ADMINISTRATIVE CHANGES AFTER 1858

* The revolt of 1857 gave a severe jolt to the British administration in India and
made its reorganisation inevitable.
*The Government of India's structure and policies underwent significant changes in the
decades following the Revolt. But more important for changes in Indian economy and
Government was the inauguration of a new stage of colonialism in India.
*The second half of the 19th century witnessed the spread and intensification of the
Industrial Revolution.
*Gradually other countries of Europe, the USA and Japan underwent industrialisation,
and the manufacturing and financial supremacy of Britain in world economy came to
an end.
* Intense world-wide competition for markets, sources of raw materials and outlets
for capital investment now began. The competition for colonies and semi-colonies
became increasingly intense and bitter as areas open to fresh colonial domination
became scarce.
*Facing a challenge to its dominant position in the world capitalism from newcomers,
Britain began a vigorous effort to consolidate its control over its existing empire and to
extend it further.
*Moreover, after 1850, a very large amount of British capital was invested in railways,
loans to the Government of India, and to a smaller extent in tea plantations, coal
mining, jute mills, shipping, trade and banking.
*It was necessary that, to render this British capital secure from economic and political
dangers, Britishly rule in India be clamped down even more firmly. *Consequently, there
was a renewed upsurge of imperial control and imperialist ideology which was reflected
in the reactionary policies of the viceroyalties of Lytton, Dufferin, Lansdowne, Elgin and,
above all, Curzon.

Administration:
* An Act of Parliament in 1858 transferred the power to govern from the East India
Company to the British Crown. While authority over India had previously been wielded
by the directors of the Company and the Board of Control, now this power was to be
exercised by a Secretary of State for India aided by a Council.
* The Secretary of State was a member of the British Cabinet and as such was
responsible to Parliament. Thus the ultimate power over India remained with
Parliament.
*Under the Act, government was lo be carried on as before by the GovernorGeneral who
was also given the title of Viceroy or Crown's personal representative. With the passage
of time the Viceroy was increasingly reduced to a subordinate status in relation to the
British Government in matters of policyas well as execution, of policy.
*The Secretary of State controlled the minutestdetails of administration. Thus the
authority that exercised final and detailed control and direction over
Indian affairs came to reside in London, thousands ofmiles distant from India. Under such
conditions, Indian opinion had even less impact on government policy than before.
* On the other hand, British industrialists, merchants, and bankers increased their
influence over the Government of India. This made the Indian administration even
more reactionary than it was before 1858, for now even the pretence of liberalism was
gradually given up.
*In India the Act of 1858 provided that the Governor-General would have an Executive
Council whose members were to act as heads of different departments and as his
official advisers.
* The Council discussed all important matters and decided them by a majority
vote; but the Governor-General had the power to override any important decision of
the Council.
*The Indian Councils Act of 1861 enlarged the Governor-General's Council For the
purpose of making laws, in which capacity it was known as the Imperial Legislative
Council.
*The Governor-General was authorised to add to His Executive Council between six and
twelve members of whom at least half had to benon-officials who could be Indian Or
English.
*The Imperial Legislative Council Possessed no real powers and should not be seen as a
sort of elementary or weak parliament. It was merely an advisory body. It could not
discuss any important measures, and no financial measures atall, without the previous
approval of The Government. It had no control over the budget. It could not discuss the
actions of the administration; the members could not even ask questions about them.
*In other words, the Legislative Council had no control over the executive. Moreover, no
bill passed by it could become an Act tillit was approved by the Governor-General.
*On top of all this, the Secretary of State Could disallow any of its Acts. Thus, the only
important function of the Legislative Council was to ditto official measures and give
them the appearance of having been passed by a legislative body.
*In theory, thenon-official Indian members were added to the Council to represent
Indian views. But the Indian members of the Legislative Council were few in number
and were not elected by the Indian people but were nominated by the Governor-
General whole choice invariably fell on princes and their ministers, big zamindars, big
merchants, or retired senior government officials. They were thoroughly
unrepresentative of the Indian people or of the growing nationalist opinion.
*The Government of India remained, as before 1858, an alien despotism. This was,
moreover, no accident, but a conscious policy. Charles Wood, the
Secretary of Stale for India, while moving the Indian Councils Bill of 1861, said: "All
experience teaches us that where a dominant race rules another, the mildest form of
government is a despotism".

Provincial Administration:*The British had divided India for administrative

convenience into provinces, three of which - Bengal, Madras and Bombay - were
known as Presidencies. The Presidencies were administered by a
Governor and his Executive Council of three, who were appointed by the Crown.
The Presidency governments possessed more rights and powers than governments of
other provinces which were administered by Lieutenant
Governors and Chief Commissioners appointed by the Governor-General. *The
provincial governments enjoyed a great deal of autonomy before 1833 when their
power to pass laws was taken away and their expenditure subjected to strict central
control. But experience soon showed that a vast country like India could not be
efficiently administered on the principle of strict centralisation.
*The evil of extreme centralisation was most obvious in the field of finance. The
revenues from all over the country and from different sources were gathered at the
centre and then distributed by it to the provincial governments.
*The Central Government exercised strict control over the smallest details of provincial
expenditure. But this system proved quite wasteful in practice. It was not possible for the
Central Government to supervise the efficient collection of revenues by a provincial
government or to keep adequate check over its expenditure. *The authorities therefore
decided to decentralise public finance. The first step in the direction of separating central
and provincial finances was taken in 1870 by Lord Mayo. The provincial governments
were granted fixed sums out of central revenues for the administration of certain services
like Police, Jails, Education, Medical Services, and Roads and were asked to administer
them as they wished.
*Lord Mayo's scheme was enlarged in 1877 by Lord Lytton who transferred to the
provinces certain other heads of expenditure like Land Revenue, Excise, General
Administration, and Law and Justice. To meet the additional expenditure a provincial
government was to get a fixed share of the income realised from that province from
certain sources like Stamps, Excise Taxes, and Income Tax.
*Further changes in these arrangements were made in 1882. The system of giving fixed
grants to the provinces was ended and, instead, a province was to get the entire income
from certain sources or revenue within it and a fixed share of the income from other
sources.
* Thus, all sources of revenue were now divided into three - general, provincial,
and those to be divided between the centre and the provinces. *The different
measures of financial decentralisation discussed above did not really mean the
beginning of genuine provincial autonomy or of Indian participation in provincial
administration.
*They were much more in the nature of administrative reorganisation whose chief aims
were to keep down expenditure and increase income.
*In theory as well as in practice, the Central Government remained supreme and
continued to exercise effective and detailed control over the provincial governments.
This was inevitable.for both the Central Government and the provincial governments
were completely subordinated to the Secretary of State and the British Government.
Local Bodies:* Financial difficulties led the Government to further decentralise
administration by promoting local government through municipalities and district
boards. The Industrial Revolution gradually transformed
* European economy and society in the 19th century. India's increasing contact
with Europe and new modes of imperialism and economic exploitation made it
necessary that some of the European advances in economy, sanitation, and education
should be transplanted in India. *Moreover, the rising Indian nationalist movement
demanded the introduction of modern improvements in civic life. Thus the need for
the education of the masses, sanitation, water supply, better roads, and other civic
amenities was increasingly felt
*The Government could no longer afford to ignore it. But its finances were already in
disorder due to heavy expenditure on the army and the railways. It could not increase
its income through new taxes as the burden of the existing taxation was already very
heavy on the poor and a further addition to it was likely to create discontent against
The Government.
*On the other hand, the Government did not want to tax the upper classes, especially
the British civil servants, planters and traders. But the authorities felt that the people
would not mind paying new taxes if they knew that their proceeds would be spent on
their own welfare.
*It was therefore decided to transfer local services like education, health, sanitation and
water supply to local bodies who would finance them through local taxes. Many
Englishmen had pressed for the formation of local bodies on another ground also.
*They believed that associating Indians with the administration in some capacity or the
other would prevent their becoming politically disaffected. This association could take
place at the level of local bodies without in any way endangering British monopoly of
power in India.
* Local bodies were first formed between 1864 and 1868, but almost in every case
they consisted of nominated members and were presided over by District Magistrates.
They did not, therefore, represent local self- government at all. Nor did the intelligent
Indians accept them as such.
*They looked upon them as instruments for the extraction of
additional taxes from the people.
*A step forward, though a very hesitant and inadequate one, was, taken in 1882 by
Lord Ripon's Government A government resolution laid down the policy of
administering local affairs largely through rural and urban local bodies, a majority of
whose members would be non-officials.
* These non-official members would be elected by the people wherever and
whenever officials felt that it was possible to introduce elections. The resolution also
permitted the election of a non-official as Chairman of a local body.
* But the elected members were in a minority in all the district boards and in many
of the municipalities. They were, moreover, elected by a small number of voters since
the right to vote was severely restricted.
* District officials continued to act as Presidents of district boards though non-
officials gradually became chairmen of municipal committees. The Government also
retained the right to exercise strict control over the activities of the local bodies and to
suspend and supersede them at its own discretion. * The result was that except in the
Presidency cities of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay, the local bodies functioned just like
departments of the Government and were in no way good examples of local self-
government.
*All the same, the politically conscious Indians welcomed Ripon's resolution and
worked actively in these local bodies in the hope that in time they could be
transformed into effective organs of local self-government.

Changes in the Army:*The Indian army was carefully reorganised after

1858, most of all to prevent the recurrence of another revolt.
* The rulers had seen that their bayonets were the only secure foundation of their
rule. Several steps were taken to minimise, if not completely, eliminate, the capacity of
Indian soldiers to revolt.
Firstly, the domination of the army by its European branch was carefully guaranteed. The
proportion of Europeans to Indians in the army was raised and fixed at one to two in the
Bengal Army and two to five in the Madras and Bombay armies.
*Moreover, the European troops were kept in key geographical and military positions.
The crucial branches of the army like artillery and, later in the 20th century, tanks an
armoured corps were put exclusively in European hands. *The older policy of excluding
Indians from the officer corps was strictly maintained. Till 1914 no Indian could rise
higher than the rank of a subedar. Secondly, the organisation of the Indian section of the
army was based on the policy of balance and counterpoise' or 'divide and rule' so as to
prevent its chance of uniting again in an anti-British uprising.
* Discrimination on the basis of caste, region and religion was practised in
recruitment to the army.
* A fiction was created that Indians consisted of'martial' and 'non-martial' classes.
* Soldiers From Awadh, Bihar, central India, and south India, who had first helped
the British conquer India but had later taken part in the Revolt of 1857, were declared
to be non-martial. They were no longer taken in the army on a large scale. On the
other hand, Punjabis, Gurkhas, and Pathans who had assisted in the suppression of the
Revolt, were declared to be martial and were recruited in large numbers. *By 1875,
half of the British Indian army was recruited from Punjab. In addition, Indian regiments
were made a
mixture of various castes and groups which were so placed as to balance each other.
*Communal, caste, tribal and regional loyalties were encouraged among the soldiers so
that the sentiment of nationalism would not grow among them. For example, caste
and communal companies were introduced in most regiments.
*Charles Wood, Secretary of State for India, wrote to the Viceroy Canning in 1861: "I
never wish to see again a great Army, very much the same in its feelings and prejudices
and connections, confident in its strength, and so disposed to rise in o rebellion
together. If one regiment mutinies, I should like to have the next regiment so alien that
it would be ready to fire into it". *Thus the Indian Army remained a purely mercenary
force. Moreover, every effort was made to keep it separated from the life and thoughts
of the rest of the population. It was isolated from nationalist ideas by every possible
means.
*Newspapers, journals and nationalist publications were prevented from reaching the
soldiers. But, as we shall see later, all such efforts failed in the long run and sections of
the Indian army played an important role in India's struggle for freedom.
*The Indian army became in time a very costly military machine. In 1904 it absorbed
nearly 52 per cent of the Indian revenues. This was because it served more than one
purpose. India, being the most prized colonial possession of the time, had to be
constantly defended, from the competing imperialisms of Russia, France and
Germany. This led to a big increase in the size of the Indian army.
*Secondly, the Indian troops were not maintained for India's defence alone. The Indian
army was the chief instrument for the expansion and consolidation of British power and
possessions in Asia and Africa.
*Lastly, the British section of the army served as an army of occupation. It was the
ultimate guarantee of the British hold over the country. Its cost had, however, to be met
by the Indian revenues; it was in fact a very heavy burden on them.

Public Services:*We have seen above that Indians had little control over the
Government of India. They were not permitted to play any part in the making of laws or
in determining administrative policies. In addition, they were excluded from the
bureaucracy which put these policies into practice. All positions of power and
responsibility in the administration were occupied by the members of the Indian
*Civil Service who were recruited through an annual open competitive examination held
in London. Indians also could sit in this examination. Satyendranath Tagore, brother of
Rabindranath Tagore, was the first Indian to do so successfully in 1863.
Almost every year thereafter one or two Indians joined the coveted ranks of the Civil
Service, but their number was negligible compared with that of the English entrants. In
practice, the doors of the Civil Service remained barred to Indian for they suffered from
numerous handicaps.
*The competitive examination was held in the far away London. It was conducted
through the medium of the alien English language. It was based on Classical Greek and
Latin learning which could be acquired only after a prolonged and costly course of
studies in England.
* In addition, the maximum age for entry into the Civil Service was gradually
reduced from twenty-three in 1859 to nineteen in 1878. If the young Indian of twenty-
three found it difficult to succeed in the Civil Service competition, the Indian of
nineteen found At almost impossible to do so.
*In other departments of administration - Police, Public Works, Medicine, Posts and
Telegraphs, Forests, Engineering, Customs and, later, Railways - the superior and highly
paid posts were likewise reserved for British citizens.
* This preponderance of Europeans in all strategic posts was not accidental. The
rulers of India believed it to be an essential condition for the maintenance of British
supremacy in India.
* Thus Lord Kimberley, Secretary of State, laid down in 1893 that "it is
indispensable that an adequate number of the members of the Civil Service shall
always be Europeans"; and the Viceroy, Lord Lansdowne, stressed "the absolute
necessity of keeping the government of this widespread Empire in European hands, if
that Empire is to be maintained".
* Under Indian pressure the different administrative services were gradually
Indianised after 1918; but the positions of control and authority were still kept in British
hands.
* Moreover, the people soon discovered that Indianisation of these services had
not put any part of political power in their hands. The Indians in these services
functioned as agents of British rule and loyally served Britain's imperial purposes.

Relations with the Princely States:

*The Revolt of 1857 led the British to reverse their policy towards the Indian States.
Before 1857, they had availed themselves of every opportunity to annex princely states.
This policy was now abandoned. Most of the Indian princes had not only remained loyal
to the British but had actively aided the latter in suppressing the Revolt.
*As Lord Canning, the Viceroy, put it, they had acted as "breakwaters in the storm".
Their loyalty was now rewarded with the announcement that their right to adopt heirs
would be respected and the integrity of their territories guaranteed against future
annexation.
*Moreover, the experience of the Revolt had convinced the British authorities that the
princely states could serve as useful allies and supporters in case of popular opposition
or revolt.
* It was, therefore, decided to use the princely states as firm props of British rule in
India. As the British historian P.E. Roberts remarked: "to preserve them as a bulwark of
the Empire has ever since been a principle of British policy". * Their perpetuation was,
however, only one aspect of the British policy towards the princely states. The other
was their complete subordination to the British authorities. While even before the
Revolt of 1857 the British had in practice interfered in the internal affairs of these
states, in theory they had been considered as subsidiary but sovereign powers.
* This position was now entirely changed. As the price of their continued existence,
the princes were made to acknowledge Britain as the paramount power.
* In 1876, Queen Victoria assumed the title of the Empress of India to emphasise
British sovereignty over the entire Indian subcontinent. Lord Curzon later made it clear
that the princes ruled their states merely as agents of the British Crown.
* The princes accepted this subordinate position and willingly became junior
partners in the Empire because they were assured of their continued existence as
rulers of their states.
* As the paramount power, the British claimed the right to supervise the internal
government of the princely states. They not only interfered in the day to day
administration through the Residents but insisted on appointing and dismissing
ministers and other high officials.
* Sometimes the rulers themselves were removed or deprived of their powers. One
motive for such interference was provided by the British desire to give these states a
modern administration so that their integration with British India would be complete.
* This integration and the con-sequent interference were also encouraged by the
development of all-India railways, postal and telegraph systems, currency, and a
common economic life. Another motive for interference was provided by the growth of
popular democratic and nationalist movements in many of the states.
*On the one hand, the British authorities helped the rulers suppress these movements;
on the other, they tried to eliminate the most serious of administrative abuses in these
states.
 FREEDOM STRUGGLE:
I. MODERATE PHASE (1885-1905):

Political Associations in Bengal:

1. The Bangabasha prakashika sabha was formed in 1836 by associates of Raja
Rammohan Roy
2. The Zamindari Association/Landholders Society in 1837(Calcutta ) by
Dwaraka Nath tagore was founded to safeguard the interests of Landlords.
Use of methods of Constitutional agitation for the redressal of grievances
3. The Bengal British India Society was founded in 1843 with the object of "the collection
& dissemination of information relating to the actual condition of the people of British
India & to employ such other means of peaceful & lawful character as may appear
calculated to secure the welfare ,extend the just right & advance the interests of all
classes of our fellow subjects"
4. In 1851 both 2 & 3 combinely merged in to the British Indian Association at Calcutta
by Devendra Nath tagore. It sent a petition to British parliament demanding inclusion
of some of its suggestions
Early Political Associations:1. Landholders Society - Calcutta -1837 -
Dwaraka Nath tagore
2. British India Society-London-1839- William Adam
3. Bengal British Indian Society- 1843
4.(2 & 3 merge) The British India Association – 1851 Bengal - by Devendra
Nath tagore
5. Madras Native Association - Madras - 1852- C.Y.Mudaliar
6.The Bombay Association — 1852 - Bombay - Jagannath Shankar Sheth 7. East
Indian Association - London - 1856 -Dadabhai Naoroji --- To discuss with people
about Welfare of India
8.Poona Sarvajanik Sabha—1870-poona -
S.H.Chiplunkar ,G.VJoshi,M.G.Ranade
-- serving a bridge between the Govt & the people
9. Indian society -London -1872-Anand Mohan Bose
10. Indian League - Calcutta -1875- Shishir Kumar Gosh --- To stimulating the sense of
Nationalism amongst the people & encouraging political education
Indian Association - calcutta-1876- Surendra Nath Bennerji & Anand Mohan
Bose
11. The Madras Mahajana Sabha—1884- P Rangiah Naidu,V. Raghava chari,Anand
charli,G.S.Aiyer
12. Bombay presidency Association - Bombay- 1885- Ferozshah Mehta,
K.T.Telang, Badruddin Tyebji

Factors Promoting the Growth of Nationalism in India :

*The following causes are responsible for the origin and growth of nationalism in India.
1. Political Unity:
*For the first time, most of the regions in India were united politically and
administratively under a single power (the British rule). It introduced a uniform system
of law and government.
2. Development of Communication and Transport:
*The introduction of railways, telegraphs and postal services and the construction of
roads and canals facilitated communication among the people. All these brought
Indians nearer to each other and provided the facility to organise the national
movement on an all India basis.
3. English Language and Western Education:
*The English language played an important role in the growth of nationalism in the
country. The English educated Indians, who led the national movement, developed
Indian nationalism and organised it. Western education facilitated the spread of the
concepts of liberty, equality, freedom and nationalism and sowed the seeds of
nationalism.
4. The Role of the Press :
*The Indian Press, both English and vernacular, had also aroused the national
consciousness.
5. Social and Religious Movements of the Nineteenth Century:
*The leaders of various organisations like the Brahmo Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission,
Arya Samaj, and Theosophical Society generated a feeling of regard for and pride in
the motherland.
6. Economic Exploitation by the British:
* A good deal of anti-British feeling was created by the economic policy pursued by
the British government in India. The English systematically ruined the Indian trade and
native industries. Therefore, economic exploitation by the British was one of the most
important causes for the rise of Indian nationalism.
7. Racial Discrimination:
*The Revolt of 1857 created a kind of permanent bitterness and suspicion between the
British and the Indians. The English feeling of racial superiority grew. India as a nation
and Indians as individuals were subjected to insults, humiliation and contemptuous
treatment.
8. Administration of Lytton:
*Lord Lytton arranged the Delhi Durbar at a time when the larger part of India was in the
grip of famine. He passed the Vernacular Press Act which curbed the liberty of the Indian
Press. His Arms Act was a means to prevent the Indians from keeping arms. All these
measures created widespread discontent among the Indians.
9. The Ilbert Bill controversy:*The Ilbert Bill was presented in the Central Legislature
during the Viceroyalty of Lord Ripon. The Bill tried to remove racial inequality between
Indian and European judges in courts. This Bill was opposed by the British residents in
India. Ultimately the Bill was modified. Thus various factors contributed to the rise of
nationalism and the formation of the Indian National Congress.

The Indian National Congress (1885)

*Allan Octavian Hume(A.O.Hume), a retired civil English servant in the British
Government took the initiative to form an all-India organization. 1st it was held in Pune
with various national leaders who called for a conference in Pune in December 1885.
*But the conference received unanimous support of all Indian leaders ,but the venue was
shifted to Bombay for various reasons. Thus, the Indian National Congress was founded
and its 1st session was held at Bombay in 1885. W.C. Banerjee was its 1st president.
*Further the leaders decided to rename the Indian National Union as Indian
National Congress
* The 1st session of INC was held at Gokul das Tejpal Sanskrit college in Bombay under
the presidentship of Womesh.Chandra.Bannerji, a veteran lawyer of Calcutta
*It was attended by 72 delegates from all
over India. Persons attending the session belonged to different religious faiths. They
discussed the problems of all the Indians irrespective of their religion, caste, language
and regions.
*A.O.Hume says that Safety valve theory was formed the Congress with the idea that it
would prove to be a 'Safety Valve' for releasing the growing discontent of the Indians .
To this end ,he convinced Lord Dufferin not to obstruct the formation of the Congress. In
their opinion the INC reprensented the urge of the politically conscious Indians to set up
a National body to express the political & economic demands of the Indians .The
extremist leaders like Lala Lajpat Rai believed in Safety valve theory.
* Thus Indian National Congress from the start was an all-India secular movement
embracing every section of Indian society.
* With the foundation of INC in1885,the struggle for India's Independence was
launched in a small , hesitant & mild but organised manner * The 1st 2 decade of INC
are described in history as those of moderate demands & sense of confidence in
British justice & generosity . Their aim was not to be aggressive for attaining
independence lest the British should suppress this. This resulted in Indian council act
1892 which allowed some members to be indirectly elected by Indians but keeping
the official majority intact.
* The 2nd session was held in Calcutta in 1886 and the 3rd in Madras in 1887.
Aims & Objectives of the INC:
1. Found a democratic, nationalist movement
2. Politicise & Politically educate people
3. Establish the Headquarters for a movement
4. Promote friendly relations among nationalist political workers from different parts of
the country
5. Develop & propagate an anti-colonial nationalist ideology
6. Formulate & present popular demands before the govt with aview to unifying the
people over acommon economic & political program 7. Develop & consolidate a
feeling of National unity among people irrespective of religion,caste or province
8. Carefully promote & nurture Indian natinhood
*The history of the Indian National Movement can be studied in 3 important phases:
(i) The phase of moderate nationalism (1885-1905) when the Congress continued to
be loyal to the British crown.
(ii) The years 1906-1916 witnessed- Swadeshi Movement, rise of militant nationalism
and the Home Rule Movement.
(iii) The period from 1917 to1947 is known as the Gandhian era.
Moderate Nationalism:* The leading figures during the 1st phase of the
National Movement were A.O. Hume, W.C. Banerjee, Surendra Nath Banerjee,
Dadabhai Naoroji, Feroze Shah Mehta, Gopalakrishna Gokhale, R.C.Dutt,
K.T.Tailang, Anand Mohan Bose, P.Anand Charlu, C.Shankaran Naiyar,Madan
Mohan Malviya,Tej Bahadur Sapru,Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya, Badruddin
Tyabji,
Justice Ranade and S.Subramanya Aiyar.
* Surendranath Banerjee was called the Indian Burke. He firmly opposed the Partition
of Bengal. He founded the Indian Association (1876) to agitate for political reforms. He
had convened the Indian National Conference (1883) which merged
with the Indian National Congress in l886. *G. Subramanya Aiyar preached nationalism
through the Madras Mahajana Sabha. He also founded the The Hindu and
Swadesamitran.
*Dadabhai Naoroji was known as the Grand Old Man of India. He is regarded as India’s
unofficial Ambassador in England.
He was the first Indian to become a Member of the British House of
Commons. *Gopal Krishna Gokhale was regarded as the political guru of Gandhi. In
1905, he founded the Servants of India Society to train Indians to dedicate their lives to
the cause of the country
*For a few years the Congress enjoyed the patronage of the British administrators.
Between 1885 and 1905, the Congress leaders were moderates. The Moderates had
faith in the British justice and goodwill. They were called moderates because they
adopted peaceful and constitutional means to achieve their demands.
Main Demands of Moderates:* Expansion and reform of legislative councils. * A
majority of Indians & Control over budget i.e. power to vote upon & amend budget.
They gave the slogan --- " No taxation without representation"
* Greater opportunities for Indians in higher posts by holding the ICS examination
simultaneously in England and in India.
*Separation of the judiciary from the executive.
*More powers for the local bodies.
* Reduction of land revenue and protection of peasants from unjust landlords.
* Abolition of salt tax and sugar duty.
* Reduction of spending on army.
* Freedom of speech and expression and freedom to form associations
Methods of Moderates:* The Moderates had total faith in the British sense of justice
and fair play. They were loyal to the British. They looked to England for inspiration and
guidance. The Moderates used petitions, resolutions, meetings, leaflets and pamphlets,
memorandum and delegations to present their demands. They confined their political
activities to the educated classes only. Their aim was to attain political rights and self-
government stage by stage.
* In the beginning, the British Government welcomed the birth of the Indian National
Congress. In 1886, Governor General Lord Dufferin gave a tea garden party for the
Congress members in Calcutta. The government officials had also attended Congress
sessions. With the increase in Congress demands, the government became unfriendly.
It encouraged the Muslims to stay away from the Congress. The only demand of the
Congress granted by the British was the expansion of the
legislative councils by the Indian Councils Act of 1892.
* They 1st loyal British crown . After 1887 ,the govt failed to persuade the Congress to
confine itself to social issues when the Congress was becoming increasingly critical of
colonial rule . Now the govt resorted to open condemnation of the Congress calling
nationalists as Seditious Brahmins , Disloyal Babus etc . Dufferin called the Congress " a
Factory of sedation". Later the govt adopted a divide & rule policy towards the
Congress . The govt also tried to divide the nationalists on the basis of religion &
through a policy of Carrot & stick pitted the moderates against the extremists. But the
govt failed to check the raising tide of nationalism.
Achievements of Moderates:1. The Moderates were able to create a wide national
awakening among the people.
2. They popularized the ideas of democracy, civil liberties and representative
institutions.
3. They explained how the British were exploiting Indians. Particularly,
Dadabhai Naoroji in his famous book Poverty and
UnBritish Rule in India wrote his Drain Theory. He showed how India’s wealth was
going away to England in the form of: (a) salaries,(b)savings, (c) pensions,
(d) payments to British troops in
India and (e) profits of the British companies. In fact, the British Government was
forced to appoint the Welby Commission, with Dadabhai as the first Indian as its
member, to enquire into the matter.
4. Some Moderates like Ranade and Gokhale favoured social reforms. They
protested against child marriage and widowhood.
5. The Moderates had succeeded in getting the expansion of the legislative
councils by the Indian Councils Act of 1892.
Opinions:
* "INC represents only a microscopic minority" --- Lord Dufferin (1848-
88)(Contemporary viceroy)
* " The Congress is tottering to its fall & one of my great ambitions while in india is to
assist it to a peaceful demise " --- Lord Curzon (1899-1905 ,
Viceroy)
* "INC is a begging Institute" --- Aurobindo Ghosh(Extremist Leader)
* " INC should distinguish between begging & claiming rights" --- Bal
Gangadhar Tilak (Extremist Leader)
* "INC playing with bubbles " --- Bipin Chandra pal
Learning Outcome:After studying this lesson students would be able to explain
1. The factors led to the growth of Indian nationalism.
2. The birth and growth of the Indian National Congress.
3. A brief sketch of the leaders of the moderate nationalism.
4. The aims and methods of the moderates in claiming their demands.
5. The British exploitation of the Indian economy and the Drain Theory.

II. EXTREMIST PHASE (1905-17):

* The period from 1905 was known as the era of extremism in the Indian National
Movement. The extremists or the aggressive nationalists believed that success could
be achieved through bold
means. The important extremist leaders were Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin
Chandra Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh.
Reasons/Causes for the Rise of Extremism:
1. Realization that the true nature of British rule was exploitative.
2. The famine and plague of 1896-97 which affected the whole country and the
suffering of the masses.
3.The failure of the Moderates to win any notable success other than the expansion of
the legislative councils by the Indian Councils Act (1892).
- The Congress were dissatisfied with the achievements of moderates 1st 15-
20 yrs . They were strongly critical of the methods of peaceful &
Constitutional agitation popularly known as the 3 P's - Prayer, Petition &
Protest - & described these methods as political mendicancy
4. The ill-treatment of Indians in South Africa on the basis of colour of skin.
5. The Russo-Japanese war of 1904-5 in which Japan defeated the European power
Russia. This encouraged Indians to fight against the European nation, Britain.
6. The immediate cause for the rise of extremism was the reactionary rule of Lord
Curzon:
- He passed the Calcutta Corporation Act, (1899) reducing the Indian control of this
local body.
- The Universities Act (1904) reduced the elected members in the University bodies. It
also reduced the autonomy of the universities and made them government
departments.
- The Sedition Act and the Official Secrets Act reduced the freedoms of all people.
- His worst measure was the Partition of Bengal (1905).
7. The economic conditions of the people became worse.
8. Existence of Militant schools thought & emergence of a trained leadership Main
Objective of Extremists:
*Their main objective was to attain Swaraj or complete independence and not just self-
government.
Methods of the Extremists:
* The Extremists had no faith in the British sense of justice and fair play. They pointed out
the forceful means by which the British had taken control of India.
They believed that political rights will have to be fought for. They had the spirit of self-
reliance and self- determination.
*The methods used by the extremists were:
1. Not cooperating with the British Government by boycotting government courts,
schools and colleges.
2. Promotion of Swadeshi and boycott of foreign goods.
3. Introduction and promotion of national education.
Leaders of the Extremists:
*The extremists were led by Bala Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipinchandra Pal and
Aurobindo Ghosh.
* Bal Gangadhar Tilak is regarded as the real founder of the popular anti-
British movement in India. He was known as ‘Lokamanya Tilak’ from
Maharashtra. He attacked the British through his weeklies The Mahratta(in
English ,Newspaper)and the Kesari(In Marathi ,News paper). He organised
Ganapati festival (1893) & Shivaji festival (1895)as National fedtivals.His Opposition to
the age of Consent Bill(which would have raised the marriageable age for girls from 10-
12 yrs , even though his objection was mainly that reforms must come from people
governing themselves & not under an alien rule)& He supoorted to Anti - cow killing
campaigns etc.. potrayed him as a Hindu Nationalist.He was jailed twice by the British for
his nationalist activities and in 1908 deported to Mandalay Jail (Burma)6 years for writing
Seditious articles. He set up the Home Rule League in 1916 at Poona and declared
“Swaraj is my birth-right and I will have it.” He wrote Gita
Rahasya
*Lala Lajpat Rai is popularly known as the
‘Lion of Punjab’. He played an important role in the Swadeshi Movement. Under the
influence of Arya samaj he founded National school at Lahore. He presided over The
AITUC in 1920.He founded the Indian Home Rule League in the US in 1916. He was
deported to Mandalay on the ground of sedition. Boycotted Simon commission &
demonstrated against it at Lahore during which he was brutally assaulted by the police &
subsequently scummbed to His fatal injuries while leading a procession against the
Simon Commission.
and died on November 17, 1928.
*Bipan Chandra Pal began his career as a moderate and turned an extremist. He played
an important role in the Swadeshi Movement. He discarded orthodox Hinduism &
entered brahmo samaj & visited England & America . He founded English weekly "New
India". He preached nationalism through the nook and corner of Indian by his powerful
speeches and writings. He carried gospels of Boycott, Swadeshi, National Education
,Swaraj & the passive Resistance. He founded Vande Mataram.
*Sri Aurobinda Ghosh was another extremist leader and he actively participated in the
Swadeshi Movement. He passed ICS exam with record marks in Greek & latin .He had
a European upbringing . He worked for secret societies in Bengal & Maharashtra. He
started Bengali daily 'Jugantar '. He wrote Seditious articles in vande mataram. He was
put into trial for
Maniktalla(Calcutta) Bombay conspiracy case . He finally retired to the life of yoga at
Pondicherry.He was also imprisoned. After his release he settled in the French territory
of Pondicherry and concentrated on spiritual activities.
* Other extremist leaders: Chakravarthi Viji Raghavachariar, Ashvini Kumar Dutta,Raj
Narayan Bose, T. Prakasham , Chidambaram pillai etc...
*Trying to wooo Muslims , Curzon, the viceroy at that time ,argued that Dacca could
become the capital of the new Muslim majority province not experienced by them since
the days of old Muslim viceroys & kings. Thus it was cleared that the govt was up to its
old policy of propping Muslim communalists to counter the Congress in National
Movement.

