LECTURE 1 The proper development of satellite geodesy

Overview of Satellite Geodesy started with the launch of the first artificial
satellite,
Satellite SPUTNIK-1, on October 4, 1957.
(Meriam Dictionary)
 a celestial body orbiting another of Some significant events
larger size 1957 Launch of SPUTNIK-1
 a manufactured object or vehicle 1958 Earth’s Flattening from Satellite
intended to orbit the earth, the moon, or Data (f = 1/298.3)
another celestial body 1958 Launch of EXPLORER-1
(Combrige Dictionary) 1959 Third Zonal Harmonic (Pear Shape
 device sent up into space to travel of Earth)
around the earth, used for collecting 1959 Theory of the Motion of Artificial
information or communicating by radio, Satellites (Brouwer)
1960 Launch of TRANSIT-1B
television, etc.
1960 Launch of ECHO-1
Geodesy is the science of the measurement
1960 Theory of Satellite Orbits (Kaula)
and mapping of the Earth’s surface. This
1962 Launch of ANNA-1B
definition includes the determination of the 1962 Geodetic Connection between
terrestrial external gravity field, as well as the France and Algeria (IGN).
surface of the ocean floor (Torge, 2001).
By the year 1964, many basic geodetic
Satellite geodesy comprises the observational problems had been successfully tackled,
and computational techniques which allow the namely the
solution of geodetic problems using precise − determination of a precise numerical value of
measurements to, from, or between artificial, Earth’s flattening
mostly near-Earth, satellites. − determination of the general shape of the
global geoid
The basic problems are: − determination of connections between the
1. determination of precise global, regional, most important geodetic datums (to ±50 m).
and local three-dimensional positions (e.g., the
establishment of geodetic control) The development of satellite geodesy can
2. determination of Earth’s gravity field and be divided into several phases of about one
linear functions of this field (e.g., a decade each.
precise geoid) 1. 1958 to around 1970. Development of basic
3. measurement and modeling of methods for satellite observations, and for the
geodynamical phenomena (e.g., polar motion, computation and analysis of satellite orbits.
Earth rotation, crustal deformation). This phase is characterized by the optical-
photographic determination of directions with
Basic Concepts cameras. The main results were the
1. Satellites can be used as high orbiting determination of the leading harmonic
targets, which are visible over large distances. coefficients of the geopotential, and the
2. Satellites can be considered as a probe or a publication of the first Earth models, for
sensor in the gravity field of Earth. instance the Standard Earth models of the
Observation Techniques Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO
1. Earth to Space methods SE I to SAO SE III), and the Goddard Earth
− directions from camera observations, Models (GEM) of the NASA Goddard Space
− satellite laser ranging (SLR), Flight Center. The only purely geometrical and
− Doppler positioning (TRANSIT, DORIS), and worldwide satellite network was established by
− geodetic use of the Global Positioning observations with BC4 cameras of the satellite
System (GPS, GLONASS, future GNSS). PAGEOS.
2. Space to Earth methods
− radar altimetry, 2. 1970 to around 1980. Phase of the scientific
− spaceborne laser, and projects. New observation techniques were
− satellite gradiometry. developed and refined, laser ranging to
3. Space to Space methods satellites and to the Moon, as well as satellite
− satellite-to-satellite tracking (SST). altimetry. The TRANSIT system was used for
geodetic Doppler positioning. Refined global
Historical Development
geoid and coordinate determinations were space techniques is continuing. We have
carried out and led to improved Earth models significant improvements in
(e.g. GEM 10, GRIM). The increased accuracy accuracy as well as in temporal and spatial
of the observations made possible the resolution. New fields of application evolve in
measurement of geodynamical phenomena science and practice. For the first decade of
(Earth rotation, polar motion, crustal the new millennium development will focus on
deformation). Doppler surveying was used several aspects:
worldwide for the installation and maintenance − launch of dedicated gravity field
of geodetic control networks (e.g. EDOC, probes like CHAMP, GRACE, and
DÖDOC, ADOS). GOCE for the determination of a high-
resolution terrestrial gravity field,