The Swadeshi & Boycott Movement(1905-08):

Partition of Bengal(1905)& the Rise of Extremism:* The partition of

Bengal in 1905 provided a spark for the rise of extremism in the Indian National
Movement.
*Curzon’s real motives were:
· To break the growing strength of Bengali
nationalism since Bengal was the base of
Indian nationalism. · To divide the Hindus and
Muslims in Bengal.
· To show the enormous power of the
British Government in doing whatever it liked.
* Bengal Comprising Western Bengal as as the provinces of Bihar & Orissa & eastern
Bengal & Assam. Bengal retained Calcutta as it's capital ,while Dacca became the
capital of eastern Bengal
*On the same day when the partition came into effect, 16 October 1905 through a Royal
Proclamation ,reducing the old province of Bengal in size by creating a new province of
East Bengal ,which later on became East Pakistan & present day Bangladesh, the people
of Bengal orgainsed protest meetings and observed a day of mourning. The whole
political life of Bengal underwent a change. Gandhi wrote that the real awakening in
India took place only after the Partition of Bengal.
*The govt explained that it was done to stimulate growth of under-developed
Eastern region of Bengal. But actually, the main objective was to Divide & Rule ,the
most advanced region of the country at that time. The main reason of partition of
Bengal was to destroy the political influence of the educated middle class among
whom the Bengal intellengtsia were the most prominent . It also set up a communal
gulf between Hindus & Muslims . The
INC unanimously condemned the partition of Bengal
*The anti-partition movement culminated into the Swadeshi Movement and spread to
other parts of India which was started to oppose the British decision to divide Bengal.
Movement Under Moderates:
* In this period 1903 - 05, the leadership was provided by men like Surendranath
Bannerjea,k.k.Mitra & prithwishchandra Ray. On Aug 7, 1905 with the passage of
Boycott resolution in massive meeting held in the
Calcutta townhall, the formal proclamation of Swadeshi Movement was made . After the
leaders dispersed to other parts of Bengal to propagate the message of Boycott of
Manchester cloth & Liverpool salt.
* Oct 16,1905 , the day the partition formally came into force was observed as a day
of mourning throughout Bengal. People fasted ,bathed in the ganga & walked barefoot
in processions singing Bande Mataram ( which almost became theme song of this
movement) 'Amar Sonar Bangla ' the national Anthem of present day Bangladesh was
composed by Rabindranath Tagore & was sung by huge crowds marching in the streets
. People tied rakhis on each other's hands as a symbol of unity of the 2 halves of bengal.
Soon the movement spread to other parts of the country - In poona & Bombay Under
Tilak, In punjab under Lal & Ajit Singh , In Delhi under Syed Haider Raza & In Madras
under Chidambaram pillai .
*The aggressive nationalists forced Dadabhai Naoroji to speak of Swaraj
(which was not a Moderate demand) in the Calcutta Session of Congress in
1906. They adopted the resolutions of Boycott and Swadeshi. The Moderate
Congressmen were unhappy. They wanted Swaraj to be achieved through
constitutional methods. The differences led to a split in the Congress at the
Surat session in 1907. Because the Moderates , dominating Congress at that time , they
are not willing to go that far.
*However, a big step forward was taken at the Congress session held at Calcutta (1906)
under the presidentship of Dadabhai Naoroji, where it was declared that the goal of the
INC was self govt or Swaraj like the Uk /Colonies of Australia & Canada. The moderate -
Extremist dispute over the pace of the movement & techniques of struggle reached a
deadlock at the Surat session of INC(1907) where the party split with serious
consequences for Swadeshi Movement.
*This is popularly known as the famous Surat Split. The extremists came out of the
Congress led by Tilak and others.
Swadeshi /Anti -partition Movement (1905- 08):
* After 1905 , the extremists acquired a dominant influence over this Swadeshi
Movement.. 3 reasons:
1. The Moderate-led movement had failed to yield results
2. The Divisive tactics of the govts of both the Bengals had embittered the nationalists
3. The govt had resorted to suppressive measures which included atrocities on
students - many of whom were given corporal punishment, ban on public singing of
Vande mataram , restriction on public meetings , prosecution & long imprisonment
of Swadeshi workers , clashes between the police & the people in many towns ,
arrests & deportation of leaders & suppression of freedom of the press
The Extremist Programme :
*The INC took up the Swadeshi call in Benaras session,1905 presided over by
G.K.Gokhle & supported the Swadeshi & Boycott Movement of Bengal .
Militant Nationalism spearheaded by the trio of LAL - BAL - PAL (Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal
Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra pal) & Aurobindo Ghosh was however, in favour of
extending the movement to the rest of India & carrying it beyond the program of just
Swadeshi & Boycott of goods to full fledged political mass struggle.
* On August 7, 1905, a resolution to boycott British goods was adopted at a meeting of
the INC held in Calcutta. It was started as a purely economic measure for the
development of Indian industry
* Bonfire of foreign goods was launched on a large scale in all the major cities . Tilak
took the movement to different parts of India especially to Pune & Mumbai. Ajit
Singh & Lala Lajpat Rai spread the Swadeshi message in Punjab & other parts of
Northern India. Syed Haidar Raza set up the agenda in Delhi . Rawalpindi,Kangra,
Jammu,Multan & Hardwar witnessed active public participation in Swadeshi
Movement . Chidambaram pillai took the movement to Madras presidency which was
also galvanized by bipin Chandra pal's extensive lecture tour.
* The Swadeshi Movement involved programmes like the boycott of government
service, courts, schools and colleges and of foreign goods, promotion of Swadeshi
goods, Promotion of National Education through the establishment of national
schools and colleges. It was both a political and economic movement.
The Swadeshi Movement was a great success. In Bengal, even the landlords joined the
movement. The women and students took to picketing. Students refused using books
made of foreign paper.The government adopted several tough measures. It passed
several Acts to crush the movement. The Swadeshi volunteers were beaten badly. The cry
of Vande Mataram was forbidden. Schools and colleges were warned not to allow their
students to take part in the movement or else their, aid would be stopped. Some Indian
government employees lost their jobs.
* The militant Nationalist transform this in to mass struggle & gave a slogan of India's
Independence from Foreign Rule.
* " Political freedom is the life breath of a Nation", declared Aurobindo.The extremists
thought that India's independence was to be achieved by selfsacrifice
* Impact:
1.Boycott of foreign goods
2. Public meetings & processions
3. Corps of volunteers or Samitis
4. Imaginative use of traditional popular festivals & melas
5. Emphasis given to self-reliance
6. Programme of Swadeshi or National education: Bengal National College inspired by
Tagore's shantiniketan, was set up with Aurobindo Ghosh as it's principal
7. Swadeshi /Indigenous Enterprises
8. Impact in the Cultural Sphere:
Tagore's Amar Sona Bangla written on this occasion was later inspire the liberation
struggle of Bangladesh & was adopted by its National Anthem. In
Tamil Nadu, Subramania Bharati wrote Sudesha Geetham
* Extremist leaders Bala Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal and
Aurobindo Ghosh were imprisoned and deported.
Achievements of Extremists:
*The achievements of extremists can be summed up as follows:
1. They were the first to demand Swaraj as a matter of birth right.
2. They involved the masses in the freedom struggle and broadened the social base of
the National Movement.
3. They were the first to organize an all-India political movement, viz. the Swadeshi
Movement.

III. THE GANDHIAN ERA (1917-47):(part 1)

* Post war economic Hardships: India contributed in Men & Money towards British
war efforts. So many are died & taxes are raised to Indian people & also impact of
Russian revolution (Nov 7, 1917)
* Montagu - Chelmsford reforms & GOI Act 1919: The British govt not prepared
to share its powerwith Indians , once again resorted policy Carrot & stick . The carrot
was represented by The unsubstantial Montagu Chelmsford reforms while measures
such as Rowlatt act represented the stick. Based on this GOI Act 1919 was enacted.
Main features:
1. Provincial Govt --Intro of Dyarchy. The act introduced Dyarchy i.e. rule of Two -
executive councillors & popular ministers was introduced. It is for the executive at the
level of the provincial govt . Divided into 2 subjects -
Reserved g Transfer Subjects
- Reserved subject were to be administered by the governor through his executive
council of bureaucrats
- Transferred subjects were to be administered by ministers nominated from
among the elected members of the legislative council
2. Central govt - still without Responsible govt was envisaged in the act for the govt at
the all- India level
* The Congress met in a special session in August 1918 at Bombay under Hasan Imams
presidency & declared the reforms to be Disappointing & unsatisfactory &
demanded effective self govt instead.
* The Montford Reforms were Termed as
- " Unworthy & disappointing -- a sunless Dawn " by Tilak
- "Unworthy of England to offer & India to accept" by Annie Besant

* Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi:

*In South Africa :
1893 - Departure of Gandhi to south africa , experiences Racial descrimination in various
forms , famous incidence -- Gandhi was thrown off the 1st class compartment of the
train at Pietermaritzburg station on 7th june
1894- Foundation of natal Indian Congress
1899- Foundation of Indian ambula6 core during Boer wars
1904- Foundation of Indian opinion (Magzine) & phoenix Farm at
phoenixbear Durban
1906- 1st Civil Disobedience movement (Satyagraha) against Asiatic ordinance in
Transvaal
1907- Satyagraha against compulsory registration & passes for Asians (The black act)
in Transvaal
1908- Trial & imprisonment - johannesburg jail (1st time jail)
1910 - Foundation of Tolstoy Farm (Later Gandhi Ashrama) near
Johannesburg
1913 - Satyagraha against derecognition of Non Christian marriages in Cape town
1914 - quits South Africa forever & returns to India , awarded Kaisar-i-Hind for raising
an Indian Ambulance core during Boer wars
* In India(1915- 48) :
1915- Arrived in Bombay (India) on 9 Jan , 1915. Foundation of Satyagraha
ashrama at kocharab near Ahmedabad (20 may) ; in 1917, ashrama shifted at the banks
of sabarmati ; All India tour
1916- Delivered a speech on the occasion of opening ceremony of Benaras Hindu
University (BHU) on 4th Feb, Abstain from active politics ( though he attended
Lucknow session at INC held in26-30 Dec, 1916, where Rajkumar Shukla, a cultivator
from Bihar , requested him to come to Champaran
1917- Gandhi entered into active politics with Champaran Campaign to redress
grievances of the cultivators oppressed by Indigo planters of Bihar (April 1917).
Champaran Satyagraha was his 1st Civil Disobedience movement in India
1918- In Feb, 1918, Gandhi launched the struggle in Ahmedabad which involved
industrial workers . Hunger strike as aweapon was used for the 1st time by Gandhi
during Ahmedabad struggle . In March 1918, Gandhi worked for peasants of kheda in
Gujarat who were facing difficulties in paying the rent owing to failure of crops . Kheda
Satyagraha was his 1st Non- cooperation movement
1919- Gandhi gave a call for Satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act on April 6 , 1919
& took the command of the Nationalist movement for the 1st time (1st all- India
political movement), Gandhi returns Kaisar-i-Hind gold medal as a protest against
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre - April 13, 1919; The All India
Khilafat Conference elected Gandhi as it's president (Nov 1919, Delhi)
1920 -22 : Gandhi leads the Non- cooperation & Khilafat movement (Aug, 1, 1920 -
Feb, 1922), Gandhi calls off movement (Feb12, 1922) after the violent incident at
chauri-Chaura on Feb 5, 1922. Non - cooperation movement was the 1st mass based
politics under Gandhi
1924 - Belgaum (Karnataka) session of INC for the 1st time & last time ,
Gandhi was elected the president of the Congress
1925 - 27 : Gandhi retires from active politics for the 1st time & devotes himself to
constructive program of the Congress; Gandhi resumes active politics in 1927
1930 -34: Gandhi launched the civil disobedience movement with his Dandi
March/Salt Satyagraha (1st phase: March 12, 1930- March 5 , 1931; "Man of the year" :
Gandhi has chosen by Time magzine as their ' Man of the Year'(In 1930, after Dandi
March to break the salt laws) ; Gandhi -Irwin Pact : March 5, 1931; Gandhi attends the
2nd Round Table conference in London as sole representative of the Congress : Sep 7 -
Dec1 , 1931 ; 2nd phase : Jan 3, 1932
- April 17 , 1934)
1934-39 : Gandhi retires from active politics, sets up Sevagram(Vardha ashram)
1939- Gandhi resumes active politics
1940 - 41 : Gandhi launches Individual Satyagraha movement
1942- Call to Quit India Movement for which Gandhi raised the slogan ' Do or Die' ( we
shall either free India or die in the attempt), Gandhi & all Congress leaders arrested (aug
9, 1942)
1942 - 44: Gandhi kept in detention at the Aga Khan's palace (now Gandhi
National memorial) near Pune ( aug 9, 1942 - May 1944) , Gandhi lost his wife
Kadthurba(Feb22,1944) & private secretary Mahadev Desai ; this was Gandhi's last prison
term
1945- Gandhi's influence on the Congress wanes perceptively after 1945 1946- Deeply
distressed by the orgy of communal violence as a result Muslim leagues Direct Action
call , Gandhi travelled to Noakhali(East Bengal - now
Bangladesh) & later on Calcutta to restore communal peace
1947- Gandhi deeply distressed by the Mountbatten plan/Partition plan (june 3,
1947) while staying in Calcutta to restore communal violence , observes complete silence
on the dawn of India's Independence ( aug 15 ,1947).
Gandhi returns to Delhi ( sep 1947)
1948- Gandhi was shot dead by Nathuram godse while on his way to the evening
prayer meeting at Birla house, New Delhi(Jan 30, 1948). He died with'
Hey Ram' on his lips
Note: Gandhi had suggested the winding up of INC after India attained independence
& converting it into Lok Sevak Samaj.
* Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, more commonly known as ‘Mahatma’
(meaning ‘Great Soul’) was born in Porbandar, Gujarat, in North-West India, on 2nd
October 1869, into a Hindu Modh family.
* His father was the Chief Minister of Porbandar, and his mother’s religious devotion
*On October 2, 1869( it is commemorated in India as Gandhi Jayanti, A national Holiday
& world wide as the ' International Day of Nonviolence(Antarrashtriya Ahimsa Diwas)
'According to Declaration of UNO, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born in
Porbandar, Gujarat's princely state of Kathiawar. His father was a state diwan
(minister).Mother: Putali Bhai ,
Spiritual Guru : Raichand Bhai; Political Guru : Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Private
Secretary: Mahadev Desai(1917 - 42), Pyarelal Nayyar(1942 - 48)
* Indian Opinion( English , Gujarati,Hindi & Tamil) ; Harijan(1919-31 English
Gujarati Hindi) ; young India (1933- 42) ( in English & in Gujarati= Navjeevan)
- Literary works
* Other names : Mahan Mahatma (Great saint) by pranjivan Mehta; Mahatma
(high souled) by Rabindranath Tagore ; Rashtrapita( The father of nation) by
Subhash Chandra Bose 1944
- he is also called Bapu( Gujarati - father) & Gandhiji
*After studying law in England, Gandhi traveled to South Africa in 1893 in connection
with a case involving his client, Dada Abdullah.
*In South Africa, he witnessed the ugly face of white racism, as well as the humiliation
and contempt, showed to Asians who had come to South Africa as laborers.
*He chose to remain in South Africa in order to organize the Indian workers and enable
them to fight for their rights.
*Gandhi spent 20 years of his life (1893 - 1914) in South Africa working as an attorney
and a public worker.There he developed the idea of Satyagraha and used it against the
Asiatic Registration Law. It also resulted in the first jail sentence in Mahatma Gandhi's
life.
*Although it couldn't stop him from evolving into one of the most impactful and
respected leaders in South Africa.
* He remained there until 1914 when he returned to India.
Gandhi’s Experiment with truth in South Africa:
*The Indians in South Africa were divided into three groups:
1. indentured Indian laborers, primarily from South India, who had migrated to South
Africa after 1890 to work on sugar plantations;
2.merchants—mostly Meman Muslims who had followed the laborers; and 3..ex-
indentured laborers who had settled down with their children in South Africa after
their contracts expired.
* These Indians were mostly illiterate and spoke little or no English. They accepted
racial discrimination as a normal part of life.
*These Indian immigrants had to deal with a slew of handicaps.They were not allowed to
vote.They could only live in designated areas that were unsanitary and congested.
*Asians and Africans in some colonies were unable to leave their homes after dark and
nor were they allowed using public footpaths.

Phases of Struggle:
1. Moderate Phase of Struggle (1894-1906):During this period, Gandhi
relied on petitions and memorials to South African and British authorities. *He hoped
that once the authorities were made aware of the plight of Indians, they would take
genuine steps to address their grievances, as Indians were, after all, British subjects.
*To unite various sections of Indians, he founded the Natal Indian Congress and
launched the newspaper Indian Opinion.
2. Phase of Passive Resistance or Satyagraha (1906-1914):The
second phase, which began in 1906, was distinguished by Gandhi's use of the method of
passive resistance or civil disobedience known as satyagraha. *After a series of
negotiations involving Gandhi, Lord Hardinge, C.F. Andrews, and General Smuts, an
agreement was reached.
*The South African government conceded the major Indian demands relating to the poll
tax, registration certificates, and marriages solemnized according to Indian rites, and
promised to treat the issue of Indian immigration sympathetically.
- Satyagraha against Registration Certificates (1906) : In South Africa, new
legislation requires Indians to carry registration certificates with their fingerprints at all
times.The Indians, led by Gandhi, decided not to submit to this discriminatory
measure.Gandhi established the Passive Resistance Association to carry out a campaign
of defying the law and suffering the consequences of such defiance.Thus, was born
satyagraha, or devotion to truth, the technique of resisting opponents without resorting
to violence.Gandhi and others who refused to register were imprisoned by the
government.
- Campaign against restrictions on Indian migration:The previous campaign was
expanded to include opposition to new legislation restricting Indian migration.The
Indians defied the law by crossing from one province to the next and refusing to
produce licenses.Many of these Native Americans were imprisoned.
- Campaign against Poll Tax and Invalidation of Indian Marriages: All
exindentured Indians were subjected to a three-pound poll tax.The demand for the
abolition of the poll tax broadened the campaign's base.Then, in response to a
Supreme Court order that invalidated all marriages not conducted according to
Christian rites and registered by the registrar of marriages,
Indians and others who were not Christians were outraged.By extension, Hindu, Muslim,
and Parsi marriages were illegal, and children born from such unions were
illegitimate.The Indians saw this decision as an insult to women's honor, and many
women were drawn into the movement as a result of this humiliation.
---- Tolstoy Farm: The Tolstoy Farm was founded in 1910 and named as such by
Gandhi’s associate, Herman Kallenbach, after the Russian writer and moralist, whom
Gandhi admired and corresponded with. Besides being an experiment in education, it
was to house the families of the satyagrahis and to give them a way to sustain
themselves. The Tolstoy Farm was the second of its kind established by Gandhi. He had
set up the Phoenix Farm in 1904 in Natal, inspired by a reading of John Ruskin’s Unto
This Last, a critique of capitalism, and a work that extolled the virtues of the simple life
of love, labour, and the dignity of human beings. As at the Phoenix settlement, at
Tolstoy Farm too, manual work went hand-in-hand with instruction. Vocational training
was introduced to give “all-round development to the boys and girls”. Co-educational
classes were held, and boys and girls were encouraged to work together.Gandhi’s
objective in this context was to inculcate the ideals of social service and citizenship
besides a healthy respect for manual work from the early formative years itself. The farm
worked till 1913.
- Protest against Transvaal Immigration Act : Indians illegally migrated from
Natal to Transvaal in protest of the Transvaal Immigration Act.These
Indians were imprisoned by the government.Miners and plantation workers were
struck by lightning.Gokhale toured the entire country of India, rallying public support
for Indians in South Africa.Even the viceroy, Lord Hardinge, condemned the repression
and demanded an impartial investigation.
Gandhi’s Experience in South Africa:
* Gandhi discovered that the masses have an enormous capacity to participate in
and sacrifice for a cause that moves them.
*Under his leadership, he was able to bring together Indians of various religions and
classes, as well as men and women.
* He also realized that leaders must sometimes make decisions that are unpopular
with their ardent supporters.
*He was able to develop his own leadership and political style, as well as new
techniques of struggle on a small scale, unhindered by the opposition of competing
political currents.
Gandhi’s Technique of Satyagraha:
* During his time in South Africa, Gandhi developed the Satyagraha technique. It
was founded on the truth andnonviolence. He combined elements of Indian tradition
with the Christian requirement of turning the other cheek and Tolstoy's philosophy,
which stated that nonviolent resistance was the best way to combat evil. Its
fundamental tenets were as follows:
* A satyagrahi was not to submit to what he saw as wrong but rather to truthful ,
nonviolence & fearless
*A satyagrahi works on the principles of boycott and withdrawal of cooperation.
*Satyagraha tactics include refusing to pay taxes and declining honors and positions of
authority.
*In his fight against the wrongdoer, a satyagrahi must be willing to suffer. This suffering
was to be a part of his love for truth.
*Even while fighting the wrongdoer, a true satyagrahi would have no ill will toward the
wrongdoer; hatred would be alien to his nature.
*A true satyagrahi would never bow down to evil, no matter what the consequences.
*Satyagraha was only for the brave and strong; it was not for the weak and cowardly.
Cowardice was even preferred to violence.
*Thought and practice were never to be separated. To put it another way, the ends could
not justify the means.
Gandhi in India:
* In January 1915, Gandhi returned to India. In South Africa, his efforts were well
known not only among the educated but also among the masses. *He resolved to
spend the next year touring the country, observing the people's plight first hand.
*He also resolved not to take a stance on any political issue for at least a year. *In terms
of the political currents that existed in India at the time, he was convinced of the
limitations of moderate politics and was also opposed to the Home Rule agitation that
was gaining popularity at the time.
*He believed that while Britain was at war, it was not the best time to campaign for
Home Rule.
*He was convinced that the only method capable of achieving nationalist goals was
non-violent satyagraha
*He also stated that he would not join any political organization unless it shared his
commitment to nonviolent satyagraha.
*Gandhi was involved in three struggles in 1917 and 1918, in Champaran, Ahmedabad,
and Kheda, before launching the Rowlatt Satyagraha.

1. Champaran Satyagraha(1917) - 1st Civil Disobedience:

Gandhi was requested by Rajkumar Shukla, alocal man , to look into the problems of the
farmers in context of indigo planters of Champaran in Bihar. The European planters had
been forcing the peasants to grow indigo on 3/20 part of the total land (called Tinkathia
system). When towards the end of 19th century German synthetic dyes replaced indigo ,
the European planters demanded high rents & illegal dues from the peasants in order to
maximise their profits before peasants could shift to other crops . Besides, the peasants
were forced to sell the produce at prices fixed by the Europeans. When
Gandhi , rajendra prasad, Mazhar-ul-haq , Mahadeo Desai, Narhari Parekh & J.B.Kripalani
reached Champaran to probe in to the matter , the authorities order him to leave the
area at once . Gandhi defied the order & preferred to face the punish. Finally, the
authorities retreated & permitted Gandhi to make an enquiry. Now the govt appointed a
come to go into the matter & nominated Gandhi as a member Gandhi was able to
convince the authorities that Tinkathia system should be abolished & that the peasants
should be compensated for illegal dues extracted from them . As a compromise with the
planters, he agreed that only 25 % of the money taken should be compensated. With in
a decade, the planters left the area . Gandhi had won the 1st battle of civil disobedience
in India.

2. Ahmedabad Mill strike (1918) - 1st Hunger strike: In March

1918 , Gandhi intervened in a dispute between cotton mill owner of Ahmedabad & the
workers over the issue of discontinuation of the plague bonus. The mill owners wanted
to withdraw the bonus . The workers were demanding a rise of 50% in their wages so
that they could manage in the times of wartime inflation ( which doubled the prices of
food grains , cloth, & other necessities) caused by Britain's involvement in world war - 1.
The mill owners were ready to give only a 20 % wage hike. The workers went on strike .
The workers went on strike. The relations between the workers & the mill owners
worsened with the striking workers being arbitrarily dismissed and the mill owners
deciding to bring in weavers from
Bombay. The workers of the mill turned to Anusuya Sarabhai for help in fighting for
justice. Anusuya Sarabhai was a social worker who was also the sister of Ambalal
Sarabhai, one of the mill owners and the president of the Ahmedabad Mill Owners
Association (founded in 1891 to develop the textile industry in Ahmedabad), for help
in fighting for justice. Anusuya Behn went toGandhi, who was respected by the mill
owners and workers, and asked him to intervene and help resolve the impasse
between the workers and the employers.
* Though Gandhi was a friend of Ambalal, he took up the workers’ cause.
Anusuya too supported the workers and was one of the chief lieutenants of
Gandhi’s. (It was Anusuya Behn who went on later to form the Ahmedabad Textile
Labour Association in 1920.) Gandhi asked the workers to go on a strike and demand a
35 per cent increase in wages instead of 50 per cent. * Gandhi advised the workers to
remain non-violent while on strike. When negotiations with mill owners did not
progress, he himself undertook a fast unto death (his first) to strengthen the workers’
resolve. But the fast also had the effect of putting pressure on the mill owners who
finally agreed to submit the issue to a tribunal. The strike was withdrawn. In the end,
the tribunal awarded the workers a 35 per cent wage hike.

3. Kheda Satyagraha (1918) - 1st Non Cooperation: Because of

drought in 1918, the crops failed in Kheda district of Gujarat. According to the Revenue
Code, if the yield was less than one-fourth the normal produce, the farmers were entitled
to remission. The Gujarat Sabha, consisting of the peasants, submitted petitions to the
highest governing authorities of the province requesting that the revenue assessment for
the year 1919 be suspended. The government, however, remained adamant and said that
the property of the farmers would be seized if the taxes were not paid. Gandhi asked the
farmers not to pay the taxes. Gandhi,
however, was mainly the spiritual head of the struggle. It was Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
and a group of other devoted Gandhians, namely, Narahari Parikh, Mohanlal Pandya,
and Ravi Shankar Vyas, who went around the villages, organised the villagers and told
them what to do, and gave the necessary political leadership. Patel, along with his
colleagues, organised the tax revolt which the different ethnic and caste communities
of Kheda supported. The revolt was remarkable in that discipline and unity were
maintained. Even when, on non-payment of taxes, the government seized the farmers’
personal property, land, and livelihood, a vast majority of Kheda’s farmers did not
desert
Sardar Patel. Gujaratis in other parts who sympathised with the cause of the revolt
helped by sheltering the relatives and property of the protesting peasants. Those
Indians who sought to buy the confiscated lands were socially ostracised. Ultimately,
the government sought to bring about an agreement with the farmers. It agreed to
suspend the tax for the year in question, and for the next; reduce the increase
in rate; and return all the confiscated property. The struggle at Kheda brought a new
awakening among the peasantry. They became aware that they would not be free of
injustice and exploitation unless and until their country achieved complete
independence. Gains from Champaran, Ahmedabad, and Kheda:
● Gandhi demonstrated to the people the efficacy of his technique of satyagraha.
● He found his feet among the masses and came to have a surer understanding of the
strengths and weaknesses of the masses.
● He acquired respect and commitment of many, especially the youth.

1. Rowlatt Act(1919):
*Just 6 months before the Montford Reforms were to be put into effect, 2 bills were
introduced in the Imperial Legislative Council. One of them was dropped, but the other—
an extension to the Defence of India Regulations Act, 1915— was passed in March 1919.
It was what was officially
called the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, but popularly known as the
Rowlatt Act. It was based on the recommendations made in the previous year to the
Imperial Legislative Council by the Rowlatt Commission, headed by the British judge,
Sir Sidney Rowlatt, to investigate the ‘seditious conspiracy’ of the Indian people. (The
committee had recommended that activists should be deported or imprisoned without
trial for 2 years, and that even possession of seditious newspapers would be adequate
evidence of guilt.) All the elected Indian members of the Imperial Legislative Council
voted against the bill, but they were in a minority and easily overruled by the official
nominees. All the elected Indian members—who included Muhammed Ali Jinnah,
Madan Mohan Malaviya, and Mazhar Ul Haq—resigned in protest. The act allowed
political activists to be tried without juries or even imprisoned without trial. It allowed
arrest of Indians without warrant on the mere suspicion of ‘treason’. There was strict
control over the press, and the govt was armed with a variety of powers to deal with
anything the authorities chose to consider as terrorism or revolutionary tactics.
* During the viceroyalty of Lord Chelmsford, a sedition committee was appointed
by the govt in 1918 with justice Rowlatt which made certain recommendations to curb
Seditious activities in india . The Rowlatt Act 1919, gave unbridled powers to the govt to
arrest & imprison suspects without trial. The act caused a wave of anger among the
people . Even before the act was passed , popular agitation began against it . Gandhiji
decided to fight against this act & he gave acall for Satyagraha on April 6, 1919 . He was
arrested on April 8, 1919 . This led to further intensification of the agitation in Delhi ,
Ahmedabad & punjab
* Satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act - 1st Mass Strike: Just when the Indians
expected a huge advance towards self- rule as a reward for their contribution to the
war, they were given the Montford Reforms with its very limited scope and the
shockingly repressive Rowlatt Act. Not surprisingly the Indians felt betrayed—more so
Gandhi, who had been at the forefront in offering cooperation in the British war effort,
and who had even offered to encourage recruitment of Indians into the British Indian
forces. He called the Rowlatt Act the “Black Act” and argued that not everyone should
get punishment in response to isolated political crimes. Gandhi called for a mass protest
at all-India level. But soon, having seen the constitutional protest meet with ruthless
repression, Gandhi organised a Satyagraha Sabha and roped in younger members of
Home Rule Leagues and the Pan Islamists. The forms of protest finally chosen included
observance of a nationwide hartal(strike) accompanied by
fasting and prayer, and civil disobedience against specific laws, and courting arrest and
imprisonment.
*Satyagraha was to be launched on April 6, 1919, but before it could be launched,
there were large-scale violent, anti-British demonstrations in Calcutta, Bombay, Delhi,
Ahmedabad, etc. Especially in Punjab, the situation became so very explosive due to
wartime repression, forcible recruitments, and ravages of disease that the Army had to
be called in. April 1919 saw the biggest and the most violent anti-British upsurge since
1857. The Lieutenant Governor of Punjab, Sir Michael O’Dwyer, is said to have used
aircraft strafing against the violent protestors.
Formation of the Muslim League (1906):* In December 1906, Muslim delegates from
all over India met at Dacca for the Muslim Educational Conference. Taking advantage of
this occasion, Nawab Salimullah of
Dacca(Dhaka) proposed the setting up of an organisation to look after the Muslim
interests. The proposal was accepted. The All-India Muslim League was finally set up on
December 30, 1906. Like the Indian National Congress, they conducted annual sessions
and put their demands to the British government. The league opposed the Swadeshi
movement & Supported the partition of Bengal & they demanded Special safeguards
for its community & a separate electorate for muslims. This led to communal differences
between Hindus & Muslims.Initially, they enjoyed the support of the British. Their first
achievement was the separate electorates for the Muslims in the MintoMorley reforms.
*Calcutta Session of INC (1906) - Swaraj:
* In December 1906, Emboldened by Dadabhai Naoroji's Declaration at the
Calcutta session (1906) the self govt or Swaraj was to be the goal of a Congress Under
the leadership of him .
*Naoroji in his presidential address declared that the goal of the INC was self govt or
Swaraj like that of United Kingdom.
* The differences between the moderates & Extremists especially regarding the pace
of the movement & the techniques of the struggle to be adopted, came to head in
907 at the Surat session of the Congress where the party split with serious
consequences for the Swadeshi movement.
* Surat Split(1907):
* In Dec 1905, Benaras session , the differences between Moderates & extremists
came to fore.
* The extremists wanted to boycott & Swadeshi movement to extend outside the
regions of Bengal thus start a Nationwide mass movement. But the Moderates were
not in favour of extending the movement beyond Bengal & also opposed Boycott &
they advocated the constitutional methods to protest against the partition of
Bengal
*As a compromise , a relatively mild resolution condemning the partition of
Bengal & the reactionary policies of Curzon & supporting the Swadeshi & Boycott
programme in bengal was passed . This succeeded in averting the split for the moment
* In Dec, 1906, at Calcutta Session, The moderates enthusiasm had cooled a bit
because of the popularity of the extremists & the revolutionaries & because of the
communal riots. Here, the extremists wanted either tilak or lajpati Rai as the
president, while the moderates proposed the Dadabhai Naoroji , who was widely
respected by all the nationalists . Finally he became the President & a concession to
the militants the goal of INC was defined as Swarajya /Self Govt.
* A resolution supporting the program of Swadeshi & Boycott & National Education
was passed. In that the word Swaraj was mentioned in it.
* The extremists thought that the people had been aroused & the battle of Freedom
had begun. They felt the time had come for the big push to drive the British out &
considered the moderates to be a drag on the movement . They decided that it was
necessary to part company with the moderates , even if it meant a split in the
Congress
* The Moderates thought that it would be dangerous to associate with The Extremists
whose anti imperialist agitation which it was ruthlessly suppressed by the colonial
forces. They saw in the colonial reforms an opportunity to realise their dream of
Indian Participation in the administration . Any hasty action by the Congress , the
moderate felt under Extremist pressure was bound to annoy liberals , then in
powered in England. They were also ready to part company with the extremists
* The Moderates failed to realise that the council reforms were meant by the govt
more to isolate the extremists than to reward the Moderates. * The Extremists did
not realise that The moderates could act as their front line of defence against state
reppression. & Neither side realised that in a vast country like India ruled by a
strong imperialist power only abroad based nationalist movement could succeed
* Split takes place : The. INC split in to 2 groups - The extremists (Bal, Lal ,pal) & the
Moderates (Gopala Krishna Gokhale), at Surat session in 1907 held on the banks of
the river Tapi.
The Extremists wanted the 1907 session to be held in Nagpur (central province) with
Tilak /Lala Lajpat Rai as the president along with a reiteration. The Moderates wanted
the session at Surat in order to exclude Tilak from the presidency , since a leader from
the host province could not be session president (Surat being Tilaks home province of
Bombay). Instead they wanted Rasbehari Ghosh as the president & sought to drop the
resolutions on Swadeshi, Boycott & National Education. Both sides adopted rigid
positions ,leaving no room for compromise. The split became inevitable & the
Congress was now dominated by the Moderates who lost no time in reiterating
Congress commitment to the goal of self - govt with in the British Empire & to the use
of constitutional methods only to achieve this goal.
* Govt Repression: The govt launched a massive attack on the extremists. Between
1907 & 1911, 5 new laws were brought in to force to check anti-govt activity. These
legislations included the Seditious meetings Act, 1907; Indian Newspaper Act, 1908;
Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1908 & The Indian press Act, 1910.
*Tilak, the main extremist leader was tried in 1909 for sedition for what he had written
in 1908 in his Kesari about a Bombay thrown by Bengal revolutionaries in Muzaffarpur,
resulting in the death of 2 innocent European women.
* In an Article, Tilak wrote that the real means of stopping the bombs consisted in
making a beginning towards the grant of rights of Swarajya to the people. Tilak was
judged guilty & sentenced to 6 yrs transportation & a fine of 1000rs. He was sent to
Mandalay(Burma) Jail for 6 yrs. Aurobindo & B.C.Pal retired from active politics.
Lajpat Rai left for abroad . The extremists were not able to organise an effective
alternative party to sustain the movement. The Moderates were left with no popular
base or support, especially as the youth rallied behind the extremists.
* After 1908, the national movement as a whole declined for a time . In 1914,
Tilak was released & he picked up the threads of the movement
* In the govts view , the Moderates still represented an anti-imperialist force
consisting of basically patriotic & liberal intellectuals. With the coming of Swadeshi
& Boycott movement & the emergence of military nationalist trend in a big way, the
govt modified it's strategy towards the nationalists.
*Now, the policy was to be of 'rallying them'(John Morley -- secretary of State) or the
policy of 'Carrot & Stick'. It may be described as a 3 prolonged approach of
Repression- Conciliation- Suppression.
* In the 1st stage , the extremists were to be repressed mildly, mainly to frighten the
Moderates.
* In the 2nd stage , the moderates were to be placed through some concessions, hints
were to be dropped that more reforms would be forthcoming if the distance from
the extremists was maintained. This was aimed at isolating the extremists; with the
Moderates on its side the govt could suppress the extremists with its full might ; the
Moderates could then be ignored
* Unfortunately neither the Moderates nor the Extremists understood the purpose
behind the strategy. The Surat Split suggested that the policy of Carrot & Stick had
brought rich dividends to the British India govt.
*Morley -Minto Reforms(1909):
* In oct 1906, a group of Muslim elites called the Simla Deputation, led by
Agha Khan, met Lord Minto & demanded separate electorates for the Muslims &
representation of them.
* G.k.Gokhale also went to England to meet the secratary of state for India , John
Morley, to put Congress demands for self governing system similar to that in the
other British colonies
* Reforms: The viceroy , Lord Minto & secretary of State for India , John Morley
agreed that some reforms were due so as to placate the Moderates as well as the
Muslims. They worked out a set of measures that came to be known as Morley -
Minto Reforms that translated into the Indian Councils Act of 1909
1. Indians were allowed to participate in the elections of various legislative council
basis of their class & community
2. Separate electorates for muslims for 1st time
3. The no. Of elected members in the imperial Legislative council & the provincial
legislative councils was increased- elected Non- officials still in minority
-Nominated /Not elected/Non- official members to be elected indirectly - thus
elections introduced for 1st time
4. The elected members are indirectly elected through an electoral college(provincial &
central legislature)
5. Powers of Legislatures (both at centre & province)were enlarged & they could pass
resolutions, ask questions & supplemtaries, vote separate items of the budget
6. One Indian was to be appointed to the viceroy's executive council
( satyendra Sinha was the 1st Indian to be appointed in 1909)
* Govt Aimed at dividing the nationalist ranks & at rallying the Moderates & the
muslims to the govts side
* No responsibility entrusted to legislators - this resulted in thought less criticism
sometimes. System of election was too indirect.
* Revolutionary Movements: ( Read more about in Spectrum for Group 1 &
2)
*In the first half of the 20th century, revolutionary groups sprang up mainly in Bengal,
Maharashtra, Punjab and Madras. The revolutionaries were not satisfied with the
methods of both the moderates and extremists. Hence, they started many revolutionary
secret organizations. In Bengal , Anusilan Samiti and Jugantar were established. In
Maharashtra Savarkar brothers had set up Abhinava Bharat. In the Madras Presidency,
Bharathmatha Association was started by Nilakanta Bramachari. In Punjab Ajit Singh set
up a secret society to spread revolutionary ideas among the youth. In London, at India
House, Shyamji Krishna Verma gathered young Indian nationalists like Madan Lal
Dhingra, Savarkar, V.V.S. Iyer and T.S.S.Rajan. Lala Hardyal set up the‘Ghadar Party’ in
USA to organise revolutionary activities from outside India. * The Ghadar Party: was an
early 20th-century international political movement. It was founded by expatriate
Indians to overthrow British rule in India. It was founded on July 15, 1913 in the United
States. Lala Har Dayal,
Sant Baba Wasakha Singh Dadehar, Baba Jawala Singh, Santokh Singh, and Sohan
Singh Bhakna founded it.The Ghadr party was a revolutionary group organised in 1913
around a weekly newspaper TheGhadr with its headquarters at San Francisco &
branches along the US coast & in the far east . The Ghadr prgrm was to organise
assassinations of officials , publish revolutionary & anti- imperialist literature , work
among Indian troops stationed abroad , procure arms & revolt in all British colonies
Objectives:
To overthrow British rule in India through armed revolution.
To establish a free and independent India.
To create a secular state that would be open to all religions.
To improve the lives of the poor and working class.
To promote education and social reform.
To unite all Indians, regardless of their religion or caste.
* The moving spirit behind the Ghadr party were Lala Hardayal , Ramchandra,
Bhagawan Singh, Kartar Singh Saraba, Barkatullah & Bhai Parmanand. The Ghadrites
intended to bring about a revolt in india . Their plans were to encourage 2 events in
1914 -- 1. The Komagata Maru incident :
The Komagata Maru incident is about a Japanese steamship called ‘Komagata
Maru’ that voyaged from Hong Kong (part of British
Empire) to Vancouver, British Columbia in Canada passing through Shanghai,
China to Yokohama (Japan) in the year 1914, carrying 376 passengers from Punjab,
part of British India. The incident got highlighted because out of all the passengers 24
were admitted to Canada, but the other 352 passengers were not allowed inside
Canada, and the ship was forcefully returned to India.The ship was carrying the
majority of Sikh and Punjabi Muslims passengers. The ship was returned only after two
months of privation and uncertainty which later took the form of an embroiled
controversy. The belief of Canadian authorities being influenced by British hurt Indians
While the ship returned to Calcutta in September 1914, the passengers were asked to
take Punjab-bound train, which they refused and in conflict 22 people died.This
situation led to 1st world war the Ghadr leader decided to launch a violent attack to
oust British rule in India
2. The outbreak of 1st world war:
* In the 1st world war (1914-19), Britain allied with France, Russia,
USA,Italy ,Japan against Germany, Austria-Hungary & Turkey . This period saw the
maturing of Indian Nationalism. The Nationalist response to British participation in 1st
world war was 3 fold :
1. The Moderates supported the empire in the war as matter of duty
2. The Extremists, including Tilak(who was released in june 1914) supported the war
efforts in the mistaken belief that Britain would repay India's loyalty with gratitude in
the form of self govt
3. The revelutionaries decided to utilise the opportunities to wage war on
British rule & liberate the country
* The Indian supporters of British war efforts failed to see that the imperialist
powers were fight to safeguard their colonies & markets . The revolutionary activities
was carried out through the Ghadr party in North America , Berlin committee in Europe
& some scattered mutinies by Indian soldiers ,one in Singapore. In india for
revolutionaries striving for immediate complete independence the war seemed a
heaven sent opportunity draining India of troops( white soldiers went down at one
point to only 15k)& raising the possibility of financial & military help from Germany &
Turkey - the enemies of Britain
* The Home Rule Movement (1916):* This was the Indian response towards the
outbreak of 1st world war which raised this incident from the Ghadr
Adventure
* Prominent leaders : Bala Gangadhar Tilak, Annie Besant, G.S Khaparde, Sir
subramania Iyer , Joseph Baptista & Mohammad Ali jinnahgot together to have a
National Alliance that would work through out the year with the main objective of
demanding self govt or Home rule for all India with in the British common wealth
*Two Home Rule Leagues were established, one by B.G. Tilak at Poona in April 1916 and
the other by Mrs. Annie Besant at Madras in September 1916.
* The aim of the Movement was to get self- government for India within the British
Empire. It believed freedom was the natural right of all nations.
*The two Leagues cooperated with each other as well with the Congress and the
Muslim League in putting their demand for home rule. While Tilak’s Movement
concentrated on Maharashtra, Annie Besant’s Movement covered the rest of the
country. The Home Rule Movement had brought a new life in the national movement.
*There was a revival of Swadeshi. Women joined in larger numbers.
History of the Home Rule Movement:
*The Indian National Congress (INC) was founded in 1885 with the goal of achieving
self-government for India. However, the INC's early leaders were moderates. They
believed that India could achieve self-government through gradual reforms.
* The First World War (1914-1918) created a new political climate in India. The war
effort required the Indian government to increase taxes and recruit soldiers. This led
to widespread discontent among the Indian people.
* In 1916, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Annie Besant launched the Home Rule
Movement. This demanded self-government for India within the British Empire. The
movement was inspired by the Irish Home Rule Movement. This had been successful in
achieving self-government for Ireland within the British Empire.
*The Home Rule Movement gained widespread support among the Indian people. It
helped to create a sense of national unity. The movement also played a significant role
in the INC. It adopted a more radical stance on selfgovernment in the wake of the
Home Rule Movement.
* Annie Besant, an Irish theosophist based in India since 1896, had decided to enlarge
the sphere of her activities include the building of a movement for home rule on the
line s of the Irish Home rule leagues
* Objectives:
*To create a sense of nationality within the country and alarm the British by organising
demonstrations and agitations, and regular public meetings.
*To use constitutional means to gain self-government within the British Empire.
*To establish a government of councils, with members chosen by the Indian people.
The intention was for such a Council to pass the country’s budget and hold ministers
accountable to the legislatures.
*To mobilize public opinion in support of the organization’s core goal, which is to
achieve long-term political independence for India.
*To gain self-government within the British empire.
*To demand the formation of linguistic states and vernacular language education.
* Aim was to be achieved by promoting political education & discussion through
public meetings , organising libraries & reading rooms containing books on national
politics for students, through newspapers , pamphlets, posters , religioussongsetc...
The Russian revolution of 1917 proved to be an advantage for Home rule campaign
Major Causes:* The Government of India Act of 1909 was enacted in 1909.
The Act fell short of Indians’ hopes and expectations.
*The national movement came to a halt after the Congress Party split in 1907, followed
by Bal Gangadhar Tilak’s imprisonment in 1908.
*The release of Bal Gangadhar Tilak in june 1914, sparked the revival of the national
movement.
*Recognizing the growing importance of the Congress Party, his first task was to seek
readmission to the party, as the extremists led by Tilak had previously left the Congress.
*Annie Beasant, an Irish socialist, writer, and orator, visited India in 1893 and supported
both the Irish and the Indians.
*While Indian leaders were divided on whether or not to support Britain in the war, Annie
Besant believed that “England’s need is India’s opportunity.” she campaigned through
her newspapers New India & Commonwealth & through public meetings & conferences.
Her league was loosely organised as compared to Tilaks league
* The extremists were allowed to rejoin the party during the December 1915 Congress
session, thanks to Annie Beasant’s influence. Besant and Tilak, on the other hand, were
unable to persuade Congress to support their decision to establish home-rule leagues.
*Annie Beasant established her Home Rule League in September 1916, while Tilak
established his league in April 1916.
Failure and Decline:
*The movement was not a mass movement. It was restricted to educated people and
college students.
*The leagues did not find a lot of support among Muslims, Anglo-Indians and non-
Brahmins from Southern India as they thought home rule would mean a rule of the
upper caste Hindu majority.
*Many of the moderates were satisfied with the government’s assurance of reforms (as
preluded in the Montague Declaration). They did not take the movement further.
*Annie Besant kept oscillating between being satisfied with the government talk of
reforms and pushing the home rule movement forward. She was not able to provide
firm leadership to her followers. (Although ultimately she did call the reforms
‘unworthy of Indian acceptance’).
*In September 1918, Tilak went to England to pursue a libel case against Sir
Ignatius Valentine Chirol, British journalist and author of the book ‘Indian Unrest’. The
book contained deprecatory comments and had called Tilak the ‘Father of Indian Unrest.’
(Tilak lost the case).
*Tilak’s absence and Besant’s inability to lead the people led to the movement’s fizzing
out.
*After the war, Mahatma Gandhi gained prominence as a leader of the masses and the
Home Rule Leagues merged with the Congress Party in 1920. *The Rowlatt Act of 1919
gave the British government sweeping powers to suppress dissent. This led to a decline
in the Home Rule Movement. However, the movement had already helped to lay the
groundwork for India's independence movement.
*On 20 August 1917, Montague, the Secretary of State in England, made a declaration
in the Parliament of England on British Government’s policy towards future political
reforms in India. He
promised the gradual development of self-governing institutions in India. This August
Declaration led to the end of the Home Rule Movement.
* The Lucknow Pact (1916):
* this session of INC presided over by a Moderate , Ambika Charan Majumdar, finally
readmitted the extremists led by Tilak to the Congress fold . Both the
Extremists & Moderates realised the split has led to political inactivity. Annie Besant &
Tilak had made efforts for reunion. He also denounced acts of violence & declared that
he supported a reforms of administration & not an overthrow of govt. The death of 2
moderates Gokhale & Pherozshah Mehta who had led the Moderate opposition to the
Extremists facilitated Reunion * During the 1916 Congress session at Lucknow two
major events occurred.
The divided Congress became united. An understanding for joint action against the
British was reached between the Congress and the Muslim League and it was called
the Lucknow Pact. The signing of the Lucknow Pact by the
Congress and the Muslim League in 1916 marked an important step in the Hindu-
Muslim unity.
* Mohammed Ali Jinnah was then a member of both the Indian National Congress and
the All-India Muslim League. The Anti- British feelings were generated among muslims
following a war between Britain & Turkey which opened the way for the Congress &
Muslim league unity
* The Congress accepted the separate electorate & both organisations jointly
demanded 'Dominion status' for the country
* Reasons:
1. Britain's refusal to help Turkey(rule by the Khalifa who claimed Religion political
leadership of all muslims ) in its wars in the Balkans (1912-13) & with
Italy (during 1911) had angered muslims
2. Annulment of partition of Bengal in 1911 had annoyed those sections of the
muslims who had supported the partition
3. The refusal of British govt in India to set up a university at Aligarh with powers to
affiliate college all overindia also alienated some muslims
4. Younger muslims were infuriated by the govt Repression during 1st world war
* Montagu Declaration/August Declaration of 1917:
* The secretary of state for India , Edwin Samuel Montagu, made a statement on
August 20, 1917 in the British house of commons in what came to be known as the
August Declaration of 1917. The statement said:
" The govt policy is of an increasing participation of Indians in every branch of
administration & gradual development of self governing institutions with a view to the
progressive realisation of responsible govt in India as an integral part of the British
Empire"
* From now onwards , the demand by nationalists for self govt /Home rule could not
be termed as Seditious since attainment of self govt for Indians now became a govt
policy unlike Morleys statement in 1909 that the reforms were not indeed to give
self- govt to India
* However it was equally clear that the British had no intention of handling over power
to predominantly elected legislatures with an Indian majority. * So, in Order that the
executive be made responsible in some measure to the elected assemblies , whose
size & the proportion of elected members in which was going to be increased in any
case, the Concept of Dyarchy was to be evolved.
* Attainment of self govt for Indians became a Govt policy
2. Jallianwala Bagh Massacre(April 13, 1919): Amritsar was the worst affected by
violence. In the beginning, there was no violence by the protestors. Indians shut down
their shops and normal trade, and the empty streets showed the Indians’ displeasure at
the British betrayal. On April 9, 2 nationalist leaders, Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr Satyapal,
were arrested by the British officials without any provocation, except that they had
addressed protest meetings and taken to some unknown destination. This caused
resentment among the Indian protestors who came out in thousands on April 10 to show
their solidarity with their leaders. Soon the protests turned violent because the police
resorted to firing in which some of the protestors were killed. Tension ran high. In the
riot that followed, five Englishmen are reported to have been killed and Marcella
Sherwood, an English woman missionary going on a bicycle, was beaten up. Troops were
sent immediately to quell the disturbances. Brigadier-General Reginald Edward
Henry(R.E.H) Dyer was the senior British officer with the responsibility to impose martial
law and restore order. By then the city had returned to calm and the protests that were
being held were peaceful. Dyer, however, issued a proclamation on April 13 (which was
also Baisakhi), forbidding people from leaving the city without a pass and from
organising demonstrations or processions, or assembling in groups of more than On
Baisakhi day, a large crowd of people mostly from neighbouring villages, unaware of the
prohibitory orders in the city, gathered in the Jallianwala Bagh, a popular place for public
events, to celebrate the Baisakhi festival. Local leaders had also called for a protest
meeting at the venue. It is not clear how many in the 20,000 odd people collected there
were political protestors, but the majority were those who had collected for the festival.
Meanwhile, the meeting had gone on peacefully, and 2 resolutions, one calling for the
repeal of the Rowlatt Act and the other condemning the firing on April 10, had been
passed. It was then that Brigadier- General Dyer arrived on the scene with his men. The
troops surrounded the gathering under orders from General Dyer and blocked the only
exit point and opened fire on the unarmed crowd. No warning was issued, no instruction
to disperse was given. An unarmed gathering of men, women, and children was fired
upon as they tried to
flee. In this so many were killed & injured. The incident was followed by uncivilised
brutalities on the inhabitants of Amritsar. Martial law was proclaimed in Punjab, and
public floggings and other humiliations were perpetrated. To take just one instance,
Indians were forced to crawl on their bellies down the road on which the English
missionary had been assaulted.
The entire nation was stunned.
* Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood in protest. Gandhi gave up the title of
Kaiser-i-Hind, bestowed by the British for his work during the Boer War. Gandhi was
overwhelmed by the atmosphere of total violence and withdrew the movement on
April 18, 1919.
What had happened in Amritsar made Gandhi declare that cooperation with a ‘satanic
regime’ was now impossible. He realised that the cause of Indian independence from
British rule was morally righteous. The way to the non- cooperation movement was
ready.
According to the historian, A.P.J Taylor, the Jallianwala Bagh massacre was the “decisive
moment when Indians were alienated from British rule”. The events of 1919 were to
shape Punjab’s politics of resistance.
* The arrest of Dr. saifuddin kitchlu & Dr. Satyapal on April 10, 1919 under the Rowlatt
Act in connection with Satyagraha caused serious unrest in Punjab. A public meeting
was held on April 13, 1919 in a, park called Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar where 1000's of
people including women & children assembled . Before the meeting could start
General Reginald Edward Henry Dyer ordered indiscriminate heavy firing on the crowd
& the people had no way to escape . as a result 100's of people were killed & more
than 1200 were injured. At that time Dyer was the lieutenant governor of Punjab. The
Massacre was a turning point in indo- British relations & inspired people to provide a
more unrelenting fight for freedom.
* Sardar Udham Singh, an Indian patriot of punjab , who bore the name, Ram
Mohammad Singh Azad, later assassinated/ Shot down Michael O’Dwyer in London in
1940, the Lieutenant Governor who presided over the brutal British suppression of the
1919 protests in Punjab. Udham Singh was hanged in 1940 for his deed. (His ashes were
returned to India in 1974.)
The Hunter Committee of Inquiry: The massacre at Jallianwalla Bagh shocked Indians
and many British as well. The Secretary of State for India, Edwin Montagu, ordered that a
committee of inquiry be formed to investigate the matter. So, on October 14, 1919, the
Government of India announced the formation of the Disorders Inquiry Committee,
which came to be more widely and variously known as the Hunter
Committee/Commission after the name of its chairman, Lord William Hunter, former
Solicitor General for Scotland and Senator of the College of Justice in Scotland. The
purpose of the commission was to “investigate the recent disturbances in Bombay, Delhi
and Punjab, about their causes, and the measures taken to cope
with them”. There were three Indians among the members, namely, Sir Chimanlal
Harilal Setalvad, Vice-Chancellor of Bombay University, and advocate of the Bombay
High Court; Pandit Jagat Narayan, lawyer and Member of the Legislative Council of the
United Provinces; and Sardar
Sahibzada Sultan Ahmad Khan, lawyer from Gwalior State. After meeting in
Delhi on October 29, the committee took statements from witnesses called in from Delhi,
Ahmedabad, Bombay, and Lahore. In November, the committee reached Lahore and
examined the principal witnesses to the events in Amritsar. Dyer was called before the
committee. He was confident that what he had done was only his duty.
* Dyer stated that his intentions had been to strike terror throughout the Punjab and in
doing so, reduce the moral stature of the ‘rebels’. Dyer is reported to have explained his
sense of honour by saying, “I think it quite possible that I could have dispersed the
crowd without firing but they would have come back again and laughed, and I would
have made, what I consider, a fool of myself.” He also stated that he did not make any
effort to tend to the wounded after the shooting as he did not consider it his job.
Though Dyer’s statement caused racial tensions among the members of the committee,
the final report, released in March 1920, unanimously condemned Dyer’s actions. The
report stated that the lack of notice to disperse from the
Bagh in the beginning was an error; the length of firing showed a grave error;
Dyer’s motive of producing a sufficient moral effect was to be condemned; Dyer had
overstepped the bounds of his authority; there had been no conspiracy to overthrow
British rule in Punjab. Dyer’s actions had been “inhuman and un-British” and had
greatly injured the image of British rule in India. The Hunter Committee did not impose
any penal or disciplinary action because Dyer’s actions were condoned by various
superiors (later upheld by the Army Council).
3. Khilafat movement (1920-22):
* During 1919–22, the British were opposed through two mass movements— the
Khilafat and Non-Cooperation.
Reasons:
● The economic situation of the country in the post- War years had become alarming,
with a rise in prices of commodities, decrease in production of Indian industries,
increase in burden of taxes and rents, etc. Almost all sections of society suffered
economic hardship due to the war, and this strengthened the anti-British attitude.
● The Rowlatt Act, the imposition of martial law in Punjab and the Jallianwalla Bagh
massacre exposed the brutal and uncivilised face of the foreign rule.
● The Hunter Committee on the Punjab atrocities proved to be an eyewash. In fact,
the House of Lords (of the British Parliament) endorsed General Dyer’s action and the
British public showed solidarity with General Dyer by helping
● The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms with their ill- conceived scheme of dyarchy
failed to satisfy the rising demand of the Indians for self-government. *The post-First
World War period also saw the preparation of the ground for common political action
by Hindus and Muslims—
(i) the Lucknow Pact (1916) had stimulated
Congress-Muslim League cooperation;
(ii)the Rowlatt Act agitation brought Hindus and Muslims, and also other sections of
the society, together; and
(iii) radical nationalist Muslims like Muhammad Ali, Abul Kalam Azad, Hakim Ajmal
Khan, and Hasan Imam had now become more influential than the conservative
 Aligarh school elements who had dominated the League earlier. The younger
elements advocated militant
nationalism and active participation in the nationalist movement. They had strong anti-
imperialist sentiments. In this atmosphere, the Khilafat issue emerged, around which
developed the historic Non-Cooperation Movement.
* The Khilafat Issue:
*The Khilafat issue paved the way for the consolidation of the emergence of a radical
nationalist trend among the
younger generation of Muslims and the section of traditional Muslim scholars who were
becoming increasingly critical of
British rule. This time, they were angered by the treatment meted out to Turkey by the
British after the First World War.
* The Muslims in India, as the Muslims all over the world, regarded the sultan of Turkey
as their spiritual leader, Khalifa, so naturally their sympathies were with Turkey who
looked upon by Muslims as their religious heaf.. During the
1st world war, Turkey had allied with Germany and Austria against the British. When the
war ended, the British took a stern attitude towards Turkey—Turkey was dismembered
and the Khalifa removed from power. When the Safety &
Welfare of turkey were threatened by the British there by weakening the Caliph
position, Indian muslims adopted an aggressive anti- British attitude.This incensed
Muslims all over the world.In India, too, the Muslims demanded from the British
(i) that the Khalifa’s control over Muslim sacred places should be retained, and
(ii) the Khalifa should be left with
sufficient territories after territorial arrangements. In early 1919, a Khilafat Committee
was formed under the leadership of the Ali brothers (Shaukat Ali and Muhammad Ali),
Maulana Azad, Ajmal Khan, and Hasrat Mohani, to force the British government to
change its attitude towards Turkey. Thus, the ground for a country-wide agitation was
prepared. Ali brothers launched an Anti- British movement in 1920 - The Khilafat
movement for the restoration of the Khilafat. Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad also led the
movement. It was supported by Gandhiji & INC which paved the way for Hindu-Muslim
unity.
*Development of the Khalifat-Non- Cooperation Programme: For some time, the
Khilafat leaders limited their actions to
meetings, petitions, and deputations in favour of the Khilafat. Later, however, a militant
trend emerged, demanding an active agitation such as stopping all cooperation with
the British. Thus, at the All India Khilafat Conference held in Delhi in November 1919, a
call was made for the boycott of British goods. The Khilafat leaders also clearly spelt
out that unless
peace terms after the War were favourable to Turkey they would stop all cooperation
with the Government. Gandhi, who was the president of the All India Khilafat Committee,
saw in the issue a platform from which mass and united non- cooperation could be
declared against the Government.
*Congress Stand on Khilafat Question:*It was quite clear that the support of the
Congress was essential for the Khilafat movement to succeed. However, although
Gandhi was in favour of launching satyagraha and non-cooperation against the
government on the Khilafat issue, the Congress was not united on this form of political
action. Tilak was opposed to having an alliance with Muslim leaders over a religious
issue, and he was also sceptical of satyagraha as an instrument of politics. Later,
however, Gandhi was able to get the approval of the Congress for his programme of
political action and the Congress felt inclined to support a non- cooperation programme
on the Khilafat question because:
● it was felt that this was a golden opportunity to cement Hindu-Muslim unity and to
bring Muslim masses into the national movement; now different sections of society—
Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, peasants, artisans, capitalists, tribals, women,
students—could come into the national movement by fighting for their own rights
and realising that the colonial rule was opposed to them;
● the Congress was losing faith in constitutional struggle, especially after the
Punjab incidents and the blatantly partisan Hunter Committee Report;
● the Congress was aware that the masses were eager to give expression to their
discontent.
* Muslim League Support to Congress:The Muslim League also decided to give full
support to the Congress and its agitation on political questions.
4. Non -Cooperation movement (1920-22):
* February 1920, a joint Hindu-Muslim deputation was sent to the viceroy to seek
redress of grievances on the issue of Khilafat, but the mission proved abortive.
In February 1920, Gandhi announced that the issues of Punjab wrongs and
constitutional advance had been over-
shadowed by the Khilafat question and that he would soon lead a movement of non-
cooperation if the terms of the peace treaty failed to satisfy the Indian Muslims.
May 1920 The Treaty of Sevres with Turkey, signed in May 1920, completely
dismembered Turkey. June 1920 An all-party conference at Allahabad approved a
programme of boycott of schools, colleges, and law courts, and asked Gandhi to lead it
August 31, 1920 The Khilafat Committee started a campaign of noncooperation, and
the movement was formally launched. (Tilak had, incidentally, breathed his last on
August 1, 1920.)
September 1920 At a special session in Calcutta, the Congress approved a non-
cooperation programme till the
Punjab and Khilafat wrongs were removed and swaraj was established.They Defined
Swaraj as it's Ultimate Aim(According To Gandhi).The programme was to include:
● boycott of government schools and colleges;
● boycott of law courts and dispensation of justice through panchayats instead;
● boycott of legislative councils (there were some differences over this as some leaders
like C.R. Das were not willing to include a boycott of councils, but bowed to Congress
discipline; these leaders
boycotted elections held in November 1920, and the majority of the voters too stayed
away);
● boycott of foreign cloth and use of khadi instead; also practice of handspinning to
be done;
● renunciation of government honours and titles; the second phase could include mass
civil disobedience including resignation from government service, and non-payment
of taxes.
*During the movement, the participants were supposed to work for HinduMuslim unity
and for removal of untouchability, all the time remaining nonviolent.
December 1920 At the Nagpur session of the Indian National Congress:
(i) The programme of non-cooperation was endorsed.
(ii) An important change was made in the Congress creed: now, instead of having the
attainment of self-government through constitutional means as its goal, the
Congress decided to have the attainment of swaraj through peaceful and
legitimate means, thus committing itself to an extra- constitutional mass struggle.
(iii) Some important organisational changes were made:
- a congress working committee (CWC) of 15 members was set up to lead the
Congress from now onwards;
- provincial congress committees on linguistic basis were organised;
- ward committees were organised; and entry fee was reduced to four annas.
(iv) Gandhi declared that if the non-cooperation programme was
implemented completely, swaraj would be ushered in within a year.
*Many groups of revolutionary terrorists, especially those from Bengal, also pledged
support to the Congress programme. At this stage, some leaders like Muhammad Ali
Jinnah, Annie Besant, G.S. Kharpade, and B.C. Pal left the
Congress as they believed in a constitutional and lawful struggle, while some others
like Surendranath Banerjea founded the Indian National Liberal Federation and played
a minor role in national politics henceforward. The adoption by the Congress of the
non-cooperation
movement initiated earlier by the Khilafat Committee gave it a new energy, and the years
1921 and 1922 saw an unprecedented popular upsurge.
Spread of the Movement: Gandhi accompanied by the Ali brothers undertook a
nationwide tour. Thousands of students left government schools and colleges These
educational institutions were organised under the leadership of Acharya Narendra Dev,
C.R. Das, Lala Lajpat Rai, Zakir Hussain, Subhash Bose (who became the principal of
National College at Calcutta) and included Jamia Millia at Aligarh, Kashi Vidyapeeth,
Gujarat Vidyapeeth, and Bihar Vidyapeeth. The educational boycott was specially
successful in Bengal with Punjab too , responding under the leadership of Lala Lajpat Rai.
Many lawyers gave up their practice, some of whom were Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal
Nehru, C.R. Das, C. Raja- gopalachari, Saifuddin Kitchlew, Vallabhbhai Patel, Asaf Ali, T.
Prakasam, and Rajendra Prasad. Heaps of foreign cloth were burnt publicly and their
imports fell by half. Picketing of shops selling foreign liquor and of toddy shops was
undertaken at many places.
* In July 1921, the Ali brothers gave a call to the Muslims to resign from the army as
it was unreligious. The Ali brothers were arrested for this in
September. Gandhi echoed their call and asked local Congress committees to pass
similar resolutions to that effect. Now, the Congress gave a call to local Congress bodies
to start civil disobedience if it was thought that the people were ready for it. Already, a
no-tax movement against union board taxes in Midnapore (Bengal) and in Guntur
(Andhra) was going on. In Assam, strikes in tea plantations, steamer services,
and Assam-Bengal Railways had been organised. J.M. Sengupta was a prominent
leader in these strikes.
* In November 1921, Another dramatic event during this period was the visit of the
Prince of Wales to India invited strikes and demonstrations. The day he landed in India
(In Bombay on Nov 17, 1921) he was greeted with empty streets & downed shutters
wherever he went.
*The spirit of defiance and unrest gave rise to many local struggles such as Awadh
Kisan Movement (UP), Eka Movement (UP), Mappila Revolt (Malabar), and the Sikh
agitation for the removal of mahants in Punjab.
* Talks between Gandhi and Reading, the viceroy, broke down in May 1921 as the
government wanted Gandhi to urge the
Ali brothers to remove those portions from speeches which suggested violence.
Gandhi realised that the government was trying to drive a wedge between him and the
Khilafat leaders and refused to fall into the trap. In December, the government came
down heavily on the protestors. Volunteer corps were declared illegal, public meetings
were banned, the press was gagged, and most of the leaders barring Gandhi were
arrested.
The Last Phase of the Movement: Gandhi was now under increasing pressure from
the Congress rank and file to start the civil disobedience programme. The Ahmedabad
session in 1921 (presided over, incidentally, by C.R. Das while still in jail; Hakim Ajmal
Khan was the acting president) appointed Gandhi the sole authority on the issue. On
February 1, 1922, Gandhi threatened to launch civil disobedience from Bardoli
(Gujarat) if (i) political prisoners were not released, (ii) press controls were not
removed.
*The movement had hardly begun before it was brought to an abrupt end.
Chauri Chaura Incident:
*A small sleepy village named Chauri-Chaura (Gorakhpur district in United Provinces)
has found a place in history books due to an incident of violence on February 5, 1922,
which was to prompt Gandhi to withdraw the movement. The police here had beaten
up the leader of a group of volunteers
campaigning against liquor sale and high food prices, and then opened fire on the
crowd which had come to protest before
the police station. The agitated crowd torched the police station with policemen inside
who had taken shelter there; those who tried to flee were hacked to death and thrown
back into the fire. Twenty-two policemen were killed in the violence. Gandhi, not happy
with the increasingly violent trend of the movement, immediately announced the
withdrawal of the movement.
*The Congress Working Committee met at Bardoli in February 1922 and resolved to
stop all activity that led to breaking of the law and to get down to constructive work,
instead, which was to include popularisation of khadi, national schools, and
campaigning for temperance, for Hindu-Muslim unity and against untouchability. Most
of the nationalist leaders including C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, Subhash Bose, Jawaharlal
Nehru, however, expressed their bewilderment at Gandhi’s decision to withdraw the
movement. * In March 1922, Gandhi was arrested and sentenced to six years in jail. He
made the occasion memorable by a magnificent court speech: “I am here, therefore, to
invite and submit cheerfully to the highest penalty that can be inflicted upon me for
what in law is deliberate crime, and what appears to me to be the highest duty of a
citizen.”
*Gandhi felt that people had not learnt or fully understood the method of non-
violence. Incidents like Chauri-Chaura could lead to the kind of excitement and fervour
that would turn the movement to become generally violent
*The central theme of the agitation—the Khilafat question—also dissipated soon. In
November 1922, the people of Turkey rose under Mustafa Kamal Pasha and deprived
the sultan of political power. Turkey was made a secular state. Thus, the Khilafat
question lost its relevance. A European style of legal system was established in Turkey
and extensive rights granted to women.
Education was nationalised and modern agriculture and industries developed.
In 1924, the caliphate was abolished.
5. Swaraj party( 1923):
*The Indian National Congress was divided into two ideologies, the Swarajist and the
No Changers, based on council participation or boycott. The
Swarajists' main goal was to end the council boycott, whereas the NoChangers argued
that the boycott should continue. CR Das, Vithalbhai Patel, Motilal Nehru, and Hakim
Ahmed Khan were Swarajists who advocating entry into legislative councils.C
Rajagopalachari, Vallabhbhai Patel, MA Ansari, and
Rajendra Prasad were No changers
Swarajists: One group, led by C R Das, Motilal Nehru, and Ajmal Khan, wanted to end
the boycott of legislative councils so that nationalists could enter them to expose the
fundamental flaws of these assemblies and use them as a platform for political
struggle.They wanted to 'end or mend' these councils, which meant that if the
government did not respond to the nationalists' demands, they would obstruct the
councils' work.Their only intention was to use the councils as a forum for political
struggle; they had no intention of using the councils to gradually transform colonial
rule.The
Swarajists were those who advocated for inclusion in legislative councils.
No Changers:The 'No-changers' were those who opposed council entry.They advocated
for a focus on constructive work while maintaining the boycott and
noncooperation.They also advocated for the quiet resumption of the suspended civil
disobedience programme.The 'No-changers' were a school of thought led by
Vallabhbhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad, C. Rajagopalachari, and M.A. Ansari.
The Emergence of Congress-Khilafat Swarajists: Following Gandhi's arrest in March
1922, nationalist ranks disintegrated, disorganized, and demoralized.
A debate began among Congressmen about what to do during the transition period,
also known as the movement's passive phase.
* One group, led by C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, and Ajmal Khan, wanted to end the
boycott of legislative councils so that nationalists could enter them to expose the
fundamental flaws of these assemblies and use them as a forum for political struggle to
rouse popular support.
* They wanted to 'end or mend' these councils, which meant that if the government
did not respond to the nationalists' demands, they would obstruct the councils'
work.Those advocating entry into legislative councils became known as the 'Swarajists,'
while those opposing entry became known as the 'No changers,' led by C.
Rajagopalachari, Vallabhbhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad, and M.A. Ansari.
* The 'No-changers' advocated for a focus on constructive work, the continuation
of the boycott and non-cooperation, and quiet preparation for the resumption of the
suspended civil disobedience programme.
* The Swarajists' proposal of 'ending or mending' the councils was defeated at the
Gaya session of the Congress due to disagreements between the two schools of
thought on the issue of council entry (December 1922).C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru
resigned from their positions as president and secretary of the Congress, respectively,
and announced the formation of the Congress-
Khilafat Swarajya Party, or simply Swarajist Party were laid on Jan 1, 1923, with C.R. Das
as president and Motilal Nehru as one of the secretaries.N.C. kelkar also organised this
party. Swaraj party is the Largest party in Bengal
Swarajist Demands: They demanded the release of all the political prisoners, provincial
autonomy repealing of the repressive laws imposed by the govt. However, after the
death of C.R.Das in 1925 they drifted towards a policy of cooperation with the govt . This
led to dissension & the party broke up in
1926
Swarajists Activities in Councils:The Swarajist position gradually weakened as a result
of widespread communal riots and a split among Swarajists along communal and
Responsivist-Non-Responsivist lines.
* The government's strategy of dividing Swarajists—the more militant from the
moderate, Hindus from Muslims—was successful.Many Muslims abandoned the
Swarajists after the party refused to support the tenants' cause against the zamindars in
Bengal (most of the tenants were
Muslims).Communal interests also joined the party. The death of C.R. Das in 1925
weakened it even more.Swarajists who advocated cooperation with the government
and holding office wherever possible included Lala Lajpat Rai, Madan Mohan Malaviya,
and N.C. Kelkar. They also wished to safeguard socalled Hindu interests.The communal
elements accused leaders such as
Motilal Nehru, who opposed joining the council, of being anti-Hindu, while Muslim
communalists accused the Swarajists of being anti-Muslim.Thus, the main leadership of
the Swarajist Party reaffirmed their belief in mass civil disobedience and withdrew from
legislatures in March 1926, while another section of the Swarajists entered the 1926
elections as a party in disarray and did not fare well overall.They won 40 seats in the
Centre and some seats in
Madras, but were defeated in the United Provinces, Central Provinces, and Punjab.
* The Swarajists finally walked out in 1930 as a result of the Lahore Congress
resolution on purna swaraj and the start of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
Achievements:
- They outvoted the government several times, including on budgetary grants, and
passed adjournment motions with coalition partners.
- They agitated through powerful speeches on self-government, civil liberties, and
industrialization.Vithalbhai Patel was elected speaker of the Central
Legislative Assembly in 1925.A notable accomplishment was the defeat of the Public
Safety Bill in 1928, which sought to empower the government to deport undesirable and
subversive foreigners.
- They filled a political void at a time when the national movement was regaining
strength.
-They exposed the Montford scheme's hollowness.
-They demonstrated how councils could be used creatively.
Drawbacks:
- The Swarajists lacked a strategy for coordinating their militancy within legislatures with
the mass struggle outside. They communicated with the public entirely through
newspaper reporting.
- An obstructionist strategy had drawbacks.
- They were unable to progress with their coalition partners due to competing ideas,
which further limited their effectiveness.
- They were unable to resist the benefits and privileges of power and position. They
failed to support the peasants' cause in Bengal and lost support among their Muslim
constituents.
No changers Arguments:The No-Changers argued that parliamentary work would lead
to a loss of revolutionary zeal and political corruption.Constructive work would help
everyone prepare for the next phase of civil disobedience.
Constructive works by No Changers:
Ashrams sprang up, where young men and women worked among tribals and lower
castes (particularly in Gujarat's Kheda and Bardoli areas), popularising the use of charkha
and khadi.National schools and colleges were established to train students in a non-
colonial ideological framework.Significant progress was made toward Hindu-Muslim
unity, the abolition of untouchability, the boycott of foreign cloth and liquor, and flood
relief.As active organisers, the constructive workers were the backbone of civil
disobedience.
Gandhi’s Attitude: Gandhi initially opposed Swarajist council entry.
However, after being released from prison for health reasons in February 1924, he
gradually moved toward reconciliation with the Swarajists.He believed that public
opposition to the council entry programme would be ineffective.The Swarajists won 42
out of 141 elected seats and a clear majority in the Central Provinces provincial assembly
in November 1923. They won a majority in legislatures by working with the Liberals and
independents such as Jinnah and Malaviya.The Swarajists' courageous and
uncompromising approach convinced him that they would not become just another limb
of colonial administration.
* Toward the end of 1924, the government cracked down on revolutionary terrorists
and Swarajists, which enraged Gandhi, and he expressed his solidarity with the
Swarajists by surrendering to their wishes.
* Both sides agreed in 1924 (ratified at the Congress session in Belgaum in
December 1924, which Gandhi presided over for the first time) that the
Swarajists would work in the councils as an integral part of the Congress.
Muddiman Committee (1924): In response to the demand of Indian leaders and in
light of the resolution adopted by the Swaraj Party in the early 1920s, the British
Government established a committee headed by Sir Alexander Muddinman. It also
advocated for the establishment of a Royal Commission.To meet the demand of Indian
leaders and in light of the resolution adopted by the Swaraj Party in the early 1920s,
the British government established the Muddinman Committee, led by Sir Alexander
Muddinman.Apart from British members, the Committee had four Indian members.
* Committee members who were Indian:
Sir Sivaswami Aiyar
Dr. R P Paranjape
Sir Tejbahadur Sapru
Mohammad Ali Jinnah
6. Simon Commission ( 1927):
* Appointment of the Indian Statutory Commission : The Government of India Act,
1919 had a provision that a commission would be appointed 10 years from date to study
the progress of the governance scheme and suggest new steps. An all-white, seven-
member Indian Statutory Commission, popularly known as the Simon Commission (after
the name of its chairman, Sir John Simon), was set up by the British government under
Stanley
Baldwin’s prime ministership on November 8, 1927. The activities of the
Swaraj party had induced the British Govt to review the working of the Dyarchy system
introduced by the Montague -Chelmsford Reforms of 1919 & to report as to what exist a
representative govt could be introduced in India. The British govt appointed Simon
Commission in Nov, 1927 for the task. All members of this commission were Europeans
(whites) . Indian political leaders felt insulted & decided to boycott the commission .
Wherever the commission went there were cries of 'Simon Go Back'. It was leading a
demonstration against Simon commission in Lahore that a fatal Lathi blow was dealt to
Lala Lajpat Rai. It was his death that Bhagat Singh & his comrades were seeking to
avenge when they killed a white police official , Saunders, in Dec 1928.
*The members were formed from four Conservatives, two Labourites, and one
Liberal. (The commission was actually under the joint chairmanship of Sir John Simon
and Clement Attlee, who was to be Britain’s prime minister in the future.) The
commission was to recommend to the British government whether India was ready for
further constitutional reforms and along what lines. . Also by the mid-1920s, the failure
of the 1919 Act to create a stable imperial power had led to several parliamentary
reports and enquiries. The Lee Commission was appointed in 1923 to look into the
organisation and general conditions of service as well as the methods of recruitment for
Europeans and Indians in the civil services. Being concerned only with the superior civil
services, it came to be known as the Royal Commission on the Superior Civil Services in
India. The commission suggested that the statutory public service commission, as put
forward by the Government of India Act 1919, needed to be established without delay.
* The Muddiman Committee, officially known as the Report of the Reforms
Enquiry Committee, was set up in 1924, mainly to look into the working of the
Constitution as set up in 1921 under the Act of 1919. Its report was not unanimous:
while the majority suggested some minor changes in the structure of the Constitution,
the minority, consisting of non-official Indians, strongly criticised the system of dyarchy
and wanted it to be abolished immediately and the Constitution made democratic. In
1926, the Linlithgow Commission, officially the Royal Commission of Agriculture was set
up to examine and report the condition of India’s agricultural and rural economy. The
commission submitted its report in 1928 and made comprehensive recommendations
for the improvement of the agrarian economy as the foundation for the welfare and
prosperity of India’s rural population. The Conservative Secretary of State for India, Lord
Birkenhead, who had constantly talked of the inability of Indians to formulate a concrete
scheme of constitutional reforms which had the support of wide sections of Indian
political opinion, was responsible for the appointment of the Simon Commission.
* Dr Ambedkar and the Simon Commission: Dr Ambedkar was appointed by the
Bombay Legislative Council to work with the Simon Commission. In October 1928,
Ambedkar went before the commission. He argued for ‘universal adult franchise’ for
both male and female alike; for provincial autonomy in the provinces and dyrarchy at
Centre. (Significantly, universal adult franchise was at the time yet to be guaranteed
in most of European countries.) On behalf of the Bahishkrita Hitakarini Sabha, he
submitted a memorandum on the rights and safeguards he felt were required for the
depressed classes. Ambedkar said that there was no link between the depressed
classes and the Hindu community, and stated that the depressed classes should be
regarded as a distinct and independent minority. He asserted that the depressed
classes as a minority needed far greater political protection than any other minority
in British India because of its educational backwardness, its economically poor
condition, its social enslavement, and for the reason that it suffered from certain
grave political disabilities, from which no other community suffered. In the
circumstances, Dr Ambedkar demanded, for the political protection of the depressed
classes, representation on the same basis as the Mohammedan minority. He wanted
reserved seats for the depressed classes if universal adult franchise was granted. In
case universal franchise was not granted, Ambedkar said he would campaign for a
separate electorate for the depressed classes. He also expressed the need to have
certain safeguards either in the constitution, if it was possible, or else “in the way of
 advice in the instrument to the governor regarding the education of the depressed
classes and their entry into the public services”. [The report of the Simon
Commission did grant reserved seats to the depressed classes, but the condition was
that candidates who would take part in the elections would have, first of all, to
get their competence endorsed by the governor of the province. Ambedkar was most
displeased with this, but, in any case, this report remained a dead letter.]
* The commission landed in Bombay on February 3, 1928. On that day, a countrywide
hartal was organised and mass rallies held. Wherever the commission went, there
were black flag
demonstrations, hartals, and slogans of ‘Simon Go Back’. (As to who coined the catchy
slogan, it is widely believed the Indian freedom fighter and member of Congress
Socialist Party, and Mayor of Bombay, Yusuf Meharally did so. Some
also believe it was Lala Lajpat Rai who came up with the slogan.) A significant feature of
this upsurge was that a new generation of youth got their first taste of political action.
Nehru and Subhas Bose emerged as leaders of this new wave of youth and students.
Both travelled extensively, addressed and presided over conferences. This upsurge
among the youth also provided a fertile ground for the germination and spread of new
radical ideas of socialism reflected in the emergence of groups such as the Punjab
Naujawan Bharat Sabha, Workers’ and Peasants’ Parties and Hindustani Sewa Dal
(Karnataka).
*The Simon Commission Recommendations: The Simon Commission published a two-
volume report in May 1930. It proposed the abolition of dyarchy and the establishment
of representative government in the provinces which should be given autonomy. It said
that the governor should have discretionary power in relation to internal security and
administrative powers to protect the different communities. The number of members of
provincial legislative council should be increased. The report rejected parliamentary
responsibility at the centre. The governor general was to have complete power to
appoint the members of the cabinet. And the Government
of India would have complete control over the high court. It also recommended that
separate communal electorates be retained (and extended such electorates to other
communities) but only until tensions between Hindus and Muslims had died down.
There was to be no universal franchise. It accepted the idea of federalism but not in
the near future; it suggested that a Consultative Council of Greater India should be
established, which should include representatives of both the British provinces as well
as princely states. It suggested that the North-West Frontier Province and Baluchistan
should get local legislatures, and both NWFP and Baluchistan should have the right to
be represented at the centre. It recommended that Sindh should be separated from
Bombay, and Burma should be separated from India because it was not a natural part
of the Indian subcontinent. It also suggested that the Indian army should be
Indianised though British forces must be retained. India got fully equipped. But by the
time the report came out, it was no longer relevant because several events overtook
the importance of its recommendations.
7. Nehru Committee Report (1928):
* As an answer to Lord Birkenhead’s challenge, an All Parties Conference met in February
1928 and appointed asub-committee under the chairmanship of Motilal Nehru to draft a
constitution. This was the first major attempt by the Indians to draft a constitutional
framework for the country. The committee included Tej Bahadur Sapru, Subhas Chandra
Bose, M.S. Aney,
Mangal Singh, Ali Imam, Shuaib Qureshi, and G.R. Pradhan as its members.
The report was finalised by August 1928. The recommendations of the Nehru Committee
were unanimous except in one respect—while the majority favoured the “dominion
status” as the basis of theConstitution, a section of it wanted “complete independence”
as the basis, with the majority section giving the latter section liberty of action.
*Main Recommendations: The Nehru Report confined itself to British India, as it
envisaged the future link-up of British India with the princely states on a federal basis.
For the dominion it recommended:
(i) Dominion status on lines of self-governing dominions as the form of government
desired by Indians (much to the chagrin of younger, militant section—Nehru being
prominent among them).
(ii) Rejection of separate electorates which had been the basis of constitutional
reforms so far; instead, a demand for joint electorates with reservation of seats for
Muslims at the Centre and in provinces where they were in minority
(and not in those where Muslims were in majority, such as Punjab and Bengal) in
proportion to the Muslim population there with right to contest additional seats.
(iii) Linguistic provinces.
(iv) 19 fundamental rights including equal rights for women, right to form unions, and
universal adult suffrage.
(v) Responsible government at the Centre and in provinces—
(a) The Indian Parliament at the Centre to consist of a 500-member House of
Representatives elected on the basis of adult suffrage, a 200-member Senate to be
elected by provincial councils; the House of Representatives to have a tenure of 5 years
and the Senate, one of 7 years; the central government to be headed by a governor
general, appointed by the British government but paid out of Indian revenues, who
would act on the advice of the central executive council responsible to the Parliament.
(b) Provincial councils to have a 5-year tenure, headed by a governor acting on the
advice of the provincial executive council.
(vi) Full protection to cultural and religious interests
*The Muslim and Hindu Communal
Responses: Though the process of drafting a constitutional framework was begun
enthusiastically and unitedly by political leaders, communal differences crept in and the
Nehru Report got involved in controversies over the issue of communal representation.
- Delhi Proposals of Muslim League:Earlier, in December 1927, a large number of
Muslim leaders had met at Delhi at the Muslim League session and evolved four
proposals for their demands to be incorporated into the draft constitution. These
proposals, which were accepted by the Madras session of the Congress (December
1927), came to be known as the ‘Delhi Proposals’.
These were:
● joint electorates in place of separate electorates with reserved seats for
Muslims;
● one-third representation to Muslims in Central Legislative Assembly;
● representation to Muslims in Punjab and Bengal in proportion to their population;
● formation of three new Muslim majority provinces— Sindh, Baluchistan, and North-
West Frontier Province.
- Hindu Mahasabha Demands: The Hindu Mahasabha was vehemently opposed to the
proposals for creating new Muslim-majority provinces and reservation of seats for
Muslims majorities in Punjab and Bengal (which would ensure Muslim control over
legislatures in both). It also demanded a strictly unitary structure. This attitude of the
Hindu Mahasabha complicated matters.
- Compromises:In the course of the deliberations of the All Parties
Conference, the Muslim League dissociated itself and stuck to its demand for reservation
of seats for Muslims, especially in the central legislature and in Muslim majority
provinces. Thus, Motilal Nehru and other leaders drafting the report found themselves in
a dilemma: if the demands of the Muslim communal opinion were accepted, the Hindu
communalists would withdraw their support, if the latter were satisfied, the Muslim
leaders would get estranged. The concessions made in the Nehru Report to Hindu
communalists included the following:
● Joint electorates proposed everywhere but reservation for Muslims only where in
minority;
● Sindh to be detached from Bombay only after dominion status was granted and
subject to weightage given to Hindu minority in Sindh;
● Political structure proposed broadly unitary, as residual powers rested with the
centre.
8. 14 points of Jinnah(March 9, 1929):
*Amendments Proposed by Jinnah
At the All Parties Conference held at Calcutta in December 1928 to consider the Nehru
Report, Jinnah, on behalf of the Muslim League, proposed three amendments to the
report:
(i) one-third representation to Muslims in the central legislature;
(ii)reservation to Muslims in Bengal and Punjab legislatures proportionate to their
population, till adult suffrage was established; and (iii) residual powers to provinces.
*These demands were not accommodated.
*Jinnah’s Fourteen Points: Jinnah went back to the Shafi faction of the Muslim League
and in March 1929 gave 14 points which were to become the basis of all future
propaganda of the Muslim League. The 14 points were as follows.
1. Federal Constitution with residual powers to provinces.
2. Provincial autonomy.
3. No constitutional amendment by the centre without the concurrence of the states
constituting the Indian federation.
4. All legislatures and elected bodies to have adequate representation of Muslims in
every province without reducing a majority of Muslims in a province to a minority
or equality.
5. Adequate representation to Muslims in the services and in self-governing bodies.
6. One-third Muslim representation in the central legislature.
7. In any cabinet at the centre or in the provinces, one- third to be Muslims.
8. Separate electorates.
9. No bill or resolution in any legislature to be passed if three-fourths of a minority
community consider such a bill or resolution to be against their interests.
10. Any territorial redistribution not to affect the Muslim majority in Punjab,
Bengal, and NWFP
11. Separation of Sindh from Bombay.
12. Constitutional reforms in the NWFP and Baluchistan.
13. Full religious freedom to all communities.
14. Protection of Muslim rights in religion, culture, education, and language.
* Nehru Report Found Unsatisfactory:
Not only were the Muslim League, the Hindu Mahasabha, and the Sikh communalists
unhappy about the Nehru Report, but the younger section of the Congress led by
Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose were also angered. The younger section
regarded the idea of dominion status in the report as a step backward, and the
developments at the All Parties Conference strengthened their criticism of the dominion
status idea. Nehru and Subhas Bose rejected the Congress’ modified goal and jointly set
up the Independence for India League.
* Calcutta Session of Congress: It was at the Calcutta session of the Congress in
December 1928 that the Nehru Report was approved but the younger elements led by
Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose and Satyamurthy expressed their dissatisfaction
with dominion status as the goal of Congress. Instead, they demanded that the
Congress adopt purna swaraj or complete independence as its goal. The older leaders
like Gandhi and Motilal Nehru wished that the dominion status demand not be dropped
in haste, as consensus over it had been developed with great difficulty over the years.
Now, the Congress decided that if the government did not accept a constitution based
on dominion status by the end of the year, the Congress would not only demand
complete independence but would also launch a civil disobedience movement to attain
its goal.
* Political Activity during 1929: Gandhi travelled incessantly during 1929,
preparing people for direct political action—telling the youth to prepare for the fiery
ordeal, helping to organise constructive work in villages, and redressing specific
grievances (on lines of the Bardoli agitation of 1928). The Congress Working Committee
(CWC) organised a Foreign Cloth Boycott Committee to propagate an aggressive
programme of boycotting foreign cloth and public burning of foreign cloth. Gandhi
initiated the campaign in March 1929 in Calcutta and was arrested. This was followed by
bonfires of foreign cloth all over the country. Other developments which kept the
political temperature high during 1929 included the Meerut Conspiracy Case
(March), bomb explosion in Central Legislative Assembly by Bhagat Singh and B.K. Dutt
(April), and the coming to power of the minority Labour government led by Ramsay
MacDonald in England in May. And Wedgewood Benn became the Secretary of State for
India.
* Irwin’s Declaration (October 31, 1929): Before the Simon Commission report
came out, the declaration by Lord Irwin was made. It was the combined effort of the
Labour government (always more sympathetic to Indian aspirations than the
Conservatives) and a Conservative
viceroy. The purpose behind the declaration was to “restore faith in the ultimate purpose
of British policy”. The declaration was made in the form of an official communique in the
Indian Gazette on October 31, 1929. It said: “In view of the doubts which have been
expressed both in Great Britain and in India regarding the interpretations to be placed
on the intentions of the British government in enacting the statute of 1919, I am
authorised on behalf of His Majesty’s Government to state clearly that in their
judgement it is implicit in the Declaration of 1917 that the natural issue of India’s
constitutional progress as they contemplated is the attainment of Dominion status.”
However, there was no time scale. The dominion status promised by Irwin would not be
available for a long time to come. There was in reality nothing new or revolutionary in
the declaration Lord Irwin also promised a
Round Table Conference after the Simon Commission submitted its report.
* Delhi Manifesto: On November 2, 1929, a conference of prominent national leaders
issued a ‘Delhi Manifesto’, which put forward certain conditions for attending the Round
Table Conference:
1. that the purpose of the Round Table Conference should be not to determine
whether or when dominion status was to be reached but to formulate a constitution
for implementation of the dominion status (thus acting as a constituent assembly) and
the basic principle of dominion status should be immediately accepted;
2. that the Congress should have majority representation at the conference; and
3. there should be a general amnesty for political prisoners and a policy of
conciliation;
*Gandhi along with Motilal Nehru and other political leaders met Lord Irwin in December
1929 (after the viceroy had narrowly escaped after a bomb was detonated meaning to hit
the train he was travelling in). They asked the viceroy
for assurance that the purpose of the round table conference was to draft a
constitutional scheme for dominion status. That was not the purpose of the
conference, said Irwin. Viceroy Irwin rejected the demands put forward in the Delhi
Manifesto. The stage for confrontation was to begin now.
9. Lahore Session & Purna Swaraj (Dec 1929):Lahore Congress and Purna Swaraj
Jawaharlal Nehru, who had done more than anyone else to popularise the concept of
purna swaraj, was nominated the president for the Lahore session of the Congress
(December 1929) mainly due to Gandhi’s backing (15 out of 18 Provincial Congress
Committees had opposed Nehru). Nehru was chosen — because of the appositeness of
the occasion (Congress’ acceptance of complete independence as its goal), and — to
acknowledge the upsurge of youth which had made the anti-Simon campaign a huge
success. Nehru declared in his presidential address: “We have now an open conspiracy to
free this country from foreign rule and you, comrades, and all our countrymen and
country- women are invited to join it.” Further explaining that liberation did not mean
only throwing off the foreign yoke, he said: “I must frankly confess that I am a socialist
and a republican, and am no believer in kings and princes, or in the order which
produces the modern kings of industry, who have greater power of the lives and
fortunes of men than even the kings of old, and whose methods are as predatory as
those of the old feudal aristocracy.”
* Spelling out the methods of struggle, he said, “Any great movement for liberation
today must necessarily be a mass movement, and mass movements must essentially
be peaceful, except in times of organised revolt...” The following major decisions were
taken at the Lahore session:
● The Round Table Conference was to be boycotted.
● Complete independence was declared as the aim of the Congress.
● Congress Working Committee was authorised to launch a programme of civil
disobedience, including non-payment of taxes, and all members of legislatures were
asked to resign their seats.
● January 26, 1930 was fixed as the first Independence (Swarajya) Day, to be celebrated
everywhere.
*December 31, 1929: At midnight on the banks of River Ravi, the newly adopted
tricolour flag of freedom was hoisted by Jawaharlal Nehru amidst slogans of Inquilab
Zindabad.
*January 26, 1930: the Independence Pledge:Public meetings were organised all over
the country in villages and towns and the independence pledge was read out
in local languages and the national flag was hoisted. This pledge, which is supposed to
have been drafted by Gandhi, made the following points:
● It is the inalienable right of Indians to have freedom.
● The British Government in India has not only deprived us of freedom and exploited
us, but has also ruined us economically, politically, culturally, and spiritually. India
must, therefore, sever the British connection and attain purna swaraj or complete
independence.
● We are being economically ruined by high revenue, destruction of village industries
with no substitutions made,
while customs, currency and exchange rate are manipulated to our disadvantage.
● No real political powers are given—rights of free association are denied to us and all
administrative talent in us is killed.
● Culturally, the system of education has torn us from our moorings.
● Spiritually, compulsory disarmament has made us unmanly.
● We hold it a crime against man and God to submit any longer to British rule. ● We
will prepare for complete independence by withdrawing, as far as possible, all
voluntary association from the British government and will prepare for civil
disobedience through non-payment of taxes. By this an end of this inhuman rule is
assured.
● We will carry out the Congress instructions for purpose of establishing purna swaraj.
* Gandhi’s Eleven Demands : To carry forward the mandate given by the Lahore
Congress, Gandhi presented 11 demands to the government and gave an ultimatum of
January 31, 1930 to accept or reject these demands. The demands were as follows:
Issues of General Interest1. Reduce expenditure on army and civil services by 50 per
cent.
2. Introduce total prohibition.
3. Carry out reforms in Criminal Investigation Department (CID).
4. Change Arms Act allowing popular control of issue of firearms licences.
5. Release political prisoners.
6. Accept Postal Reservation Bill.
Specific Bourgeois Demands7. Reduce rupee-sterling exchange ratio to 1s 4d
8. Introduce textile protection.
9. Reserve coastal shipping for Indians.
Specific Peasant Demands10. Reduce land revenue by 50 per cent.
11. Abolish salt tax and government’s salt monopoly.
*With no positive response forthcoming from the government on these demands, the
Congress Working Committee invested Gandhi with full powers to launch the
Civil Disobedience Movement at a time and place of his choice. By Februaryend,
Gandhi had decided to make salt the central formula for the movement
10. Dandi March/Salt Satyagraha (1930):On March 2, 1930, Gandhi informed the
viceroy of his plan of action. According to this plan (few realised its significance when it
was first announced), The historic march, marking the launch of the Civil Disobedience
Movement, began on March 12, 1930 and Gandhi broke the salt law by picking up a
lump of salt at Dandi (Navsari district) on April 6 . Gandhi, along with a band of 78
members of Sabarmati Ashram, was to march from his headquarters in Ahmedabad
through the villages of Gujarat for 240 miles. On reaching the coast /Seashore at Dandi,
by picking a handful of salt, Gandhi inaugurated the civil disobedience movement, a
movement that was to remain unsurpassed in the history of Indian National movement
for the country wide mass participation it unleashed . The movement became so
powerful that it sparked off patriotism even among the soldiers in the army . The
garhwal soldiers refused to fire on the people at Peshwar. Gandhiji was arrested on May
5, 1930. This was followed by another round of Boycott of foreign goods & it took the
shape of a nationwide Civil disobedience movement in which ladies also participated.
Soon thereafter followed repressive measures such as mass arrests , lathi- charge , police
firing etc. about 1L people went to jail.
● Wherever possible, civil disobedience of the salt law should be started.
● Foreign liquor and cloth shops can be picketed.
● We can refuse to pay taxes if we have the requisite strength.
● Lawyers can give up practice.
● Public can boycott law courts by refraining from litigation.
● Government servants can resign from their posts.
● All these should be subject to one condition—truth and non-violence as means to
attain swaraj should be faithfully adhered to.
● Local leaders should be obeyed after Gandhi’s arrest.
* The violation of the law was seen as a symbol of the Indian people’s resolve not to
live under British-made laws and, therefore, under British rule. Gandhi openly asked
the people to make salt from sea water in their homes and violate the salt law. The
march, its progress and its impact
on the people was well covered by newspapers. In Gujarat, 300 village officials resigned
in answer to Gandhi’s appeal. Congress workers engaged themselves in grassroot-level
organisational tasks.
* Impact of Agitation:1. Imports of foreign cloth and other items fell.
2. Government suffered a loss of income from liquor, excise, and land revenue.
3. Elections to Legislative Assembly were largely boycotted.

* The Round Table Conferences:

The Viceroy of India, Lord Irwin, and the Prime Minister of Britain, Ramsay MacDonald,
agreed that a round table conference should be held, as the recommendations of the
Simon Commission report were clearly inadequate. 11. The 1st Round Table
conference (1930):The first Round Table
Conference was held in London between November 1930 and January 1931. It was
opened officially by King George V on November 12, 1930 and chaired by Ramsay
MacDonald.This was the first conference arranged between the British and the Indians as
equals. The Congress and some prominent business leaders refused to attend, but many
other groups of Indians were represented at the conference. The Indian princely states
were represented by the
Maharaja of Alwar, Maharaja of Baroda, Nawab of Bhopal, Maharaja of
Bikaner, Rana of Dholpur, Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir, Maharaja of
Nawanagar, Maharaja of Patiala (Chancellor of the Chamber of Princes),
Maharaja of Rewa, Chief Sahib of Sangli, Sir Prabhashankar Pattani
(Bhavnagar), Manubhai Mehta (Baroda), Sardar Sahibzada Sultan Ahmed Khan
(Gwalior), Akbar Hydari (Hyderabad), Mirza Ismail (Mysore), Col. Kailas Narain
Haksar (Jammu and Kashmir). The Muslim League sent Aga Khan III (leader of British-
Indian delegation), . The Hindu Mahasabha and its sympathisers were represented by B.S.
Moonje, M.R. Jayakar, and Diwan Bahadur Raja Narendra
Nath. The Sikhs were represented by Sardar Ujjal Singh and Sardar Sampuran Singh. For
the Parsis, Phiroze Sethna, Cowasji Jehangir, and Homi Mody attended. Begum Jahanara
Shahnawaz and Radhabai Subbarayan represented Women. The Liberals were
represented by J.N. Basu, Tej Bahadur Sapru, C.Y.
Chintamani, V.S. Srinivasa Sastri, and Chimanlal Harilal Setalvad. The
Depressed Classes were represented by B.R. Ambedkar and Rettamalai
Srinivasan. The Justice Party sent Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar, Bhaskarrao Vithojirao
Jadhav, and Sir A.P. Patro. Labour was represented by N.M. Joshi and B. Shiva Rao. K.T.
Paul represented the Indian Christians, while Henry Gidney represented the Anglo-
Indians, and the Europeans were represented by Sir Hubert Carr, Sir Oscar de Glanville
(Burma), T.F. Gavin Jones, C.E. Wood (Madras). There were also representatives of the
landlords (from Bihar, the United Pronvinces, and Orissa), the universities, Burma, the
Sindh, and some other provinces. The Government of India was represented by Narendra
Nath
Law, Bhupendra Nath Mitra,
C.P. Ramaswami Iyer, and M. Ramachandra Rao.
Outcome: Nothing much was achieved at the conference. It was held in
London on Nov 12, 1930, to discuss the Simon commission, but was totally boycotted
by the INC . The commission had proposed self govt in the provinces & federation of
British India & the princely states at the centre . However the representative of the
Muslim league , liberals & other parties had assembled for the discussion on the
commission report. But in absence of premier political party , the 1st round table
conference had to be adjourned to jan 2 , 1931.It was generally agreed that India was
to develop into a federation, there were to be safeguards regarding defence and
finance, while other departments were to be transferred. But little was done to
implement these recommendations and civil disobedience continued in India. The
British government realised that the participation of the Indian National Congress was
necessary in any discussion on the future of constitutional government in India.
12. Gandhi -Irwin Pact/Delhi pact (March 5, 1931): On January 25, 1931, Gandhi and
all other members of the Congress Working Committee (CWC) were released
unconditionally. The CWC authorised Gandhi to initiate discussions with the viceroy. As
a result of these discussions, a pact was signed between the viceroy, representing the
British Indian Government, and Gandhi, representing the Indian people, in Delhi on
March 5, 1931. This Delhi Pact, also known as the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, placed the
Congress on an equal footing with the government.
Irwin on behalf of the government agreed on:
1. immediate release of all political prisoners not convicted of violence;
2. remission of all fines not yet collected;
3. return of all lands not yet sold to third parties;
4. lenient treatment to those government servants who had resigned; 5. right to make
salt in coastal villages for personal consumption (not for
sale);
6. right to peaceful and non-aggressive picketing; and
7. withdrawal of emergency ordinances.
The viceroy, however, turned down two of Gandhi’s demands.
(i) public enquiry into police excesses, and
(ii)commutation of Bhagat Singh and his comrades’ death sentence to life sentence.
*Gandhi on behalf of the Congress agreed:
(i) to suspend the civil disobedience movement, and
(ii)to participate in the next Round Table Conference on the constitutional question
around the three linchpins of federation, Indian responsibility, and reservations and
safeguards that may be necessary in India’s interests (covering such areas as
defence, external affairs, position of minorities, financial credit of India, and
discharge of other obligations).
* Early in 1931 two moderate statesman, Sapru & Jayakar initiated efforts to bring about
approachment between Gandhi & The govt 6 meetings with
Viceroy Lord Irwin finally led to the signing of a pact between the 2 on March
5, 1931 where by Congress called off the movement & agreed to join 2nd RTC .
Regarding Gandhi -Irwin Pact J.L.Nehru remarks, " This is the way the world ends /Not
with a bang , but a whimper"
* Karachi Congress Session—1931:In March 1931, a special session of the Congress was
held at Karachi to endorse the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. Six days before the session (which
was held on March 29) Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru were executed. Throughout
Gandhi’s route to Karachi, he was greeted with black flag demonstrations by the Punjab
Naujawan Bharat Sabha, in protest against his failure to secure commutation of the
death sentence for Bhagat and his comrades.
* Congress Resolutions at Karachi:
● While disapproving of and dissociating itself from political violence, the Congress
admired the ‘bravery’ and ‘sacrifice’ of the three martyrs.
● The Delhi Pact or Gandhi-Irwin Pact was endorsed.
● The goal of purna swaraj was reiterated.
● Two resolutions were adopted—one on Fundamental Rights and the other on
National Economic Programme— which made the session particularly memorable.
The Resolution on Fundamental Rights guaranteed:
* free speech and free press
* right to form associations
* right to assemble
* universal adult franchise
* equal legal rights irrespective of caste, creed, and sex
* neutrality of state in religious matters
* free and compulsory primary education
* protection to culture, language, script of minorities and linguistic groups *The
Resolution on National Economic Programme: included: * substantial reduction in
rent and revenue in the case of landholders and peasants
* exemption from rent for uneconomic holdings
* relief from agricultural indebtedness
* control of usury
* better conditions of work including a living wage, limited hours of work and
protection of women workers in the industrial sector
* right to workers and peasants to form unions
* state ownership and control of key industries, mines, and means of transport
*This was the first time the Congress spelt out what swaraj would mean for the masses—
“in order to end exploitation of masses, political freedom must include economic
freedom of starving millions.”
* The Karachi Resolution was to remain, in essence, the basic political and economic
programme of the Congress in later years.
13. The 2nd Round Table conference (1931): Members of the Indian Liberal Party such
as Tej Bahadur Sapru, C.Y. Chintamani, and Srinivasa Sastri appealed to Gandhi to talk
with the Viceroy. Gandhi and Irwin reached a compromise which came to be called the
Gandhi-Irwin Pact (the Delhi Pact).
The second Round Table Conference was held in London from September 7, 1931 to
December 1, 1931. The Indian National Congress nominated Gandhi as its sole
representative. A. Rangaswami Iyengar and Madan Mohan Malaviya were also there.
There were a large number of Indian participants, besides the Congress. The princely
states were represented by Maharaja of Alwar, Maharaja of Baroda, Nawab of Bhopal,
Maharaja of Bikaner, Maharao of Kutch, Rana of Dholpur, Maharaja of
Indore, Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir, Maharaja of Kapurthala, Maharaja of
Nawanagar, Maharaja of Patiala, Maharaja of Rewa, Chief Sahib of Sangli, Raja of Sarila,
Sir Prabhashankar Pattani (Bhavnagar), Manubhai Mehta (Baroda), Sardar Sahibzada
Sultan Ahmed Khan (Gwalior), Sir Muhammad Akbar Hydari (Hyderabad), Mirza Ismail
(Mysore), Col. K.N. Haksar (Jammu and Kashmir), T. Raghavaiah (Travancore), Liaqat
Hayat Khan (Patiala). The Muslims were represented by Aga Khan III, Maulana Shaukat
Ali, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, A.K.
Fazlul Huq, Muhammad Iqbal, Muhammad Shafi, Muhammad Zafarullah Khan, Syed Ali
Imam, Maulvi Muhammad Shafi Daudi, Raja Sher Muhammad Khan of Domeli, A.H.
Ghuznavi, Hafiz Hidayat Hussain, Sayed Muhammad Padshah Saheb Bahadur, Dr. Shafa’at
Ahmad Khan, Jamal Muhammad, and Nawab
Sahibzada Sayed Muhammad Mehr Shah. Hindu groups were represented by
M.R. Jayakar, B.S. Moonje and Diwan Bahadur Raja Narendra Nath. The Liberals at the
conference were J. N. Basu, C.Y.
Chintamani, Tej Bahadur Sapru, V.S. Srinivasa Sastri, and Chimanlal Harilal
Setalvad. The Justice Party sent Raja of Bobbili, Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar, Sir
A.P. Patro, and Bhaskarrao Vithoji rao Jadhav. The Depressed Classes were represented
by B.R. Ambedkar and Rettamalai Srinivasan. Sardar Ujjal Singh and Sardar Sampuran
Singh represented the Sikhs. The Parsis were represented by Cowasji Jehangir, Homi
Mody, and Phiroze Sethna. Indian
Christians were represented by Surendra Kumar Datta and A.T. Pannirselvam.
Industry was represented by Ghanshyam Das Birla, Sir Purshottamdas
Thakurdas, and Maneckji Dadabhoy. Labour was represented by N. M. Joshi, B.
Shiva Rao, and V. V. Giri. The representatives for Indian women were Sarojini Naidu,
Begum Jahanara Shahnawaz, and Radhabai Subbarayan. The universities were
represented by Syed Sultan Ahmed and Bisheshwar Dayal
Seth. Representatives of Burma and from the provinces of Sindh, Assam, Central
Provinces, and the NWFP also attended.
The Government of India was represented by C.P. Ramaswami Iyer, Narendra Nath Law,
and M. Ramachandra Rao.
*It was held in London during the viceroyalty of Lord willigdon during Sep- Dec1931 &
Gandhiji attended it on behalf of INC. Nothing much was expected from the conference
for the imperialist political forces which ultimately controlled the British govt in London
were opposed to any political or Economic concession being given to India which could
lead to its independence. The conference however failed as Gandhiji could not agree
with the British prime minister Ramsay MacDonald on his policy of Communal
Representation & refusal of the British govt on the basic Indian demand for freedom.
The conference closed on Dec 1, 1931 without any concrete result . *Not much was
expected from the conference because of the following reasons:
● By this time, Lord Irwin had been replaced by Lord Willingdon as viceroy in India.
Just before the conference began, the Labour government in England had been
replaced by a National Government which was an uneasy coalition between Labour
and Conservatives. The British were also angered by the increased revolutionary
activities which had claimed many European lives in India.
● The Right Wing or Conservatives in Britain led by Churchill strongly objected to
the British government negotiating with the Congress on an equal basis. They, instead,
demanded a strong government in India. The Prime Minister, Ramsay MacDonald
headed the Conservative- dominated cabinet with a weak and reactionary secretary of
state for India, Samuel Hoare.
● At the conference, Gandhi (and therefore the Congress) claimed to represent all
people of India against imperialism.
● Gandhi pointed out that there was a need of a partnership between Britain and
India on the basis of equality. He put forward the demand for the immediate
establishment of a responsible government at the centre as well as in the
provinces. He also reiterated that the Congress alone represented political India. Saying
that the untouchables were Hindus, and thus not to be treated as a minority, he
discarded the idea of a separate electorate for them. He also said there was no need for
separate electorates or special safeguards for Muslims or other minorities. Many of the
other delegates disagreed with Gandhi.
● The session soon got deadlocked on the question of the minorities. Separate
electorates were being demanded by the Muslims, depressed classes, Christians, and
Anglo- Indians. All these came together in a
‘Minorities’ Pact’. Gandhi fought desperately against this concerted move to make all
constitutional progress conditional on the solving of this issue.
● The princes were also not too enthusiastic about a federation, especially after the
possibility of the formation of a Congress government at the centre had receded after
the suspension of civil disobedience movement.
Outcome : The lack of agreement among the many delegate groups meant that no
substantial results regarding India’s constitutional future would come out of the
conference. The session ended with MacDonald’s announcement of:
(i) two Muslim majority provinces—North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) and Sindh;
(ii) the setting up of an Indian Consultative Committee;
(iii)setting up of three expert committees—finance, franchise, and states; and (iv) the
prospect of a unilateral British Communal Award if Indians failed to agree.
The government refused to concede the basic Indian demand of freedom.
Gandhi returned to India on December28, 1931
14. The Communal Award/Mac Donald Award (Aug 16, 1932):
* The Communal Award was announced by the British prime minister, Ramsay
MacDonald, on August 16, 1932. The
Communal Award, based on the findings of the Indian Franchise Committee (also called
the Lothian Committee), established separate electorates and reserved seats for
minorities, including the depressed classes, which were granted 78 reserved seats. Thus,
this award accorded separate electorates for Muslims, Europeans, Sikhs, Indian
Christians,Anglo-Indians, depressed classes, and even to the Marathas for some seats in
Bombay. The award was perceived by the national leaders led by the Congress as
another manifestation of the British policy of divide and rule. It should be noted here
that Dr B.R. Ambedkar in the past, in his testimony to the Simon Commission, had
stressed that the depressed classes should be treated as a distinct, independent minority
separate from the caste Hindus. Even, the Bengal
Depressed Classes Association had lobbied for separate electorates with seats reserved
according to the proportion of depressed class members to the total population as well as
for adult franchise. But the Simon Commission rejected the proposal of separate electorate
for the depressed classes; however, it retained the concept of reserving seats. In the second
Round Table Conference held in London, Ambedkar again raised the issue of separate
electorate for the depressed classes. Earlier in the conference, Ambedkar had attempted
to compromise with Gandhi on reserved seats in a common electorate, but Gandhi, who
had declared himself the sole representative of India’s oppressed masses, rejected
Ambedkar’s proposal, and denounced the other delegates as unrepresentative. Further,
Gandhi attempted to strike a deal with Muslims, promising to support their demands as
long as the Muslims voted against separate electorates for the depressed classes. It is
argued that political considerations might have motivated Gandhi to adopt such a stand.
But despite such efforts, a consensus on the minority representation could not be worked
out among the Indian delegates. In the wake of such a situation, Ramsay MacDonald, who
had chaired the committee on minorities, offered to mediate on the condition that the
other members of the committee supported his decision. And, the outcome of this
mediation was the Communal Award.
* Main Provisions of the Communal Award
● Muslims, Europeans, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo- Indians, depressed classes,
women, and even the Marathas were to get separate electorates. Such an
arrangement for the depressed classes was to be made for a period of 20 years.
● In the provincial legislatures, the seats were to be distributed on communal basis.
● The existing seats of the provincial legislatures were to be doubled.
● The Muslims, wherever they were in minority, were to be granted a weightage.
● Except in the North West Frontier Province, 3 percent seats were to be reserved for
women in all provinces.
● The depressed classes were to be declared the status of minority.
● The depressed classes were to get ‘double vote’, one to be used through separate
electorates and the other to be used in the general electorates.
● Allocation of seats were to be made for labourers, landlords, traders, and
industrialists.
● In the province of Bombay, 7 seats were to be allocated for the Marathas.
* Congress Stand: Though opposed to separate electorates, the Congress was not in
favour of changing the Communal Award without the consent of the minorities. Thus,
while strongly disagreeing with the Communal Award, the Congress decided neither to
accept it nor to reject it. The effort to separate the depressed classes from the rest of
the Hindus by treating them as separate political entities was vehemently opposed by
all the nationalists.
Part 5
*Gandhi’s Response: Gandhi saw the Communal Award as an attack on Indian unity
and nationalism. He thought it was harmful to both Hinduism and to the depressed
classes since it provided no answer to the socially degraded position of the depressed
classes. Once the depressed classes were treated as a separate political entity, he
argued, the question of abolishing untouchability would get undermined, while
separate electorates would ensure that the untouchables remained untouchables in
perpetuity. He said that what was required was not protection of the so-called interests
of the depressed classes but root and branch eradication of untouchability.
Gandhi demanded that the depressed classes be elected through joint and if possible a
wider electorate through universal franchise, while expressing no objection to the
demand for a larger number of reserved seats. And to press his demands, he went on
an indefinite fast on September 20, 1932. Now leaders of various persuasions,
including B.R. Ambedkar, M.C. Rajah, and Madan Mohan Malaviya got together to
hammer out a compromise contained in the Poona Pact
15. Poona pact /Gandhi - Ambedkar Pact ( Sep 24 , 1932):
* Signed by B.R. Ambedkar on behalf of the depressed classes on September 24, 1932,
the Poona Pact abandoned the idea of separate electorates for the depressed classes.
But the seats reserved for the depressed classes were increased from 71 to 147 in
provincial legislatures and to 18% of the total in the Central Legislature.
The Poona Pact was accepted by the government as an amendment to the Communal
Award. Impact of Poona Pact on Dalits The Poona Pact, despite giving certain political
rights to the depressed classes, could not achieve the desired goal of emancipation of
the depressed class. It enabled the same old Hindu social order to continue and gave
birth to many problems.
● The Pact made the depressed classes political tools which could be used by the
majoritarian caste Hindu organisations.
● It made the depressed classes leaderless as the true representatives of the
classes were unable to win against the stooges who were chosen and supported by the
caste Hindu organisations.
● This led to the depressed classes to submit to the status quo in political,
ideological, and cultural fields and not being able to develop independent and
genuine leadership to fight the Brahminical order.
● It subordinated the depressed classes into being part of the Hindu social order
by denying them a separate and distinct existence.
● The Poona Pact perhaps put obstructions in the way of an ideal society based on
equality, liberty, fraternity, and justice.
* By denying to recognise the Dalits as a separate and distinct element in the
national life, it pre-empted the rights and safeguards for the Dalits in the Constitution
of independent India.
*Joint Electorates and Its Impact on Depressed Classes: The Working Committee of
the All India Scheduled Caste Federation alleged that in the last elections held under the
Government of India Act, 1935, the system of joint electorates deprived the scheduled
castes of the right to send true and effective representatives to the legislatures. The
committee, further, said that the provisions of the joint electorate gave the Hindu
majority the virtual right to nominate members of the scheduled castes who were
prepared to be the tools of the Hindu majority. The working committee of the
federation, thus, demanded for the restoration of the system of separate electorates, and
nullification of the system of joint electorates and reserved seats. Even after signing the
Poona Pact, Dr B.R. Ambedkar continued to denounce the Poona Pact till 1947.
*As discussed , the communal award created immense dissatisfaction among Hindus .
Gandhi, who was on fast in protest, staked his life to get the award repudiated.
According to the pact, the idea of separate electorate for the depressed classes was
abandoned but seats reserved for them in the provincial legislature were increased
from 71 in the award to 148 & in the central legislature to 18% of the total. Ultimately
the fast ended with the poona pact which annulled the award . The leaders of the
various groups & parties among Hindus & B.R. Ambedkar on behalf of the Harijans
signed the pact . The poona pact between caste Hindus & the depressed classes
agreed upon a joint electorate
* Gandhi’s Harijan Campaign & thoughts on Caste :Determined to undo the
divisive intentions of the government’s divide and rule policy, Gandhi gave up all his
other preoccupations and launched a whirlwind campaign against untouchability—first
from jail and then, after his release in
August 1933, from outside jail. While in jail, he set up the All India Anti-
Untouchability League in September 1932 and started the weekly Harijan in
January 1933. After his release, he shifted to the Satyagraha Ashram in Wardha as he had
vowed in 1930 not to return to Sabarmati Ashram unless swaraj was won. Starting from
Wardha, he conducted a Harijan tour of the country in the period from November 1933
to July 1934, covering 20,000 km, collecting money for his newly set up Harijan Sevak
Sangh, and propagating removal of untouchability in all its forms. He urged political
workers to go to villages and work for social, economic, political, and cultural upliftment
of the Harijans. He undertook two fasts—on May 8 and August 16, 1934—to convince his
followers of the seriousness of his effort and the importance of the issue. These fasts
created consternation in nationalist ranks throwing many into an emotional crisis.
Throughout his campaign, Gandhi was attacked by orthodox and reactionary elements.
These elements disrupted his meetings, held black flag demonstrations against him
and accused him of attacking Hinduism. They also offered support to the government
against the Congress and the Civil Disobedience Movement. The government obliged
them by defeating the Temple Entry Bill in August 1934. Orthodox Hindu opinion in
Bengal was against the acceptance of permanent caste Hindu minority status by the
Poona Pact. Throughout his Harijan tour, social work and fasts, Gandhi stressed on
certain themes:
● He put forward a damning indictment of Hindu society for the kind of oppression
practised on Harijans.
● He called for total eradication of untouchability symbolised by his plea to throw
open temples to the untouchables.
● He stressed the need for caste Hindus to do ‘penance’ for untold miseries inflicted
on Harijans. For this reason, he was not hostile to his critics such as Ambedkar. He said,
“Hinduism dies if untouchability lives, untouchability has to die if Hinduism is to live.”
● His entire campaign was based on principles of humanism and reason. He said that
the Shastras do not sanction untouchability, and if they did, they should be ignored as it
was against human dignity.
*Gandhi was not in favour of mixing up the issue of removal of untouchability with that
of inter-caste marriages and inter-dining because he felt that such restrictions existed
among caste Hindus and among Harijans themselves, and because the all-India
campaign at the time was directed against disabilities specific to Harijans. Similarly, he
distinguished between abolition of untouchability and abolition of caste system as such.
On this point he differed from Ambedkar who advocated annihilation of the caste system
to remove untouchability. Gandhi felt that whatever the limitations and defects of the
varnashram system, there was nothing sinful about it, as there was about untouchability.
Untouchability, Gandhi felt, was a product of distinctions of high and low and not of the
caste system itself. If it could be purged of this distinction, the varnashram could
function in such a manner that each caste would be
complementary to the other rather than being higher or lower. Anyway, he hoped that
believers and critics of the caste system would come together in the fight against
untouchability. He believed that the removal of untouchability would
have a positive impact on communal and other questions since opposition to
untouchability meant opposing the notion of highness and lowness. He was opposed to
using compulsion against the orthodox Hindus whom he called
‘sanatanis’. They were to be won over by persuasion, by appealing to “their reason
and their hearts”. His fasts were aimed at inspiring friends and followers to redouble
their work to abolish untouchability.
Gandhi’s Harijan campaign included a programme of internal reform by Harijans
covering education, cleanliness, hygiene, giving up eating of beef and carrion and
consumption of liquor, and removing untouchability among themselves.
* Impact of the Campaign Gandhi repeatedly described the campaign as not a
political movement but as being primarily meant to purify Hinduism and Hindu society.
Gradually, the campaign carried the message of nationalism to Harijans who also
happened to be the agricultural labourers in most parts of the country, leading to their
increasing participation in the national and peasant movements.
16.The 3rd Round Table conference (Nov 17 - Dec24, 1932):
* The third Round Table Conference, held between November 17, 1932 &
December 24, 1932, was not attended by the Indian National Congress and Gandhi. It
was ignored by most other Indian leaders. The Indian States were represented by Akbar
Hydari (Dewan of Hyderabad), Mirza Ismail (Dewan of Mysore), V.T. Krishnamachari
(Dewan of Baroda), Wajahat Hussain (Jammu and Kashmir), Sir Sukhdeo Prasad
(Udaipur, Jaipur, Jodhpur), J.A. Surve
(Kolhapur), Raja Oudh Narain Bisarya (Bhopal), Manubhai Mehta (Bikaner),
Nawab Liaqat Hayat
Khan (Patiala), Fateh Naseeb Khan (Alwar State), L.F. Rushbrook Williams (Nawanagar),
and Raja of Sarila (small states). Other Indian representatives were Aga Khan III, B.R.
Ambedkar, Ramakrishna Ranga Rao of Bobbili, Sir
Hubert Carr, Nanak Chand Pandit, A.H. Ghuznavi, Henry Gidney, Hafiz Hidayat
Hussain, Muhammad Iqbal, M.R. Jayakar, Cowasji Jehangir, N.M. Joshi,
Narasimha Chintaman Kelkar, Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar, Begum Jahanara
Shahnawaz, A.P. Patro, Tej Bahadur Sapru, Dr.Shafa’at Ahmad Khan, Sir
Shadi Lal, Tara Singh Malhotra, Sir Nripendra Nath Sircar, Sir Purshottamdas Thakurdas,
Muhammad Zafarullah Khan. Again, like in the two previous conferences, little was
achieved.
* The recommendations were published in a White Paper in March 1933 and
debated in the British Parliament afterwards. A Joint Select Committee was formed to
analyse the recommendations and formulate a new Act for India, and that committee
produced a draft Bill in February 1935, which was enforced as the Government of India
Act of 1935 in July 1935.
* It was held in 1932 but again proved fruitless since the National leaders were in
prison
17. The GOI Act, 1935:
* The Government of India Act of 1935 was passed on the basis of the report of the
Simon Commission, the outcome of the Round Table Conferences and the White Paper
issued by the British Government in 1933. This Act contained many important changes
over the previous Act of 1919. Following were the salient features of this Act.
1. Provision for the establishment of an All India Federation at the Centre,
consisting of the Provinces of British India and the Princely States. (It did not come into
existence since the Princely States refused to give their consent for the union.)
2. Division of powers into three lists: Federal, Provincial and Concurrent. 3.
Introduction of Dyarchy at the Centre. The Governor-General and his councillors
administered the “Reserved subjects”. The
Council of Ministers were responsible for the “Transferred” subjects.
4. Abolition of Dyarchy and the introduction of Provincial Autonomy in the
provinces. The Governor was made the head of the Provincial Executive but he was
expected to run the administration on the advice of the Council of Ministers. Thus
provincial government was entrusted to the elected Ministers.
They were responsible to the popularly elected Legislative Assemblies.
5. Provincial Legislatures of Bengal, Madras, Bombay, United Provinces, Bihar and
Assam were made bicameral.
6. Extension of the principle of Separate Electorates to Sikhs, Europeans, Indian
Christians and Anglo Indians.
7. Establishment of a Federal Court at Delhi with a Chief Justice and 6 judges. *The
working of the provincial autonomy was not successful. The Governors were not bound
to accept the advice of the ministers. In reality, the real power in the Provincial
Government was with the Governor. But, despite these drawbacks in the scheme, the
Congress decided to take part in the elections to the Provincial Legislatures with the
consideration that it was an improvement over the previous Acts. In accordance with
the provisions of the Government of India Act of 1935 elections to the Provincial
Legislatures were held in February 1937. The Congress had virtually swept the polls. On
7 July 1937, after the Viceroy Lord Linlithgow, assured the Congress of his cooperation,
the party formed its ministries in seven provinces.
* The Simon commission report submitted in 1930 formed the basis for GOI 1935. The
new govt of India act received the royal assent on Aug 4, 1935. The act continued &
extended all the existing features of earlier constitutional reforms . But in addition there
were certain new principles introduced. These provided for a federal type of govt . Thus
the act:
1. Introduced provincial autonomy
2. Abolished Dyarchy in provinces
3. Made ministers responsible to the legislative & federation at the centre. The Act of
1935 was condemned by nearly all Sections of Indian public opinion & was
unanimously rejected by the Congress. The Congress demanded itself the convening
of a constituent assembly elected on the basis of adult franchise to frame a
constitution for an independent India. Regarding the GOI Act 1935, J.L. Nehru
remarks ' It was a new charter of bondage '. Although the Congress opposed the act,
yet it contested the elections when the constitution was introduced on April 1, 1937
& formed ministries , 1st in 6 provinces & then in another 2. The Muslim league was
however not happy with the Congress rule , esp. Mr. Jinnah,, who described it in
those words : ' Congress was drunk with power & was oppressive against muslims '.
* The Second World War and National Movement:* In 1937 elections were held
under the provisions of the Government of India Act of 1935. Congress Ministries
were formed in seven states of India. On 1 September 1939 the Second World War
broke out. The British Government without consulting the people of India involved
the country in the war. On September 1, 1939,
Germany attacked Poland—the action that led to the Second World War. On
September 3, 1939, Britain declared war against Germany and the British
Government of India declared India’s support for the war without consulting Indian
opinion. Congress Offer to Viceroy Though the Congress did not like the unilateral action
of the British of drawing India into the war without consulting the Indians, it decided to
support the war effort conditionally. The hostility of the Congress to Fascism, Nazism,
militarism, and imperialism had been much more consistent than the British record. The
Indian offer to cooperate in the war effort had two basic conditions:
1. After the war, a constituent assembly should be convened to determine political
structure of a free India.
2. Immediately, some form of a genuinely responsible government should be
established at the Centre.
*The offer was rejected by Linlithgow, the viceroy. The Congress argued that these
conditions were necessary to win public opinion for war.
*CWC Meeting at Wardha :The official Congress position was adopted at the Wardha
session of the Congress Working Committee, but before that different opinions were
voiced on the question of Indian support to British war efforts.
Gandhi, who had all sympathy for Britain in this war because of his total dislike of the
fascist ideology, advocated an unconditional support to the Allied powers. He made a
clear distinction between the democratic nations of western Europe and the totalitarian
Nazis and fascists. He said that he was not willing to embarrass the British government
during the war. Subhas Bose and other socialists, such as Acharya Narendra Dev and
Jayaprakash Narayan, who had been invited by the Congress to attend the Wardha
meeting so that different opinions could be discussed, had no sympathy for either side
in the war. In their opinion, the war was being fought by imperialists on both sides; each
side wanted to protect its colonial possessions and gain more territories to colonise, so
neither side should be supported by the nationalists. In fact, they thought it was the
ideal time to launch a civil disobedience movement,
to thus take advantage of the situation and snatch freedom from Britain. Jawaharlal
Nehru was not ready to accept the opinion of either Gandhi or of the socialists. He was
clear in his mind about the difference between democratic values and fascism. He
believed that justice was on the side of Britain, France, and Poland, but he also
believed that Britain and France were imperialist powers, and that “the war was the
result of the inner contradictions of capitalism maturing since the end of World War I”.
He, therefore, advocated no
Indian participation till India itself was free. However, at the same time, no advantage
was to be taken of Britain’s difficulty by starting an immediate civil disobedience
movement. Gandhi was more or less isolated in his stand. In the end, he decided to go
with Nehru’s position, which was adopted by the Congress Working Committee. The
CWC resolution condemned Fascist aggression. It said that
(i) India could not be party to a war being fought, on the face of it, for democratic
freedom, while that freedom was being denied to India; (ii) if Britain was fighting for
democracy and freedom, it should be proved by ending imperialism in its colonies and
establishing full democracy in India; (iii) the government should declare its war aims
soon and, also, as to how the principles of democracy were to be applied to India after
the war. The Congress leadership wanted “to give every chance to the viceroy and the
British Government”.
18. Congress Ministries Resign( Dec 22, 1939):
*The Congress vehemently opposed it and as a mark of protest the Congress
Ministries in the Provinces resigned on 12 December 1939. The Muslim League
celebrated that day as the Deliverance Day. In March 1940 the Muslim League demanded
the creation of Pakistan.
*The government’s response was entirely negative. Viceroy Linlithgow, in his statement,
made on October 17, 1939, tried to use the Muslim League and the princes against the
Congress. The government:
● refused to define British war aims beyond stating that Britain was resisting
aggression;
● said it would, as part of future arrangement, consult “representatives of several
communities, parties and interests in India, and the Indian princes” as to how the Act of
1935 might be modified;
● said it would immediately set up a “consultative committee” whose advice could
be sought whenever required.
* Government’s Hidden Agenda: Linlithgow’s statement was not an aberration, but a
part of general British policy—“to take advantage of the war to regain the lost ground
from the Congress” by provoking the Congress into a confrontation with the
government and then using the extraordinary situation to acquire draconian powers.
 Even before the declaration of the War, emergency powers had been acquired for the
Centre in respect of provincial subjects by amending the 1935 Act. Defence of India
ordinance had been enforced the day the War was declared, thus restricting civil
liberties. In May 1940, a top secret Draft Revolutionary Movement Ordinance had
been prepared, aimed at launching crippling pre-emptive strikes on the Congress. The
government could then call upon the Allied troops stationed in India. It could also win
an unusual amount of liberal and leftist sympathy all over the world by painting an
aggressive Congress as being pro-Japan and pro-Germany.British Indian reactionary
policies received full support from the Prime Minister of Britain, Winston Churchill,
and the Secretary of State, Zetland, who branded the Congress as a purely Hindu
organisation. It became clear that the British government had no intention of
loosening its hold, during or after the war, and was willing to treat the Congress as an
enemy. Gandhi reacted sharply to the government’s insensitivity to Indian public
opinion—“... there is to be no democracy for India if Britain can prevent it.” Referring
to the minorities and other special interests, Gandhi said, “Congress will
safeguard minority rights provided they do not advance claims inconsistent with
India’s independence.”
* Congress Ministries Decide to Resign
On October 23, 1939, the CWC meeting:
● rejected the viceregal statement as a reiteration of the old imperialist policy;
● decided not to support the war; and
● called upon the Congress ministries to resign in the provinces.
* The Ramgarh session of the Congress was held in March 1940 with Maulana
Abul Kalam Azad in the president’s chair. All agreed that a battle must be waged but
there was disagreement over the form. It was decided to leave the form and timing to
Gandhi. But even now, Gandhi was in favour of continued cooperation at the provincial
level. He said that he would offer the British moral support during the war but on a
non-violent basis. However, Jawaharlal Nehru reiterated that complete independence
for India must be a precondition for Congress support to the British war effort. Subhas
Bose continued with his strong militant stand of direct action against the colonial
government forcing it to agree to the grant of freedom. Once again he pointed out
that Britain’s
difficulty was to be seized as India’s opportunity. The Congress finally declared at the
session that the people of India would accept nothing short of complete independence.
Indian freedom could not be in the form of dominion or any other status within the
imperial structure. Sovereignty, said the Congress resolution, must rest with the people,
whether in the States (the princely states) or the provinces.
* The 2nd world war broke out in Europe on sep 3 1939, that brought Britain also
within its fold. Without consulting the Indian leaders , the viceroy declared India also a
belligerent country . This evoked sharp criticism from Indians & the Congress took
stand that India could not associate herself in a war said to be for democratic freedom
when the very freedom was denied to her . The Congress demanded that India should
be declared an independent nation. Then only would the country help Britain in the
war. The viceroy in his reply dated Oct 17, 1939 rejected the Congress demands as
impracticably & took the stand that the govt could think over the entire constitutional
scheme after the war. The Congress condemned the viceroy's reply & the Congress
Ministries every where resigned on Dec 22, 1939. Jinnah was happy over this
& he called upon the Indian muslims to celebrate the resignation day of
Congress Ministries as 'the day of deliverence.'
19. Pakistan Resolution/Lahore Resolution (March 24, 1940):
* It was is 1930 that Iqbal suggested the union of the frontier province , Baluchistan,
sindh & Kashmir as Muslim state with in the federation . This proved to be a creative
idea which germinated during the early 30's to burst in to vigorous life with the advent
of the new reforms . The idealist Chaudhary Rehmat Ali devloped this conception at
Cambridge where he inspired a group of young muslims & invented the term Pakistan
(later Pakistan) in 1935. His ideas seemed visionary during that time but within 7 years
they turned in to a political program by Jinnah with the new name as it's slogan or
banner. The ideology of Iqbal, the vision of Rehmat Ali & fears of muslims were thus
United by the practical genius of Jinnah to nind muslims together as never before during
the British period & ultimately led to vivisection of India & creation of Pakistan. Pakistan
Resolution was an important landmark in this context. The Lahore Session of the Muslim
league held on March 24, 1940, passed Pakistan Resolution & rejected the federal
scheme as envisaged in the GOI Act 1935.
*The Muslim League passed a resolution calling for “grouping of geographically
contiguous areas where Muslims are in majority (North-West, East) into independent
states in which constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign and adequate
safeguards to Muslims where they are in minority”.
20. August Offer/Linlithigow offer (Aug 8, 1940) :
* Hitler’s astounding success and the fall of Belgium, Holland, and France put England in
a conciliatory mood. As the war in Europe had undertaken a new turn, the dominant
Congress leadership was again in a dilemma. Both Gandhi and Nehru strongly opposed
the idea of taking advantage of Britain’s position. The Congress was ready to
compromise, asking the British government to let it form an interim government during
the war period but the government was not interested. The government came up with its
own offer to get the cooperation of India in the war effort. Linlithgow announced the
August Offer (August 1940) which proposed:
● dominion status as the objective for India;
● expansion of viceroy’s executive council which would have a majority of
Indians (who would be drawn from major political parties);
● setting up of a constituent assembly after the war where mainly Indians would decide
the constitution according to their social, economic, and political conceptions, subject
to fulfilment of the obligation of the government regarding defence, minority rights,
treaties with States, all India services; and
● no future constitution to be adopted without the consent of minorities. * The
Congress rejected the August Offer. Nehru said, “Dominion status concept is dead as a
doornail.” Gandhi said that the declaration had widened the gulf between the
nationalists and the British rulers. The Muslim League welcomed the veto assurance
given to the League, and reiterated its position that partition was the only solution to
the deadlock.
*For the first time, the inherent right of Indians to frame their constitution was
recognised and the Congress demand for a constituent assembly was conceded.
Dominion status was explicitly offered. In July 1941, the viceroy’s executive council was
enlarged to give the Indians a majority of 8 out of 12 for the first time, but the British
remained in charge of defence, finance, and home. Also, a National Defence Council
was set up with purely advisory functions.
*On Aug 8, 1940 , the viceroy Linlithgow came out with certain proposals known as
August Offer declaring that the goal of British govt was to establish Dominion status in
india . It accepted that the framing of a new constitution would be the responsibility of
the Indians . It also laid down that full weight would be given to the views of minorities
in the constitution. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, president of the Congress rejected the
August Offer which aimed at bringing the Congress in the ongoing world war . The
Muslim league, however welcomed the offer as it ensured that no further constitution
would be adopted without a prior approval of muslims . The league declared that the
most difficult problem of India's future constitution could be solved only by the partition
of India. In brief, the August Offer failed by gaining indias cooperation for war & in fact
further widened the gulf between the Congress & the Britishers as well as between the
Congress & the Muslim league.

Part 6
21. Individual Civil Disobedience/Individual Satyagraha (oct 1940- Dec 1941):
* During the course of the Second World War in order to secure the cooperation of the
Indians, the British Government made an announcement on 8 August 1940, which came
to be known as the ‘August Offer’. The August Offer envisaged that after the War a
representative body of Indians would be set up to frame the new Constitution. Gandhi
was not satisfied with is offer and decided to launch Individual Satyagraha. Individual
Satyagraha was limited, symbolic and non-violent in nature and it was left to Mahatma
Gandhi to choose the Satyagrahis. Acharya Vinoba Bhave was the first to offer
Satyagraha and he was sentenced to three months imprisonment. Jawaharlal Nehru
was the second Satyagrahi and imprisoned for four months. The individual Satyagraha
continued for nearly 15 months.
*The government had taken the adamant position that no constitutional advance could
be made till the Congress came to an agreement with the Muslim leaders. It issued
ordinance after ordinance taking away the freedom of speech and that of the press
and the right to organise associations. Towards the end of 1940, the Congress once
again asked Gandhi to take command. Gandhi now began taking steps which would
lead to a mass struggle within his broad strategic perspective. He decided to initiate a
limited satyagraha on an individual basis by a few selected individuals in every locality.
The aims of launching individual satyagraha were:
(i) to show that nationalist patience was not due to weakness;
(ii)to express people’s feeling that they were not interested in the war and that they
made no distinction between Nazism and the double autocracy that ruled India; and
(iii) to give another opportunity to the government to accept Congress’ demands
peacefully.
* The demand of the satyagrahi would be the freedom of speech against the war
through an anti-war declaration. If the government did not arrest the satyagrahi, he or
she would not only repeat it but move into villages and start a march towards Delhi,
thus precipitating a movement which came to be known as the ‘Delhi Chalo
Movement’. Vinoba Bhave was the first to offer the satyagraha and Nehru, the second.
By May 1941, 25,000 people had been convicted for individual civil disobedience.
* June 1941: Germany attacks Russia and Russia is dragged into the War.
December 1941: Japan attacks Pearl Harbour.
March 1942: After having overrun almost the whole of South- East Asia, Japan occupies
Rangoon.
* Gandhi Designates Nehru as his Successor : The Congress leaders, released in
December 1941, in the midst of Japan’s aggressive actions, were anxious to defend
Indian territory and go to the aid of the Allies. The CWC overrode Gandhi’s and
 Nehru’s objections and passed a resolution offering to cooperate with the government
in the defence of India, if:
(i) full independence was given after the war, and
(ii) substance of power was transferred immediately.
*It was at this time that Gandhi designated Nehru as his chosen successor. *Rajmohan
Gandhi, in his book, The Good Boatman, writes that Gandhi preferred Nehru to the
alternatives because he most reliably reflected the pluralist, inclusive idea of India that
the Mahatma himself stood for. The alternatives—Patel, Rajaji, Azad, Kripalani,
Rajendra Prasad—had somewhat sectional interests and affiliations. But Nehru was a
Hindu who could be trusted by Muslims, a north-Indian who was respected in south
India, and a man who was admired by
women. Like Gandhi, Nehru was genuinely an all-India leader, who gave
Indians hope—that they could build a more prosperous and peaceful society.
*The Congress working committee decided to start individual civil disobedience on Oct
17 , 1940. Vinobha bhave was the 1st Satyagrahi who was arrested on Oct 21 ,
followed soon by many more including Nehru & Patel . But the movement created
little enthusiasm & Gandhi suspended it.
22. The Cripps Mission(March - April 1942):
*In the meantime, the Viceroy, Lord Linlithgow expanded his Executive Council by
including five more Indians into it in July 1941. However, in the midst of worsening
wartime international situation, the British Government in its continued effort to secure
Indian cooperation sent Sir Stafford Cripps to India on 23 March 1942. This is known as
Cripps Mission . The main recommendations of Cripps were:
o The promise of Dominion Status to India, o Protection of minorities
o setting up of a Constituent Assembly in which there would be representatives from
the Princely States along with those of the British Provinces,
o There would be provision for any Province of British
*India not prepared to accept this Constitution, either to retain its present
constitutional position or frame a constitution of its own. The major political parties of
the country rejected the Cripps proposals. Gandhi called Cripp’s proposals as a “Post-
dated Cheque”. They did not like the rights of the Princely States either to send their
representatives to the Constituent Assembly or to stay out of the Indian
Union. The Muslim League was also dissatisfied as its demand for Pakistan had not
been conceded in the proposal.
* In March 1942, a mission headed by Stafford Cripps was sent to India with
constitutional proposals to seek Indian support for the war. Stafford Cripps was a left-
wing Labourite, the leader of the House of Commons, and a member of the British
War Cabinet who had actively supported the Indian national movement.
* Why Cripps Mission Was Sent:
● Because of the reverses suffered by Britain in South- East Asia, the Japanese
threat to invade India seemed real now and Indian support became crucial.
● There was pressure on Britain from the Allies (USA, USSR, China) to seek Indian
cooperation.
● Indian nationalists had agreed to support the Allied cause if substantial power
was transferred immediately and complete independence given after the war.
* Main Proposals: The main proposals of the mission were as follows:
1. An Indian Union with a dominion status would be set up; it would be free to
decide its relations with the Commonwealth and free to participate in the United
Nations and other international bodies.
2. After the end of the war, a constituent assembly would be convened to frame a
new constitution. Members of this assembly would be partly elected by the provincial
assemblies through proportional representation and partly nominated by the princes.
3. The British government would accept the new constitution subject to two
conditions:
(i) any province not willing to join the Union could have a separate constitution and
form a separate Union, and
(ii) the new constitution- making body and the British government would negotiate
a treaty to effect the transfer of power and to safeguard racial and religious minorities.
4. In the meantime, defence of India would remain in British hands and the governor
general’s powers would remain intact.
* Departures from the Past and Implications: The proposals differed from those
offered in the past in many respects:
● The making of the constitution was to be solely in Indian hands now (and not
‘mainly’ in Indian hands—as contained in the August Offer).
● A concrete plan was provided for the constituent assembly.
● Option was available to any province to have a separate constitution—a blueprint for
India’s partition.
● Free India could withdraw from the Commonwealth.
● Indians were allowed a large share in the administration in the interim period.
* Why Cripps Mission Failed: The Cripps Mission proposals failed to satisfy Indian
nationalists and turned out to be merely a propaganda device for the consumption of
the US and the Chinese. Various parties and groups had objections to the proposals on
different points: The Congress objected to: (i) the offer of dominion status instead of a
provision for complete independence;
(ii) representation of the princely states by nominees and not by elected
representatives;
(iii) right to provinces to secede as this went against the principle of national unity;
and
(iv) absence of any plan for immediate transfer of power and absence of any real
share in defence; the governor general’s supremacy had been retained, and the
demand that the governor general be only the constitutional head had not been
accepted. Nehru and Maulana Azad were the official negotiators for the Congress.
*The Muslim League:(i) criticised the idea of a single Indian Union; (ii) did not like the
machinery for the creation of a constituent assembly and the procedure to decide on
the accession of provinces to the Union; and (iii) thought that the proposals denied
the Muslims the right to selfdetermination and the creation of Pakistan.
*Other groups also objected to the provinces’ right to secede. The Liberals considered
the secession proposals to be against the unity and security of India. The Hindu
Mahasabha criticised the basis of the right to secede. The depressed classes thought
that partition would leave them at the mercy of the caste Hindus. The Sikhs objected
that partition would take away Punjab from them. The explanation that the proposals
were meant not to supersede the August Offer but to clothe general provisions with
precision cast doubts on the British intentions. The incapacity of Cripps to go beyond
the Draft Declaration and the adoption of a rigid “take it or leave it” attitude added to
the deadlock. Cripps had earlier talked of “cabinet” and “national government”, but
later he said that he
had only meant an expansion of the executive council. The procedure of accession was
not well-defined. The decision on secession was to be taken by a resolution in the
legislature by a 60 percent majority. If less than 60 per cent of members supported it, the
decision was to be taken by a plebiscite of adult males of that province by a simple
majority. This scheme weighed against the Hindus in Punjab and Bengal if they wanted
accession to the Indian Union. It was not clear as to who would implement and interpret
the treaty effecting the transfer of power. Churchill (the British prime minister), Amery
(the secretary of state), Linlithgow (the viceroy), and Ward (the
commander-in-chief) consistently torpedoed Cripps’ efforts. Talks broke down on the
question of the viceroy’s veto.
* Gandhi described the scheme as “a post-dated cheque”; Nehru pointed out that the
“existing structure and autocratic powers would remain and a few of us will become
the viceroy’s liveried camp followers and look after canteens and
the like”. Stafford Cripps returned home leaving behind a frustrated and embittered
Indian people, who, though still sympathising with the victims of Fascist aggression, felt
that the existing situation in the country had become intolerable and that the time had
come for a final assault on imperialism. * In 1942 , the British govt realized that it could
not ignore the Indian problems any more . As a result of the World war, the situation
worsened for the British with Japanese advance towards Indian borders . By March 7,
1942 , Rangoon fell & Japan occupied the entire south -East Asia. The British govt , with
a view to getting cooperation from Indians , sent sir Stafford Cripps , a member of the
British cabinet to India to settle terms with Indian leaders who were forthwith released.
Cripps proposed Dominion status after the war but his proposal was rejected by all the
political leaders . As no party agreed to accept these proposals, the Cripps mission
ended in failure . Regarding the Cripps mission proposals Mahatma Gandhi Remarks ' A
post dated Cheque on a Crumbling bank'
It offers:* an Indian Union with dominion status, with right to withdraw from
Commonwealth.
* after war, a constituent assembly elected by provincial assemblies to frame the
constitution.
* freedom to any province unwilling to join the Union to have a separate agreement
with Britain.
Meanwhile, defence of India to remain in British hands.
The Congress objects to:
* dominion status
* right of provinces to secede
* no immediate transfer of power
* retention of governor-general’s supremacy.
The Muslim League objects to—
* Pakistan not being explicitly offered
* the machinery for creation of Constituent Assembly.
23. Quit India movement (1942) :
* After Cripps’ departure, Gandhi framed a resolution calling for British withdrawal and
a non-violent non-cooperation
movement against any Japanese invasion. The CWC meeting at Wardha (July 14, 1942)
accepted the idea of a struggle.
* Why Start a Struggle Now: The reasons were several:
1. The failure of the Cripps Mission to solve the constitutional deadlock exposed
Britain’s unchanged attitude on constitutional advance and made it clear that any more
silence would be tantamount to accepting the British right to decide the fate of Indians
without consulting them.
2. There was popular discontent because of rising prices and shortage of rice, salt,
etc., and because of factors such as commandeering of boats in Bengal and Orissa.
There were fears of Britain following a scorched earth policy in Assam, Bengal, and
Orissa against possible Japanese advance.
3. News of reverses suffered by the British in South- East Asia and an imminent
British collapse enhanced popular willingness to give expression to discontent. The
Japanese troops were approaching the borders of India. Popular faith in the stability of
British rule was so low that people were withdrawing deposits from banks and post
offices.
4. The manner in which the British evacuated from South-East Asia leaving the
subjects to their fate (two roads were provided—Black Road for Indian refugees and
White Road exclusively for European refugees), and the rout of a European power by an
Asian power shattered white prestige and the British behaviour towards the Indian
subjects in South-East Asia exposed the racist attitude of the rulers.
5. The leadership wanted to condition the masses for a possible Japanese invasion.
* The ‘Quit India’ Resolution: In July 1942, the Congress Working Committee met at
Wardha and resolved that it would authorise Gandhi to take charge of the non-violent
mass movement. The resolution generally referred to as the ‘Quit India’ resolution.
Proposed by Jawaharlal Nehru and seconded by Sardar Patel, it was to be approved by
the All India Congress Committee meeting in Bombay in August. The Quit India
Resolution was ratified at the Congress meeting at Gowalia Tank, Bombay, on August 8,
1942. The meeting also resolved to:
● demand an immediate end to British rule in India.
● declare commitment of free India to defend itself against all types of Fascism and
imperialism.
● form a provisional Government of India after British withdrawal.
● sanction a civil disobedience movement against British rule.
*Gandhi was named the leader of the struggle.
* Gandhi’s General Instructions to
Different Sections: Gandhi’s special instructions were spelt out at the
Gowalia
Tank meeting but not actually issued. They were directed at various sections of society.
● Government servants: Do not resign but declare your allegiance to the Congress.
● Soldiers: Do not leave the army but do not fire on compatriots.
● Students: If confident, leave studies.
● Peasants: If zamindars are anti-government, pay mutually agreed rent, and if
zamindars are pro-government, do not pay rent.
● Princes: Support the masses and accept sovereignty of your people. ● Princely
states’ people: Support the ruler only if he is anti-government and declare
yourselves to be a part of the Indian nation.
*Gandhi followed up with the now-famous exhortation: “Here is a mantra, a short one,
that I give you. You may imprint it on your hearts and let every breath of yours give
expression to it. The mantra is: ‘Do or Die’. We shall either free India or die in the
attempt; we shall not live to see the perpetuation of our slavery.”
* Spread of the Movement: Gandhi had carefully built the tempo through
individual civil disobedience movements or satyagraha, organisational revamping, and
a consistent propaganda campaign. The government, however, was in no mood to
either negotiate with the Congress or wait for the movement to be formally launched.
In the early hours of August 9, 1942, in a single sweep, all the top leaders of the
Congress were arrested and taken to unknown destinations. The Congress Working
Committee, the All India Congress Committee, and the Provincial Congress Committees
were declared unlawful associations under the Criminal Law Amendment Act of 1908.
The assembly of public meetings was prohibited under rule 56 of the Defence of India
Rules. The removal of established leaders left the younger and militant elements to
their own initiative. With the major leaders out of the picture, young Aruna Asaf Ali,
till then relatively unknown, presided over the Congress committee session on August 9,
and hoisted the flag.
* Extent of Mass Participation: Theparticipation was on many levels. Youth,
especially the students of schools and colleges, remained in the forefront.
Women, especially school and college girls, actively participated, and included Aruna
Asaf Ali, Sucheta Kripalani, and Usha Mehta. Workers went on strikes and faced
repression. Peasants of all strata were at the heart of the movement. Even some
zamindars participated. These peasants concentrated their offensive on symbols of
authority, and there was complete absence of antizamindar violence. Government
officials, especially those belonging to lower levels in police and administration,
participated resulting in erosion of government loyalty.
Muslims helped by giving shelter to underground activists. There were no communal
clashes during the movement. The Communists did not join the movement; in the
wake of Russia (where the communists were in power) being attacked by Nazi
Germany, the communists began to support the
British war against Germany and the ‘Imperialist War’ became the
‘People’s War’. The Muslim League opposed the movement, fearing that if the British
left India at that time, the minorities would be oppressed by the Hindus. The Hindu
Mahasabha boycotted the movement. The Princely states showed a low-key response.
* Government Repression: Although martial law was not applied, the repression was
severe. Agitating crowds were lathi-charged, tear-gassed, and fired upon. The number
of those killed is estimated at 10,000. The press was muzzled. The military took over
many cities; police and secret service reigned supreme. Rebellious villages were fined
heavily, and in many villages, mass flogging was done.
* Estimate:
● Left without leaders, there was no restraint and violence became common.
● Main storm centres of the movement were in eastern United Provinces, Bihar,
Midnapore, Maharashtra, Karnataka.
● Students, workers, and peasants were the backbone of the movement, while the
upper classes and the bureaucracy remained largely loyal.
● Loyalty to government suffered considerable erosion. This also showed how deep
nationalism had reached.
● The movement established the truth that it was no longer possible to rule India
without the wishes of Indians.
● The element of spontaneity was higher than before, although a certain degree of
popular initiative had been sanctioned by the leadership itself, subject to limitations
 of the instructions. Also, the Congress had been ideologically, politically, and
organisationally preparing for the struggle for a long time.
● The great significance was that the movement placed the demand for independence
on the immediate agenda of the national movement. After Quit India, there could be
no retreat.
● In this struggle, the common people displayed unparalleled heroism and militancy.
The repression they faced was the most brutal, and the circumstances under which
resistance was offered were most adverse. * On Aug 8, 1942, the Congress in its
meeting at Gowliya Tank, Bombay passed a resolution known as Quit India
Resolution where by Gandhiji asked the British to quit India & gave a call for 'Do or
Die' ( we shall either free India or die in the attempt) to his country men. On Aug 9,
1942 all the prominent leaders like Gandhi, Nehru, Patel etc. were arrested but the
rest (J.P.Lohiya, Aruna Asaf Ali, Usha Mehta etc) continued the revolutionary struggle.
Violence spread throughout the country , several govt offices were destroyed
& damaged , the telegram wires week cut & communication parallel. Parallel Govt
were established in some places viz.
1. Ballia, U.P(by Chittu Pandey -1st parallel Govt
2. Tamulak, Midnapur district, Bengal (by Satish Samant)
3. Satara, Maharashtra (by Y.B.Chahvan & Nana patil) - the longest (term) parallel Govt
4. Talchar, Orissa. The movement was however crushed by the govt.
Note : 'Quit India ' term was Coined by Yusuf Meherally , a companion of
Mahatma Gandhi
*The failure of the Cripps Mission and the fear of an impending Japanese invasion of
India led Mahatma Gandhi to begin his campaign for the British to quit India. Mahatma
Gandhi believed that an interim government could be formed only after the British left
India and the Hindu-Muslim problem sorted out. The All India Congress Committee met
at Bombay on 8 August 1942 and passed the famous Quit India Resolution. On the
same day, Gandhi gave his call of ‘do or die’. On 8th and 9th August 1942, the
government arrested all the prominent leaders of the Congress. For once, this pre-
planned action of the government left the Indian people without leadership. Mahatma
Gandhi was kept in prison at Poona. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, Abul Kalam Azad, and
other leaders were imprisoned in the Ahmednagar Fort. *At this time, leadership was
provided by Ram Manohar Lohia, Achyuta and S.M. Joshi. The role of Jayaprakash
Narain in this movement was important. Large number of students also left their schools
and colleges to join the movement. The youth of the nation also participated in this
movement with patriotism. Strikes, demonstrations and public meetings were organised
in various towns and cities. Slowly the movement reached the rural areas. In 1943, as the
movement gained further momentum, there were armed attacks on government
buildings in Madras and Bengal. In 1944 Mahatma Gandhi was released from jail. Quit
India Movement was the final attempt for country’s freedom. The British Government
ordered for 538 rounds of firing.
Nearly 60,229 persons were jailed. At least
7,000 people were killed. This movement paved the way for India’s freedom. It aroused
among Indians the feelings of bravery, enthusiasm and total sacrifice.
24. Gandhiji's Fast(Feb 10 - March 7, 1943):
*In February 1943, Gandhi started a fast as an answer to an exhortation by the
government to condemn violence; the fast was directed against the violence of the State.
The popular response to the news of the fast was immediate and overwhelming.
Protests were organised at home and abroad through hartals, demonstrations, and
strikes. Three members of the viceroy’s executive council resigned. The fast achieved the
following:
● Public morale was raised.
● Anti-British feeling was heightened.
● An opportunity was provided for political activity.
● Government’s high-handedness was exposed.
* Gandhi got the better of his opponents and refused to oblige by dying. On March
23, 1943 Pakistan Day was observed.
* Gandhiji undertook a 21- day fast in jail. His condition deteriorated after 13 days
& all hopes of his survival were given up . However , as a result of his moral strength &
spiritual stamina , he survived & completed the 21 day fast . This was his answer to the
govt which had been constantly exhorting him to condemn the violence of the people
in the Quit India movement. Gandhi not only refused to condemn people resorting to
violence but Unequivocally held the govt responsible for it.

Part 7
25. C.R.Formula(1944):
* C. Rajagopalachari (CR), the veteran Congress leader, prepared a formula for
Congress-League cooperation in 1944. It was a tacit acceptance of the League’s
demand for Pakistan. Gandhi supported the formula. The main points in the CR Plan
were:
● Muslim League to endorse Congress demand for independence.
● League to cooperate with Congress in forming a provisional government at centre.
● After the end of the war, the entire population of Muslim majority areas in the
North-West and North-East India to decide by a plebiscite, whether or not to form a
separate sovereign state.
● In case of acceptance of partition, agreement to be made jointly for safeguarding
defence, commerce, communications, etc.
● The above terms to be operative only if England transferred full powers to India.
* Objections: Jinnah wanted the Congress to accept the two-nation theory. He
wanted only the Muslims of North-West and North-East to vote in the plebiscite and
not the entire population. He also opposed the idea of a common centre. While the
Congress was ready to cooperate with the League for the independence of the Indian
Union, the League did not care for independence of the Union. It was only interested in
a separate nation. Hindu leaders led by Vir Savarkar condemned the CR Plan.
* In 1944, Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari (C.R) proposed to appoint a commission to
demarcate the districts in North-west & east where muslims
Were in majority. In such areas, a plebiscite was proposed to be held on the basis of
adult Suffrage to decide the issue of separation. They would be given freedom if they
favoured a sovereign state . In case of acceptance of partition agreement was to be
made jointly for safeguarding defence, commerce , communications etc. Muslim
league was to endorse Congress demands for independence & co-operate in the
formation of provisional govt. Jinnah objected , as he wanted Congress to accept two-
Nation theory & wanted only muslims of the north west & east of India to vote in the
plebiscite. Hindu leaders led by V.D.Savarkar condemned the plan.
*Desai-Liaqat Pact: Efforts continued to end the deadlock. Bhulabhai Desai, leader of
the Congress Party in the Central Legislative Assembly, met Liaqat Ali Khan, deputy
leader of the Muslim League in that Assembly, and both of them came up with the
draft proposal for the formation of an interim government at the centre, consisting of:
● an equal number of persons nominated by the Congress and the League in the
central legislature.
● 20% reserved seats for minorities. No settlement could be reached between the
Congress and the League on these lines, but the fact that a sort of parity between the
Congress and the League was decided upon had far-reaching consequences.
26. Wavell Plan & Shimla Conference (June 14 - July 14):
* Although the war in Europe came to an end in May 1945, the Japanese threat still
remained. The Conservative government in Britain led by Churchill was keen to reach
a solution on the constitutional question in India. The viceroy, Lord Wavell, was
permitted to start negotiations with Indian leaders.
Congress leaders were released from jails in June 1945.
* Why the Government was Keen on a
Solution Now:1. The general election in England was scheduled for mid-1945.
The Conservatives wanted to be seen as sincere on reaching a solution.
2. There was pressure from the Allies to seek further Indian cooperation in the war.
3. The government wanted to divert Indian energies into channels more profitable
for the British. The Plan The idea was to reconstruct the governor general’s executive
council pending the preparation of a new constitution. For this purpose, a conference
was convened by the viceroy, Lord Wavell, at
Shimla in June 1945. The main proposals of the Wavell Plan were as follows:
● With the exception of the governor general and the commander-in-chief, all members
of the executive council were to be Indians.
● Caste Hindus and Muslims were to have equal representation.
● The reconstructed council was to function as an interim government within the
framework of the 1935 Act (i.e. not responsible to the Central Assembly).
● The governor general was to exercise his veto on the advice of ministers.
● Representatives of different parties were to submit a joint list to the viceroy for
nominations to the executive council. If a joint list was not possible, then separate lists
were to be submitted.
● Possibilities were to be kept open for negotiations on a new constitution once the
war was finally won.
* Muslim League’s Stand: The League wanted all Muslim members to be League
nominees, because it feared that since the aims of other minorities— depressed
classes, Sikhs, Christians, etc.—were the same as those of the
Congress, this arrangement would reduce the League to a one-third minority.
(Wavell wanted Khizr Hyat Khan as the Muslim representative from Western Punjab.)
The League claimed some kind of veto in the council with decisions opposed to
Muslims needing a two-thirds majority for approval.
* Congress Stand: The Congress objected to the plan as “an attempt to reduce the
Congress to the status of a purely caste Hindu party and insisted on its right to
include members of all communities among its nominees”.
* Wavell’s Mistake: Wavell announced a breakdown of talks thus giving the League
a virtual veto. This strengthened the League’s position, as was evident from the
elections in 1945–46, and boosted Jinnah’s position; and exposed the real character of
the Conservative government of Churchill.
*The war situation in Europe improved in the beginning of the year 1945. India's goodwill
was however needed as the war against Japan was expected to last for about 2 yrs. The
situation within the country was worsening day by day as a result of detiorating
economic situation & famines. The British Govt was compelled to come forward with
some sort of plan to satisfy the Indians . After consultations with the British govt on the
Indian problem. Lord wavell the viceroy of India, issued a statement known as wavell
plan . The plan , which chiefly concerned viceroys executive tive council , proposed
certain changes in the structure of council would be constituted giving a balanced
representation to the main communities in it, including equal representation to muslims
& hindus. Soon after the wavell plan was issued the members of the Congress working
committee were released from jails. A Conference of 22 prominent Indian leaders called
at Shimla to consider the wavell plan , reached no decision . What scuttled the
conference was Mr. Jinnah 's unflinching stand that the Muslim Members approved only
by the Muslim league should be included in the executive council. Communalism thus
again became a stumbling block. For the Britishers , however, the dissension between the
Congress & the Muslim league was a source of happiness
27. Azad Hind Fauj(INA):
* The Japanese after defeating the British in South East Asia , took another. Of Indian
soldiers as prisoners of war . In March 1942 a conference of Indian soldiers as prisoners
of war . In March 1942 a conference of Indians was held in Tokyo & they formed the
Indian independence league . At the Bangkok conference (june 1942) Ras Bihari Bose was
elected president of the league .
INA was a brain-child of Mohan Singh. INA was formed by Ras Bihari Bose in 1942. In
1943, INA was reorganized by Subhash Chandra Bose. Subhash had escaped to Berlin
in 1941 & set up a Indian League there . In July 1943, he joined the INA at Singapore.
There Ras Bihari Bose handed over the leadership to him . Provisional govt of free India
& INA was formed by
Subhash in Singapore on Oct 211943. INA had 3 brigades named after Subash, Gandhi ,
nehru. Rani Jhansi brigade was an exclusive women's force. But with the defeat of Japan
in 1945, the INA also died out. Bose is said to have been killed in an air crash over Taipei
, Taiwan on his way to Tokyo in Aug 18, 1945.
*During the course of the Second World
War, armed revolutionary activities continued to take place. The role of
Subhas Chandra Bose towards such activities is incomparable. On 2 July 1943,
Subhas Chandra Bose reached Singapore and gave the rousing war cry of ‘Dilli Chalo’.
He was made the President of Indian Independence League and soon became the
supreme commander of the Indian National Army. He gave the country the slogan of
Jai Hind. The names of the INA’s three Brigades were the Subhas Brigade, Gandhi
Brigade and Nehru Brigade. The women’s wing of the army was named after Rani
Laxmibai. The Indian
National Army marched towards Imphal after registering its victory over Kohima. After
Japan’s surrender in 1945, the INA failed in its efforts. Under such circumstances,
Subhas went to Taiwan. Then on his way to Tokyo he died on 18 August 1945 in a
plane crash. The trial of the soldiers of INA was held at Red Fort in Delhi. Pandit
Jawaharlal Nehru, Bhulabhai Desai and Tej
Bahadur Sapru fought the case on behalf of the soldiers
* Subhas Chandra Bose was an intrepid man. He had always shown a militant streak
and reacted violently to any insult of Indians by the Europeans. He passed the Indian
Civil Services examination securing fourth position but resigned from the service in
1921 to join the struggle for freedom by becoming a member of the Congress. His
political guru was Chittaranjan Das.
He became mayor of Calcutta in 1923. He was jailed many times by the British.
Once it became clear to Subhas Chandra Bose that he could not follow Gandhi’s way
but that the Congress was determined to follow Gandhi, Bose decided to go his own
way to fight for
independence. In March 1940, Bose convened an Anti-Compromise
Conference at Ramgarh; it was a joint effort of the Forward Bloc and the Kisan Sabha. It
was resolved at the conference
that a worldwide struggle should be launched on April 6, the first day of the National
Week, with a call to the people not to help the Imperialist War with any resource—
men, money, or materials. He called for resistance to be offered to all
forms of exploitation of Indian resources for the imperial cause. There was enthusiastic
participation by the people in the struggle launched on April 6. Bose was arrested in July
when he protested and tried to launch a satyagraha against a proposed monument for
Holwell in Calcutta. He was released from prison and placed under house arrest in
December 1940 after a hunger strike. In January 1941, it was reported that Bose had
escaped. On January 26, 1941, he reached Peshawar under the pseudo- name Ziauddin,
helped by Bhagat Ram. Later it was heard that he had left India “to supplement from
outside the struggle going on at home”. He was reported to have approached Russia for
help in the Indian struggle for freedom from Britain. But, in June 1941,
Russia joined the Allies in the war, which disappointed Bose. He then went to Germany.
Bose met Hitler under the pseudo name, Orlando Mazzotta. With the help of Hitler, the
‘Freedom Army’ (Mukti Sena) was formed, which consisted of all the prisoners of war of
Indian origin captured by Germany and Italy. Dresden, Germany, was made the office
of the Freedom Army. Bose came to be called ‘Netaji’ by the people of Germany. He
gave the famous slogan, ‘Jai Hind’ from the Free India Centre, Germany. He began
regular broadcasts from Berlin radio in January 1942, which enthused Indians. In early
1943, he left Germany and travelled by German and later by Japanese submarines to
reach Japan and then Singapore in July of the same year. He was to take over
command of the Indian independence movement from
Rashbehari Bose, but that was the second phase of the Indian National
Army.
* Origin and First Phase of the Indian National Army: The idea of creating an army
out of the Indian prisoners of war (POWs) was originally that of Mohan Singh, an Indian
army officer who had decided not to join the retreating British army in Malaya. He
decided to turn to the Japanese for help. The Japanese had till then encouraged Indian
civilians to form anti-British organisations. Mohan Singh asked for Indian prisoners of
war. The Japanese handed over the Indian prisoners of war to Mohan Singh who tried
to recruit them into an Indian National Army. After the fall of Singapore, several POWs
were ready to join Mohan Singh. By the end of 1942, 40,000 men were ready to join the
INA. It was intended that the INA would go into action only on the invitation of the
Indian National Congress and the people of India. The move to form this army has been
seen by many as a check against the misconduct of the Japanese against Indians in
South-East Asia and as a bulwark against a possible future Japanese occupation of
India. The INA got a boost with the outbreak of the Quit India Movement in India. In
September 1942, the first division of the INA was formed with 16,300 men. With the
Japanese contemplating an Indian invasion, the idea of an armed wing of INA seemed
more relevant to them. But soon, serious
differences emerged between the Indian Army officers led by Mohan Singh and the
Japanese over the role to be played by the INA. Actually, the Japanese wanted a token
force of 2,000 only while Mohan Singh wanted to raise a much larger army. Mohan
Singh was taken into custody by the Japanese.
*The second phase: began with the arrival of Subhas Bose in Singapore. But before that
in June 1943, Subhas Chandra Bose (under pseudo name Abid Hussain) reached Tokyo
and met the Japanese prime minister, Tojo. The role of Rashbehari Bose, another great
freedom fighter, should also be acknowledged here. He had fled to Japan in 1915
following the failed revolutionary activities. In Japan, Rashbehari Bose eventually became
a naturalised citizen. He made a lot of effort in getting the Japanese interested in the
Indian independence movement. He became active in Pan-Asian circles, founded the
Indian Club of Tokyo, and gave lectures on the evils of Western imperialism. Very early
itself he was impressed by Subhas Chandra Bose.
When the Indian National Army was formed by Mohan Singh in Singapore, Rashbehari
Bose was greatly excited and left Tokyo for Southeast Asia. It was at a conference in
Bangkok (also under Japanese occupation at the time) that it was decided to place the
INA under an Indian Independence
League whose chairman would be Rashbehari Bose himself. He had created the League
in 1942 in Tokyo. When Subhash Bose was sought by the
Japanese to lead the INA, he was ready for it. He went to Singapore and met Rashbehari
Bose, and the latter happily transferred the control and leadership of the Indian
Independence League and the INA to Subhash in July 1943. It must be noted that it was
on the organisational spadework done by
Rashbehari Bose that Subhas Bose could build up the Indian National Army.
Subhas Bose became Supreme Commander of the INA on August 25. (In
February 1944, after a collapse of his lungs, Rashbehari’s health steadily deteriorated,
and he died on January 21, 1945, aged 58.) On October 21, 1943, Subhas Bose formed
the Provisional Government for Free India at Singapore with H.C. Chatterjee (Finance
portfolio), M.A. Aiyar (Broadcasting), Lakshmi Swaminathan (Women Department), etc.
* The famous slogan—“Give me blood, I will give you freedom” was given in
Malaya. This provisional government declared war on Britain and the United States,
and was recognised by the Axis powers. Recruits were trained and funds collected for
the INA. A women’s regiment called the Rani Jhansi
Regiment was also formed. The INA headquarters was shifted to Rangoon (in Burma)
in January 1944, and the army recruits were to march from there with the war cry
“Chalo Delhi!” on their lips. On November 6, 1943, Andaman and Nicobar islands was
given by the Japanese army to the INA; the islands were renamed as Shahid Dweep
and Swaraj Dweep respectively. On July 6, 1944, Subhas Bose addressed Mahatma
Gandhi as ‘Father of Nation’— from the Azad Hind Radio (the first person to call
Gandhi, ‘Father of Nation’). He asked for Gandhi’s blessings for “India’s last war of
independence”.
* One INA battalion commanded by Shah Nawaz was allowed to accompany the
Japanese Army to the Indo-Burma front and participate in the Imphal campaign.
However, the Indians received discriminatory treatment from the Japanese, which
included being denied rations and arms and being made to do menial work for the
Japanese units, and this disgusted and demoralised the INA units. The Azad Hind Fauz
crossed the Burma border and stood on
Indian soil on March 18, 1944. The INA units subsequently advanced up to Kohima and
Imphal.
* On April 14, Colonel Malik of the Bahadur Group hoisted the INA flag for the first
time on the Indian mainland at Moirang, in Manipur (where the INA
Memorial Complex stands today) to enthusiastic cries of “Jai Hind” and
“Netaji Zindabad”. For three months, the INA carried out military administration duties
at Moirang, but then the Allied forces reclaimed the territory. The INA met the same
fate as the Japanese, and all brigades began their withdrawal on July 18, 1944.
* The steady Japanese retreat thereafter quashed any hopes of the INA liberating
the nation. The retreat continued till mid-1945. On August 15, 1945 the surrender of
Japan in the
Second World War took place, and with this the INA also surrendered. On
August 18, 1945, reportedly, Subhas Bose died mysteriously in an air crash at Taipei
(Taiwan). But when the INA POWs were brought back to India after the war to be court-
martialled, a powerful movement emerged in their defence.
*Two Strands of National Upsurge: Two basic strands of national upsurge can be
identified during the last two years of British rule:
(i) tortuous negotiations involving the government, Congress, and Muslim League,
increasingly accompanied by communal violence and culminating in freedom and the
partition.
(ii) sporadic, localised, and often extremely militant and united mass action by
workers, peasants, and states’ peoples which took the form of a countrywide strike
wave. This kind of activity was occasioned by the INA Release
Movement, Royal Indian Navy (RIN) revolt, Tebhaga movement, Worli revolt,
Punjab Kisan Morchas, Travancore peoples’ struggle (especially the Punnapra-Vayalar
episode), and the Telangana peasant revolt.
* Change in Government’s Attitude: When the government lifted the ban on the
Congress and released the Congress leaders in June 1945, they expected to find a
demoralised people. Instead, they found tumultuous crowds impatient to do something.
Popular energy resurfaced after three years of repression. People’s expectations were
heightened by the release of their leaders. The Wavell Plan backed by the Conservative
government in Britain failed to break the constitutional deadlock. In July 1945, Labour
Party formed the government in Britain. Clement Attlee took over as the new prime
minister
and Pethick Lawrence as the new secretary of state for India. In August 1945, elections to
central and provincial assemblies were announced. In September 1945, it was announced
that a constituent assembly would be convened after the elections and that the
government was working according to the spirit of the Cripps Offer. The government’s
change attitude was dictated by the following factors:
1. The end of the War resulted in a change in balance of global power—the UK was no
more a big power, while the USA and USSR emerged as superpowers, both of which
favoured freedom for India.
2. The new Labour government was more sympathetic to Indian demands.
3. Throughout Europe, there was a wave of socialist- radical governments.
4. British soldiers were weary and tired and the British economy lay shattered. (By 1945,
the British government in London owed India £1.2 billion and was being drained by
the US Lend-Lease agreement, which was finally paid off only in 2006.)
5. There was an anti-imperialist wave in South-East Asia—in Vietnam and Indonesia—
resisting efforts to replant French and Dutch rule there.
6. Officials feared another Congress revolt, a revival of the 1942 situation but much
more dangerous because of a likely combination of attacks on communications,
agrarian revolts, labour trouble, army disaffection joined by government officials and
the police in the presence of INA men with some military experience.
7. Elections were inevitable once the war ended since the last elections had been held
in 1934 for the Centre and in 1937 for the provinces. The British would have had to
retreat; the Labour government only quickened the process somewhat.
* INA Trial(Nov, 1945):
* The high pitch and intensity at which the campaign for the release of INA prisoners
was conducted was unprecedented.
* The agitation got wide publicity through extensive press coverage with daily editorials,
distribution of pamphlets often containing threats of revenge, grafitti conveying
similar messages, holding of public meetings, and celebrations of INA Day (November
12, 1945), and INA week (November 5– 11). The campaign spread over a wide area of
the country and witnessed the participation of diverse social groups and political
parties. While the nerve centres of the agitation were Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta, Madras,
United Provinces towns, and Punjab, the campaign spread to distant places such as
Coorg, Baluchistan, and Assam.
* The forms of participation included fund contributions made by many people—from
film stars, municipal committees, Indians living abroad, and gurudwaras to
tongawallas; participation in meetings; shopkeepers closing shops; political groups
demanding release of prisoners; contributing to INA funds; student meetings and
boycott of classes; organising kisan conferences; and All India Women’s Conference
 demanding the release of INA prisoners. Those who supported the INA cause in
varying degrees, apart from the
Congress, included the Muslim League, Communist Party, Unionists, Akalis,
Justice Party, Ahrars in Rawalpindi, Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, Hindu Mahasabha,
and the Sikh League.Pro-INA sentiments surfaced in traditional bulwarks of the Raj.
Government employees collected funds. The loyalists—the gentlemen with titles—
appealed to the government to abandon the trials for good IndoBritish relations. Men of
the armed forces were unexpectedly sympathetic and attended meetings, received those
released (often in uniforms), and contributed funds. The central theme became the
questioning of Britain’s right to decide a matter concerning Indians. Britain realised the
political significance of the INA issue, which with each day assumed more and more of
an ‘Indian versus British’ colour.
* Three Upsurges—Winter of 1945–46: The nationalist sentiment which reached a
crescendo around the INA trials developed into violent confrontations with the
authority in the winter of 1945–46. There were three major upsurges:
1. November 21, 1945—in Calcutta over the INA trials
2. February 11, 1946—in Calcutta against the seven- year sentence to INA officer
Rashid Ali
3. February 18, 1946—in Bombay, strike by the Royal Indian Navy ratings
* Three-Stage Pattern: All three upsurges showed a similar three-stage pattern.
Stage I: When a Group Defies Authority
and is Repressed In the first instance of this stage (November 21, 1945), a student
procession comprising some Forward Bloc
sympathisers, Student Federation of India (SFI) activists, and Islamia College students,
who had joined up with the League and the Congress, tied flags as a symbol of anti-
imperialist unity, marched to Dalhousie Square—the seat of government in Calcutta.
These protestors refused to disperse and were lathicharged. They retaliated by throwing
stones and brickbats. The police resorted to firing in which two persons died.In the next
step (February 11, 1946), the protest was led by Muslim League students in which some
Congress and communist students’ organisations joined. Some arrests provoked the
students to defy Section 144. There were more arrests and the agitating students were
lathi-charged. Rebellion by Naval Ratings On
February 18, 1946, some 1100 Royal Indian Navy (RIN) ratings of HMIS Talwar went on a
strike to protest against:
* racial discrimination (demanding equal pay for Indian and white soldiers);
* unpalatable food;
* abuse by superior officers;
* arrest of a rating for scrawling ‘Quit India’ on HMIS Talwar;
* INA trials; and
* use of Indian troops in Indonesia, demanding their withdrawal.
*The rebellious ratings hoisted the tricolour, crescent, and the hammer and sickle flags
on the mast of the rebel fleet. Other ratings soon joined and they went around Bombay
in lorries holding Congress flags threatening Europeans and policemen. Crowds brought
food to the ratings, and shop- keepers invited them to take whatever they needed.
Stage II. When the City People Join In
This phase was marked by a virulent anti-British mood resulting in the virtual paralysis of
Calcutta and Bombay. There were meetings, processions, strikes, hartals, and attacks on
Europeans, police stations, shops, tram depots, railway stations, banks, besides stopping
of rail and road traffic by squatting on tracks and barricading of streets.
Stage III: When People in Other Parts of the Country Express Sympathy and Solidarity
While the students boycotted classes and organised hartals and processions to express
sympathy with other students and the ratings, there were sympathetic strikes in
military establishments in Karachi, Madras,
Visakhapatnam, Calcutta, Delhi, Cochin, Jamnagar, Andamans, Bahrain, and
Aden. There were strikes by the Royal Indian Air Force in Bombay, Poona, Calcutta,
Jessore, and Ambala.Patel and Jinnah persuaded the ratings to surrender on February
23 with an assurance that national parties would prevent any victimisation.
* Evaluation of Potential and Impact of the Three Upsurges: The three upsurges were
significant in many ways:
● Fearless action by the masses was an expression of militancy in the popular mind.
● Revolt in the armed forces had a great liberating effect on the minds of people.
● The RIN revolt was seen as an event marking the end of British rule.
● These upsurges prompted the British to extend some concessions: (i) On December
1, 1946, the government announced that only those INA members accused of murder
or brutal treatment of fellow prisoners would be brought to trial.
(ii) Imprisonment sentences passed against the first batch were remitted in January
1947.
(iii) Indian soldiers were withdrawn from Indo-China and Indonesia by February
1947.
(iv) The decision to send a parliamentary delegation to India (November 1946) was
taken.
(v) The decision to send Cabinet Mission was taken in January 1946. * But could the
communal unity witnessed during these events, if built upon, have offered a way out of
the communal deadlock? Or, in other words, what was the potential of these
upsurges? These upsurges were in the nature of direct and violent conflict with
authority, which had obvious limitations. Only the more militant sections could
participate. These upsurges were short-lived and were confined to a few urban centres
while the general INA agitation reached the remotest villages. Communal unity
witnessed was more organisational than a unity among the people. Muslim ratings
went to the League to seek advice and the rest to the Congress and the
Socialists.Despite considerable erosion of the morale of the bureaucracy, the British
infrastructure to repress was intact. They were soon able to control the situation. It was
a Maratha battalion in Bombay that rounded up the ratings and restored them to their
barracks.
*P.k.Sehgal, Shah Nawaz khan & Gurubhaksh Singh Dhillon were put on trial at the red
fort in Nov 1945 . To elucidate despite the best efforts of the Congress to win the legal
battle the trial of INA prisoners led to their outright conviction on the charge of waging
war against the king emperor. The pressure of the Indian public opinion against this
conviction however soon mounted high. This shook the British govt & it was compelled
to suspend the sentences imposed on the INA convicts . Further disaffection spread fast
among the soldiers. The chief defence advocate during the INA Trial was Bhulabhai
Desai. Other defence lawyers were tej Bahadur Sapru , jawaharlal nehru, Asaf Ali & Mf. Ali
Jinnah.
28.Royal Indian Navy (RIN)/Ratings Mutiny(Feb 18, 1946):
* On Feb 18, 1946, Bombay ratings of HMS Talwar struck work due to flagrant racial
discrimination , unpalatable food & abuse after the arrest of B.C Duty who had scrawled
Quit India on the ship . On Feb 19, HMS Hindustan, in Karachi also mutinied. Vallabhai
Patel & Jinnah jointly persuaded the ratings to surrender on Feb 23 , 1946. The Britishers
for the 1st time seriously realised that with this awakening among the Indians & revolt in
armed forces , it could not perpetuate it's hold on India any more.

Part 8
29. Cabinet Mission (March -June, 1946) :
* The British prime minister, Lord atlee, made a declaration on March 15, 1946, that
British cabinet Mission would visit India to make recommendations regarding
constitutional reforms to be introduced in India . The cabinet Mission which included
of Lord pethick Lawrance, Stafford Cripps & A.V.Alexandar visited India & met the
representative of different political parties , but a satisfactory solution to the
constitutional difficulties could not be found . The mission envisaged the establishment
of a Constituent
Assembly to frame a constitution as well as an interim government. The Muslim league
accepted the plan on June 6, 1946, while maintaining its rights of striving for a separate
Muslim state . The Congress also partially accepted the plan .
* After the Second World War, Lord Atlee became the Prime Minister of England. On 15
March, 1946 Lord Atlee made a historic announcement in which the right to self-
determination and the framing of a Constitution for India were conceded.
Consequently, three members of the British Cabinet - Pathick Lawrence, Sir Stafford
Cripps and A. V. Alexander - were sent to India. This is known as the Cabinet Mission.
The Cabinet Mission put forward a plan for solution of the constitutional problem.
Provision was made for three groups of provinces to possess their separate
constitutions. The Cabinet
Mission also proposed the formation of a Union of India, comprising both the British
India and the Princely States. The Union would remain in charge of only foreign affairs,
defence and communications leaving the residuary powers to be vested in the provinces.
A proposal was envisaged for setting up an Interim Government, which would remain in
office till a new government was elected on the basis of the new Constitution framed by
the Constituent Assembly. Both the Muslim League and the Congress accepted the plan.
Consequently, elections were held in July 1946 for the formation of a
Constituent Assembly. The Congress secured 205 out of 214 General seats. The Muslim
League got 73 out of 78 Muslim seats. An Interim Government was formed under the
leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru on 2 September 1946. *The Attlee government
announced in February 1946 the decision to send a high-powered mission of three
British cabinet members (Pethick Lawrence, Secretary of State for India; Stafford Cripps,
President of the Board of Trade; and A.V. Alexander, First Lord of Admiralty) to India to
find out ways and means for a negotiated, peaceful transfer of power to India. (Pethick
Lawrence was the chairman of the mission.)
* On the Eve of Cabinet Mission Plan:
The Congress demanded that power be transferred to one centre and that minorities’
demands be worked out in a framework ranging from autonomy to Muslim-majority
provinces to self-determination or secession from the Indian Union—but, only after the
British left. The British bid for a united and friendly India and an active partner in
defence of the Commonwealth, because a divided India would lack in defence and
would be a blot on Britain’s diplomacy.
The British policy in 1946 clearly reflected a preference for a united India, in sharp
contrast to earlier declarations. On March 15, 1946, the Prime Minister of Britain,
Clement Attlee said: “...though mindful of the rights of minorities... cannot allow a
minority to place their veto on advance of
the majority.” This was a far cry from the Shimla Conference where Wavell had allowed
Jinnah to wreck the conference.
* Cabinet Mission Arrives The Cabinet Mission reached Delhi on March 24, 1946. It
had prolonged discussions with Indian leaders of all parties and groups on the issues
of:
(i) interim government; and
(ii)principles and procedures for framing a new constitution giving freedom to India.
* As the Congress and the League could not come to any agreement on the
fundamental issue of the unity or partition of India, the mission put forward its own
plan for the solution of the constitutional problem in May 1946.
Cabinet Mission Plan—Main Points
● Rejection of the demand for a full-fledged Pakistan, because:
(i) the Pakistan so formed would include a large non- Muslim population—38 per cent in
the North-West and 48 per cent in the North-East;
(ii) the very principle of communal self-determination would claim separation of Hindu-
majority western Bengal and Sikh- and Hindu-dominated Ambala and
Jullundur divisions of Punjab (already some Sikh leaders were demanding a separate
state if the country was partitioned);
(iii)deep-seated regional ties would be disturbed if Bengal and Punjab were partitioned;
(iv)partition would entail economic and administrative problems, for instance, the
problem of communication between the western and eastern parts of
Pakistan; and
(v) the division of the armed forces would be dangerous.
● Grouping of existing provincial assemblies into three sections:
Section-A: Madras, Bombay, Central Provinces, United Provinces, Bihar, and
Orissa (Hindu-majority provinces)
Section-B: Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, and Sindh (Muslim-majority provinces)
Section-C: Bengal and Assam (Muslim-majority provinces).
● Three-tier executive and legislature at provincial, section, and union levels.
● A constituent assembly was to be elected by provincial assemblies by proportional
representation (voting in three groups—General, Muslims, Sikhs). This constituent
assembly would be a 389-member body with provincial assemblies sending 292, chief
commissioner’s provinces sending 4, and princely states sending 93 members. (This
was a good, democratic method not based on weightage.)
● In the constituent assembly, members from groups A, B, and C were to sit separately
to decide the constitution for provinces and if possible, for the groups also. Then, the
whole constituent assembly (all three sections A, B, and C combined) would sit
together to formulate the union constitution.
● A common centre would control defence,
communication, and external affairs. A federal structure was envisaged for India.
● Communal questions in the central legislature were to be decided by a simple
majority of both communities present and voting.
● Provinces were to have full autonomy and residual powers.
● Princely states were no longer to be under paramountcy of the British government.
They would be free to enter into an arrangement with successor governments or the
British government.
● After the first general elections, a province was to be free to come out of a group
and after 10 years, a province was to be free to call for a reconsideration of the
group or the union constitution.
● Meanwhile, an interim government was to be formed from the constituent assembly.
* Different Interpretations of the Grouping Clause :Each party or group looked at
the plan from its own point of view.
Congress: To the Congress, the Cabinet Mission Plan was against the creation of
Pakistan since grouping was optional; one constituent assembly was envisaged; and the
League no longer had a veto.
Muslim League: The Muslim League believed Pakistan to be implied in
compulsory grouping. (The Mission later clarified that the grouping was
compulsory.)
* Main Objections:Different parties objected to the plan on different grounds.
Congress
● Provinces should not have to wait till the
first general elections to come out of a group. They should have the option of not joining
a group in the first place. (Congress had the Congress-ruled provinces of NWFP and
Assam in mind, which had been included in groups B and C respectively.)
● Compulsory grouping contradicts the oft-repeated insistence on provincial
autonomy.
● Absence of provision for elected members from the princely states in the
constituent assembly (they could only
be nominated by the princes) was not acceptable. League
● Grouping should be compulsory with sections B and C developing into solid
entities with a view to future secession into Pakistan.
*The League had thought that the Congress would reject the plan, thus prompting the
government to invite the League to form the interim government.
* Acceptance and Rejection :The Muslim League on June 6 and the Congress on June
24, 1946 accepted the long-term plan put forward by the Cabinet
Mission. July 1946 Elections were held in provincial assemblies for the Constituent
Assembly.
July 10, 1946 Nehru stated, “We are not bound by a single thing except that we have
decided to go into the Constituent Assembly (implying that the Constituent Assembly
was sovereign and would decide the rules of procedure). The big probability is that
there would be no grouping as NWFP and Assam would have objections to joining
sections B and C.” July 29, 1946 The League withdrew its acceptance of
the long-term plan in response to Nehru’s statement and gave a call for
“direct action” from August 16 to achieve Pakistan.
30. Direct Action Campaign (Aug 16, 1946) :
* Provoked by the success of the Congress (in the voting for Constituent
Assembly), the Muslim league launched a direct Action Campaign on aug 16,
1946, which resulted in widespread communal riots in the country
31. Interim government (Sep 2, 1946):
* On sep 2 , 1946, an interim government was formed . Congress members led by Pt.
Jawaharlal Nehru joined it but the Muslim league did not , on the contrary it
withdrew its earlier acceptance of the cabinet Mission plan. * Fearing mass action by
the Congress, a Congress-dominated Interim
Government headed by Nehru was sworn in on
September 2, 1946, with Nehru continuing to insist on his party’s opposition to the
compulsory grouping. Despite the title, the Interim Government was little more than a
continuation of the old executive of the viceroy (Wavell overruled the ministers on the
issue of the release of INA prisoners in his very last cabinet meeting in March 1947).
Wavell quietly brought the Muslim League into the Interim Government on October 26,
1946. The League was allowed to join:
● without giving up the ‘direct action’;
● despite its rejection of the Cabinet Mission’s long- term and short-term plans; and
● despite insistence on compulsory grouping with decisions being taken by a majority
vote by a section
* 14 Ministers of Interim Government
(September 2, 1946–August 15, 1947):
1. Jawaharlal Nehru: Vice President of Executive Council, External Affairs and
Common Wealth Relations
2. Vallabhbhai Patel: Home, Information and Broadcasting
3. Baldev Singh: Defence
4. Dr. John Mathai: Industries and Supplies
5. C. Rajagopalachari: Education
6. C.H. Bhabha: Works, Mines and Power
7. Rajendra Prasad: Agriculture and Food
8. Jagjivan Ram: Labour
9. Asaf Ali: Railway
10. Liaquat Ali Khan (Muslim League): Finance
11. Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar (Muslim League): Commerce
12. Abdur Rab Nishtar (Muslim League): Communications
13. Ghazanfar Ali Khan (Muslim League): Health
14. Jogendra Nath Mandal (Muslim League): Law
32. Formation of Constituent assembly (Dec 9, 1946):
* The constituent assembly met on Dec 9, 1946, & Dr. Rajendra prasad was elected its
president . The Muslim league did not join the assembly
33. Atlee's Announcement (Feb 20, 1947) :
* On Feb 20, 1947, British prime minister Attlee announced that the British would
withdraw from India by June 30, 1948 & that Lord Mountbatten would replace
Wavell.
* Clement Attlee, the British prime minister, sensing the trouble all around, made an
announcement on February 20, 1947. The British House of Commons declared the
British intention of leaving the Indian subcontinent.
* Main Points of Attlee’s Statement:
● A deadline of June 30, 1948 was fixed for transfer of power even if the Indian
politicians had not agreed by that time on the constitution. ● The British would
relinquish power either to some form of central government or in some areas to the
existing provincial governments if the constituent assembly was not fully
representative, i.e., if the Muslim majority provinces did not join.
● British powers and obligations vis-a-vis the princely states would lapse with transfer
of power, but these would not be transferred to any successor government in British
India.
● Mountbatten would replace Wavell as the viceroy.
* The statement contained clear hints of partition and even Balkanisation of the
country into numerous states and was, in essence, a reversion of the Cripps Offer.
* Independence and Partition: The communal riots and the unworkability of the
Congress- League coalition compelled many in early 1947 to think in terms of accepting
the so far unthinkable idea of partition. The most insistent demand now came from the
Hindu and Sikh communal groups in Bengal and Punjab who were
alarmed at the prospect of compulsory grouping which might find them in Pakistan. The
Hindu Mahasabha in Bengal was assessing the feasibility of a separate Hindu province in
West Bengal. On March 10, 1947, Nehru stated that the Cabinet Mission’s was the best
solution if carried out; the only real alternative was the partition of Punjab and Bengal.In
April 1947, the Congress president, Kripalani, communicated to the viceroy— “... rather
than have a battle, we shall let them have their Pakistan provided you allow Bengal and
Punjab to be partitioned in a fair manner.”
34. Mountbatten plan (June 3, 1947):
* the Viceroy Mountbatten proved more firm and quick in taking decisions than his
predecessors because he was informally given more powers to decide things on the
spot. He also had the advantage of the firm decision of the British government to
quit at the earliest. His task was to explore the options of unity and division till
October 1947 and then advise the British government on the form of transfer of
power. But he soon discovered that the broad contours of the scenario to emerge
were discernible even before he came to India. The Cabinet Mission Plan was a dead
horse, and Jinnah was obstinate about not settling for anything less than a sovereign
state. But a serious attempt at unity would involve supporting those forces which
wanted a unified India and countering those who opposed it. Mountbatten preferred
to woo both sides.
* Mountbatten Plan, June 3, 1947: The freedom-with-partition formula was coming
to be widely accepted well before Mountbatten arrived in India. One major
innovation (actually suggested by V.P. Menon) was the immediate transfer of power
on the basis of grant of dominion status (with a right of secession), thus obviating the
need to wait for an agreement in the constituent assembly on a new political
structure.
* Main Points: The important points of the plan were as follows:
● Punjab and Bengal Legislative Assemblies would meet in two groups, Hindus and
Muslims, to vote for partition. If a simple majority of either group voted for partition,
then these provinces would be partitioned.
● In case of partition, two dominions and two constituent assemblies would be
created.
● Sindh would take its own decision.
● Referendums in NWFP and Sylhet district of Bengal would decide the fate of these
areas.
● Since the Congress had conceded a unified India, all their other points would be met,
namely,
(i) independence for princely states ruled out—they would join either India or
Pakistan;
(ii) independence for Bengal ruled out;
(iii) accession of Hyderabad to Pakistan ruled out (Mountbatten supported the
Congress on this);
(iv) freedom to come on August 15, 1947; and
(v) a boundary commission to be set up if partition was to be effected. * Thus, the
League’s demand was conceded to the extent that Pakistan would be created and
the Congress’ position on unity was taken into account to make Pakistan as small
as possible. Mountbatten’s formula was to divide India but retain maximum unity.
*Rationale for an Early Date (Aug 15, 1947): Britain wanted to secure Congress’
agreement to the dominion status. At the same time, the British could escape the
responsibility for the communal situation. The plan was put into effect without the
slightest delay. The legislative assemblies of Bengal and Punjab decided in favour of
partition of these two provinces. Thus, East Bengal and West Punjab joined Pakistan;
West Bengal and East Punjab remained with the Indian Union. The referendum in Sylhet
resulted in the incorporation of that district in East Bengal. Two boundary commissions,
one in respect of each province, were constituted to demarcate the boundaries of the
new provinces.
The referendum in NWFP decided in favour of Pakistan, the Provincial Congress
refraining from the referendum. Baluchistan and Sindh threw in their lot with Pakistan.
* On 20 February l947, Prime Minister Atlee
announced in the House of Commons the definite intention of the British Government
to transfer power to responsible Indian hands by a date not later than June 1948. Thus,
to effect the transference of that power Atlee decided to send Lord Mountbatten as
Viceroy to India. Lord Mountbatten armed with vast powers became India’s Viceroy on
24 March 1947. The partition of India and the creation of Pakistan appeared inevitable
to him. After extensive consultation Lord Mountbatten put forth the plan of partition
of India on 3
June 1947. The Congress and the Muslim League ultimately approved the Mountbatten
Plan.
* In March, 1947, Lord Mountbatten replace Lord Wavell . He announced his plan on
June 3, 1947. His earlier Plan Balkan was abandoned for this june 3, plan. It offered a
key to the refusal of Muslim league to join the constituent assembly formed to frame
the constitution of India . Mountbatten's. Formula was to divide India but retain
maximum unity . The country would be partitioned but so would be punjab & Bengal
, so that the limited Pakistan that emerged would meet both the Congress & the
league's position to some extent . The league's position on Pakistan was conceded in
that it would be created , but the Congress position on unity would be created , but
the Congress position on unity would be taken into account to make Pakistan as
small as possible. He laid down detailed principles for the partition of the country &
speedy transfer of political powers in the form of dominion status to the newly
formed dominions of India & Pakistan. It's acceptance by the
Congress & the Muslim league resulted in the birth of Pakistan
* Plan Balkan: Between March and May of 1947, Mountbatten decided that the
Cabinet Mission Plan had become untenable and formulated an alternative plan. This
plan envisaged the transfer of power to separate provinces (or to a confederation, if
formed before the transfer), with Punjab and Bengal given the option to vote for
partition of their provinces. The various units thus formed along with the princely
states (rendered independent by lapse of paramountcy) would have the option of
joining India or Pakistan or remaining separate. The plan was quickly abandoned
after
Nehru reacted violently to it
35. The Indian Independence Act, 1947 :
* The bill containing the provisions of the Mountbatten plan of June 3 , 1947 was
introduced in the British parliament & passed as the Indian Independence Act , 1947.
The act laid down detailed measures for the partition of India & speedy transfer of
political powers to the new govts of
India & Pakistan
*On July 5, 1947 the British Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act which was
based on the Mountbatten Plan, and the Act got royal assent on July 18, 1947. The Act
was implemented on August 15, 1947. The Act provided for the creation of two
independent dominions of India and Pakistan with effect from August 15, 1947. Each
dominion was to have a governor general to be responsible for the effective operation
of the Act. The constituent assembly of the each new dominion was to exercise the
powers of the legislature of that dominion, and the existing Central Legislative Assembly
and the Council of States were to be automatically dissolved. For the transitional period,
i.e., till a new constitution was adopted by each dominion, the governments of the two
dominions were to be carried on in accordance with the Government of India Act, 1935.
As per the provisions of the Indian
Independence Act, 1947, Pakistan became independent on August 14 while
India got its freedom on August 15, 1947. M.A. Jinnah became the first
Governor General of Pakistan. India, however, decided to request Lord
Mountbatten to continue as the Governor General of India. Problems of Early Withdrawal
The breakneck speed of events under Mountbatten caused anomalies in arranging the
details of partition and totally failed to prevent the Punjab massacre, because:
● there were no transitional institutional structures within which partition problems
could be tackled;
● Mountbatten had hoped to be the common Governor General of India and
Pakistan, thus providing the necessary
link, but Jinnah wanted the position for himself in Pakistan;
● there was a delay in announcing the Boundary Commission Award (under
Radcliffe); though the award was ready by August 12, 1947, Mountbatten decided to
make it public after August 15 so that the British could escape all responsibility of
disturbances
* The British Government accorded formal approval to the Mountbatten Plan by
enacting the Indian Independence Act on 18 July 1947. The salient features of this Act
were:
* The partition of the country into India and Pakistan would come into effect from
15 August 1947.
* The British Government would transfer all powers to these two Dominions. * A
Boundary Commission would demarcate the boundaries of the provinces of the Punjab
and Bengal.
* The Act provided for the transfer of power to the Constituent Assemblies of the
two Dominions, which will have full authority to frame their respective Constitutions.
* The Radcliff Boundary Commission drew the boundary line separating India and
Pakistan. On 15th August 1947 India, and on the 14th August Pakistan came into
existence as two independent states. Lord Mountbatten was made the first Governor
General of Independent India, whereas Mohammad Ali Jinnah became the first
Governor General of Pakistan. The most tragic incident occurred on 30 January 1948,
when Mahatma Gandhi - the father of the nation- on his way to a prayer meeting was
assassinated by Nathuram Godse.
36. Integration of states:
* During 1946–47, there was a new upsurge of the State People’s Movement demanding
political rights and elective representation in the Constituent Assembly. Nehru presided
over the All India State People’s Conference sessions in Udaipur (1945) and Gwalior
(April 1947). He declared that the states refusing to join the Constituent Assembly would
be treated as hostile. In July 1947, Vallabhbhai Patel took charge of the new States
Department. Under Patel, the incorporation of Indian states took place in two phases
with a skilful combination of baits and threats of mass pressure in both.
Phase I: By August 15, 1947, all states except Kashmir, Hyderabad, and Junagarh had
signed an instrument of accession
with the Indian government, acknowledging central authority over defence, external
affairs, and communication. The princes agreed to this fairly easily because
(i) they were ‘surrendering’ only what they never had (these three functions had been a
part of the British paramountcy), and (ii) there was no change in the internal political
structure.
Phase II: The second phase involved a much more difficult process of ‘integration’ of
states with neighbouring provinces or into new units like the Kathiawar Union, Vindhya
and Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan or Himachal Pradesh alongwith internal constitutional
changes in states, which, for some years, retained their old boundaries (Hyderabad,
Mysore, Travancore- Cochin). This phase was accomplished within a
year. The principal bait offered was a generous privy purse while some princes were
made governors and raj pramukhs in free India. This rapid political unification of the
country after independence was Patel’s greatest achievement.
* By Aug 15, 1947, all states except Kashmir, junagadh & Hyderabad had signed
the instrument of accession with India . The Maharaja of Kashmir acceded to India I.
Oct , 1947. When irregular Pakistani troops invaded his state . The nawab of junagadh
was a Muslim where as most of its people were Hindus . In Feb 1948, through a
referendum this people of this state decided to join india . The Nawab of Junagadh,
therefore left for Pakistan. The Nizam of Hyderabad was forced to accede to the Indian
union under the pressure of internal anarchy & military action against him in sep 1948.
* Gandhi’s Helplessness: Gandhi felt helpless because there had been a
communalisation of the people. He had no option but to accept partition because the
people wanted it. How could there be a movement to fightcommunalism involving a
communalised people? He asked the Congressmen, however, not to accept it in their
hearts.
37. French Colonies:
* By the end of 1954, french colonial rule in Pondicherry, Chandranagar, Mahe, Karaikal &
Yanam came to an end. These territories were integrated with India.
38. Portuguese Colonies:
* The Portuguese Colonies in India were Goa, Daman, Diu, Dadra & Nagar Haveli. In
1954, Dadra & Nagar Haveli were liberated by freedom fighters.
Indian troops liberated Goa, Daman & Diu from the Portuguese in 1961.
*************************************
Part 9
INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE
* After the Independence in 1947, the most immediate and important tasks before the
Indian leaders were the drafting of the constitution and the integration of Indian states
into the Indian union. They had also been vested with the responsibility of making
India economically sound and scientifically modern. In the long term perspective, the
most challenging tasks ahead have been the removal poverty and the progress of
education among the masses for which the successive governments continue to take
necessary steps.
* Constitution of India:
The Constituent Assembly began its work on 9th December 1946 and Dr. Rajendra
Prasad was elected as its Chairman. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was appointed as the Chairman of
the Drafting Committee. After a detailed discussion, the Constitution of India was finally
adopted on 26th November 1949. The Constitution came into effect on 26th January
1950. Since then the day is celebrated as Republic Day. The salient features of the Indian
Constitution are the adult suffrage, Parliamentary system, Fundamental Rights and
Directive Principles. It provides a combination of federal and unitary forms of governance
at the centre and the powers of the government have been clearly stated in the three
lists: Central, State and Concurrent. The
President is the constitutional head of the state while the
Prime Minister is the head of the Executive. The Prime Minister is the leader of the party
that has a majority in the Lok Sabha. The Indian Parliament has two houses – the Rajya
Sabha or upper house and the Lok Sabha or lower house.
Each state has its own government headed by the Chief Minister who remains the leader
of the majority party in the respective Legislative Aassembly. Thus, democratically elected
governments rule the nation and provision is made for periodical elections. The judiciary
remains the upholder of the constitution. The Indian judiciary system consists of the
Supreme Court at the centre and High Courts in the states. The subordinate courts in each
state are under the control of the High Court.
* Integration of Princely States:At the time of Independence there were 11
British provinces and nearly 566 princely states. After the departure of the British from
India the princes of Indian states began to dream of independence. With great skill and
masterful diplomacy Sardar Vallabhai Patel succeeded in integrating the princely states
with the Indian union by 15
August 1947. Only three of them –
Junagadh, Jammu and Kashmir and Hyderabad – VALLABAI PATEL refused to join.The
ruler of Junagadh expressed his willingness to join Pakistan against the wishes of the
people of that state. Patel sent Indian troops and after a plebiscite Junagadh joined
Indian Union. The state of Jammu and Kashmir bordered India and Pakistan. Its ruler was
Raja Hari Singh. In the beginning he also claimed independent status. When the Pathan
tribes led by Pakistan army officers invaded Kashmir, Hari Singh sought the help of India.
Nehru pointed out that under international law India could send its troops only after the
state’s accession to India. Therefore, on 26th October 1947, Raja Hari Singh signed the
‘instrument of accession’ and Jammu and Kashmir has become an integral part of India.
In the case of Hyderabad the Nizam refused to join the Indian union. After repeated
appeals, in 1948 Indian troops moved into Hyderabad and the Nizam surrendered.
Finally, Hyderabad acceded to the Indian Union. Thus the Union of India was established
with the integration and accession of the princely states with the Indian Union. This
formidable task was fulfilled by the “Iron Man of India” Sardar Vallabhai Patel.
* The Linguistic Reorganization of the States:In 1948, the first Linguistic
Provinces Commission headed by S.K. Dar was appointed by the Constituent Assembly to
enquire into the possibility of linguistic provinces. This commission advised against such
a step. In the same year another committee known as JVP committee consisting of
Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhai Patel and Pattabhi Sitaramaih was appointed by the
Congress Party. This committee also did not favour for linguistic provinces. But there
were popular movements for states reorganization all over the country and it was
intensive in Andhra. Therefore, in 1953 Andhra was created speaking state. The struggle
led by M.P. Sivagnanam to retain Tiruttani with Madras was a memorable event in the
history of Tamil Nadu. The success of Andhra struggle encouraged other linguistic
groups to agitate for their own state. In 1953, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru appointed
the States Reorganization
Commission with Justice Fazal Ali as its chairman and Pandit Hridayanath Kunzru and
Sardar K.M. Panikkar as its members. The commission submitted its report on 30
September 1955. Based on this report, the States
Reorganization Act was passed by the Parliament in 1956. It provided for 16 states and
six union territories. The Telengana region was transferred to
Andhra. Kerala was created by merging the Malabar district with Travancore -
Cochin. There was a strong movement of the Tamil linguistic people in Travancore
(Kaniyakumari) who struggled to be part of the state of Tamil Nadu.
* Indian Polity (1947 – 2000): India’s first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru was
considered the architect of modern India. He consolidated the Indian Independence by
forging national unity, nurturing democratic institutions, promoting science and
technology, planning for economic development and by following independent foreign
policy. He was truly a nation builder. He died in 1964. Lal Bahadur Sastri succeeded
Nehru as the next Prime Minister of India. He remained a role model for honesty in
public life. He ended the Indo-Pak war of 1965 by concluding the Tashkent Agreement
in January 1966.
His untimely death was a great loss to the nation.
* Indira Gandhi, daughter of Nehru became Prime Minister in 1966 and bravely
faced the domestic challenges such as scarcity of food and foreign pressures during the
1971 Bangladesh crisis. When opposition to her rule gathered momentum in 1975, she
brought emergency rule, a black mark in the democratic tradition of India. However, she
restored democratic rule by announcing general elections in 1977 in which she was
defeated. Later in
1980 she was able to
regain power by democratic means. In 1983 she undertook “Blue Star Operation” in the
Golden Temple at Amritsar - Punjab. As a result, unfortunately, she was shot dead by her
own bodyguards in 1984 as a vengeance to her policy towards Punjab militancy. The
Janata Party rule for brief period between 1977 and 1980 brought Morarji Desai as Prime
Minister of India. For the first time a non-Congress ministry was formed after
independence. The lack of unity among the Janata leaders had resulted in the fall of the
Janata Government.
* Rajiv Gandhi became the Prime Minister of India in 1984 after her mother Indira
Gandhi’s assassination. He introduced New Education Policy and encouraged foreign
investment. In 1987 he sent the Indian Peace Keeping Force to Sri Lanka with a view
to put an end to the ethnic violence. He continued as Prime Minister till the next
elections held in 1989. Later in May 1991, he was assassinated (by the Sri Lankan
Tamil extremists).
*V.P. Singh was the Prime Minister between 1989 and 1991. He was leading an anti-
Congress coalition called the Janata Dal. During his tenure he decided to implement the
Mandal Commission
Report which provided reservation for other backward classes. His government was
marked by factionalism, and he was forced to resign in 1990. * The next Prime Minister
Chandrasekhar held the office from November 1990 to March 1991.
* In June 1991 P. V. Narasimha Rao became Prime Minister. He moved decisively
toward new economic reforms, reducing the government’s economic role, instituting
austerity measures, and encouraging foreign investment. The finance minister Dr.
Manmohan Singh’s role in this sphere is worth noting. As a result, India started
moving towards liberalization, privatization and globalization.
* After the elections of 1996, Atal Bihari Vajpayee became Prime Minister from the BJP
party but he was not able to prove majority in the Parliament.
Deve Gowda formed a coalition government. He was the eleventh Prime
Minister of India (1996–
1997). He was from the state of Karnataka. His government also Fell due to the no
confidence motion voted jointly by the Congress and the BJP.
* He was succeeded by I.K. Gujral for a brief period in 1997.
* Atal Bihari Vajpayee became the Prime Minister of India in 1998. In the 1999 elections
the National Democratic Alliance under the leadership of Vajpayee formed the
government. His period witnessed two important events. One was the Kargil War with
Pakistan and another was the nuclear tests at Pokhran.
9* Economic Development:When India became independent in 1947, it was gripped
by mass poverty, unemployment, illiteracy, static agriculture, poorly developed
industries and inadequate infrastructure. There was an urgent need immediate efforts
on national scale to achieve the path of progress in the socio-economic front.
Jawaharlal Nehru, was greatly influenced by the achievements of Soviet Planning. But
he also realized the importance of the democratic values. He encouraged
planning for rapid industrial and agricultural growth. He encouraged Mixed Economy
as a result both public sector (Government owned) and Private Sector companies come
in to existence. His fundamental objective was to build an independent self-reliant
economy.
Economic Planning:*The National Planning Commission was established on 15 March
1950 with the Prime Minister Nehru as its chairperson. The main objectives of the
Planning Commission were:
(i) To achieve higher level of national and per capita income.
(ii) To achieve full employment.
(iii) To reduce inequalities of income and wealth.
(iv) To setup a society based on equality and justice and absence of exploitation.
* The First Five Year Plan (1951-1956) tried to complete the projects at hand including
the rehabilitation of refugees. It was only
during the Second Five Year Plan (1956-61) Prof. P.C. Mahalanobis, the noted economist
played a leading role. This plan aimed at developing the industrial sector in the country.
Rapid industrialization with particular emphasis in the development of basic and heavy
industries continued during the Third Five Year Plan (1961-66). During this period many
iron and steel, chemical, fertilizers, heavy engineering and machine building industries
were set up in different parts of India. The objective of the Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-
74) was “growth with stability” and “progressive achievement of self reliance”. The
original draft outline of the plan was prepared in 1966 under the stewardship of Ashok
Mehta. Popular economic slogan during this time was Garibi Hatao (Removal of poverty).
The Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-79) was introduced at a time when the country was under
severe economic crisis arising out of inflation. There was increase in oil price. But the
plan was dropped at the end of the fourth year of the plan in March 1978 by the Janata
Government. The Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-85) aimed at strengthening the
infrastructure for both agriculture and industry and meet the minimum basic needs of
the people. The Seventh Five Year Plan (1985 – 90)
emphasized on accelerating the growth of food grains production, increasing
employment opportunities and raising productivity. The Eighth Five Year Plan (1992 – 97)
aimed to achieve the goals, namely, improvement in the levels of living, health and
education of the people,
full employment, and elimination of poverty and planned growth of population. The
main objectives of the Ninth Five Year Plan (1997 – 2002) were to give priority to
agricultural sector, to remove poverty, to control prices, to provide food to the weaker
sections, population control, to develop panchayat administration and to uplift the
depressed classes as well as tribal people.
* The Green Revolution:
Despite creditable growth of agricultural output in the 1950s India faced food shortage
in the mid sixties. The increase in population and the huge outlay to the plan of
industrialization put pressures on agricultural growth. India was forced to import millions
of tons of food grains. The two wars with China (1962) and Pakistan (1965) and two
successive drought years (1965-66) brought enormous pressures to food production. In
this background the Green Revolution was launched in India with the aim of achieving
selfsufficiency in food production The then Prime Minister, Lal Bahadur Sastri, Food
Minister,
C. Subramanian, and Indira Gandhi, who succeeded Sastri in 1966 after his brief tenure,
put their efforts to the development of agriculture. The term Green Revolution was
coined by Dr William Gadd of USA in 1968, when Indian farmers brought about a great
advancement in wheat production. The introduction of modern methods of agriculture
such as high-yield variety seeds, chemical fertilizers and pesticides agricultural
machineries such as tractors, pump-sets and agricultural education considerably
increased the food grain production in India. India attained food self-sufficiency by the
1980s. The effects of Green Revolution were notable in the north- western region of
Punjab, Haryana and western U.P., Andhra Pradesh, parts of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
* Growth of Science and Technology: Independent India has also witnessed a
tremendous growth in the sphere of science and technology. After 1947, Nehru
became aware of the significant role of scientific research and technology for the
progress of India. India’s first national laboratory, the National Physical Laboratory was
established in 1947. It was followed by seventeen such national laboratories for
specializing in different areas of research. Nehru himself assumed the chairmanship of
the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research.
In 1952, the first Indian Institute of Technology, on the model of
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, was set up at Kharagpur. Subsequently, IITs
were set up at Madras, Bombay, Kanpur and Delhi. The expenditure on scientific
research and science-based activities
has increased year by year. There are about 200 research laboratories in India carrying
out research in different areas. The Department of Science and Technology (DST) which
was set up in 1971 has been assigned the responsibility of formulating science policy.
* Atomic Energy:India was one of the first countries in the world to recognize the
importance of nuclear energy. The Atomic Energy Commission was set up in August
1948 under the chairmanship of Homi J. Baba to formulate a policy for all atomic
energy activities in the country. The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) was set up
1954 as executive agency for implementing the atomic energy programmes. In 1956,
India’s first nuclear reactor in Trombay near Bombay (first in Asia also) began to
function. Research and development work in the field of atomic energy and allied fields
are carried out at three research centres, namely the Bhabha Atomic Research Center at
Trombay, the
Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu and the Center for
Advanced Technology, Chennai.
* Space Research:India has also evinced interest in space research. The Indian
National Committee for Space Research was set up in 1962. Side by side, a
Rocket Launching Facility at Thumba came up. The first generation Indian National
Satellite System (INSAT-1) represents India’s first step towards implementing national
requirements. The INSAT – 1A and the INSAT – 1B served country’s need in the field of
telecommunications and meteorological earth observations. The ISRO [Indian Space
Research Organization] looks after
the activities in space science, technology and applications. T h e Vikram Sarabhai Space
Centre at Trivandrum, the largest of the ISRO centres, is primarily responsible for
indigenous launch vehicle technology. The ISRO Satellite Centre, Bangalore is the
satellite technology base of the Indian space programme. The SHAR Centre,
encompassing the Sriharikota Island in Andhra Pradesh on the east coast of India is the
main operational base of ISRO which is the satellite launching range.
* India’s Foreign Policy:After 1947, India began to follow an independent foreign policy.
It was designed by the first Prime Minister Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru. He developed the
basic principles of India’s foreign policy. He was the architect of the Non-aligned
Movement during the Cold War era. Also, he extended support to colonial countries in
their struggle for independence. Nehru outlined the five principles of coexistence or
Panch Sheel for conducting relations among countries. They are:
- mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty
- non-aggression
- non-interference in each other’s internal affairs
- equality and mutual benefit and - peaceful coexistence.
* India plays an active role in international bodies such as the Common Wealth and
the United Nations Organization. After the Independence, Nehru decided to stay within
Common Wealth, an organization consisting of former British colonies. India had also
played an active role in the UN peacekeeping forces in various parts
of the world. It had sent its troops as part of UN peace-keeping Mission to Korea,
Indo-China, Suez Canal and The Congo.
* India had to fight three major wars [1965, 1971 and 2000] with Pakistan over the
issue of Kashmir. India maintained friendly relations with both USA and USSR during the
Cold War era. In 1971 India and USSR signed the Indo- Soviet Treaty of Friendship and
Alliance during the Bangladesh crisis. India and China are the two most important
powers of Asia.
* These two are the most populous countries of the World. Also, they possess the
significance of proud, history and civilization dating back to ancient times. When the
communist regime under the leadership of Mao Tse Tung was established in 1949, India
was one among the first countries to recognize the
People’s Republic of China. In spite of India’s friendly relations with China India had to
defend herself when China attacked India in 1962.
* The emergence of Bangladesh as an independent state with the active help of India
was an important event. During the liberation struggle between East Pakistan and West
Pakistan India supported East Pakistan. The coordinated approach of the Indian forces
along with Mukti Bahini ultimately led to the liberation of Bangladesh (East Pakistan) in
December 1971 India is maintaining friendly relations right from the birth of Bangladesh
in 1971.
* India has also been maintaining friendly relations with its neighbours for which
purpose the South Asian Association of Regional Cooperation (SAARC) was established.
India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan and
Maldives are its members. The aim of
SAARC is to increase economic, social and cultural cooperation among its members.
Periodic meetings are being held to achieve this goal.