3. 1980 to around 1990. Phase of the − establishment of a next generation
operational use of satellite techniques in Global Navigation Satellite System
geodesy, geodynamics, and surveying. Two GNSS with GPS Block IIR and Block IIF
aspects are remarkable. Satellite methods satellites and new components like the
were increasingly used by the surveying European
community, replacing conventional methods. Galileo
This process started with the first results − refinement in Earth observation, e.g.,
obtained with the NAVSTAR Global Positioning with high resolution radar sensors like
System (GPS) and resulted in completely new interferometric SAR on various
perspectives in surveying and mapping. platforms,
The second aspect concerned the increased − further establishment of permanent
observation accuracy. One outcome was arrays for disaster prevention and
the nearly complete replacement of the environmental monitoring, and
classical astrometric techniques for monitoring − unification of different geodetic space
polar motion and Earth rotation by satellite techniques in mobile integrated geodetic
methods. Projects for the measurement of geodynamic monitoring systems.
crustal deformation gave remarkable results
worldwide. Applications of Satellite Geodesy
1. Global Geodesy
4. 1990 to around 2000. Phase of the − general shape of Earth’s figure and gravity
international and national permanent services. field,
Two large international services have evolved. − dimensions of a mean Earth ellipsoid,
The International Earth Rotation Service IERS, − establishment of a global terrestrial reference
initiated in 1987 and exclusively based on frame,
space techniques, provides highly accurate − detailed geoid as a reference surface on land
Earth orientation parameters with high and at sea,
temporal resolution, and maintains and − connection between different existing
constantly refines two basic reference frames. geodetic datums, and
These are the International Celestial Reference − connection of national datums with a global
Frame ICRF, based on interferometric radio geodetic datum.
observations, and the International Terrestrial 2. Geodetic Control
Reference Frame ITRF, based on different − establishment of geodetic control for national
space techniques. networks,
The International GPS Service IGS, started in − installation of three-dimensional
1994 and evolved to be the main source for homogeneous networks,
precise GPS orbits as well as for coordinates − analysis and improvement of existing
and observations from a global set of more terrestrial networks,
than 300 permanently observing reference − establishment of geodetic connections
stations. At the national level permanent between islands or with the mainland,
services for GPS reference data have been − densification of existing networks up to short
established and are still growing, interstation distances.
e.g. CORS in the USA, CACS in Canada and
SAPOS in Germany. 3. Geodynamics
− control points for crustal motion,
5. 2000 onwards. After more than 40 years of − permanent arrays for 3D-control in active
satellite geodesy the development of geodetic areas,
− polar motion, Earth rotation, and
− solid Earth tides. Navy, which employed Doppler measurements
to determine positions.

4. Applied and Plane Geodesy KEY DEVELOPMENTS IN SATELLITE

− detailed plane surveying (land register, urban GEODESY
and rural surveying, geographic 1970s: The introduction of the Global
information systems (GIS), town planning, Positioning System (GPS) began. The first
boundary demarcation etc.), GPS satellite was launched in 1978, and the
− installation of special networks and control system became fully operational in the 1990s.
for engineering tasks, 1980s: The establishment of the Global
− terrestrial control points in photogrammetry Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) expanded
and remote sensing, the application of satellite geodesy, allowing for
− position and orientation of airborne sensors more precise positioning and navigation.
like photogrammetric cameras,
− control and position information at different ADVANCEMENTS IN TECHNOLOGY AND
accuracy levels in forestry, agriculture, METHODS
archaeology, expedition cartography etc. Differential GPS (DGPS): Introduced in the
5. Navigation and Marine Geodesy late 1980s, DGPS improved positioning
− precise navigation of land-, sea-, and air- accuracy by using reference stations.
vehicles, Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR): Developed in
− precise positioning for marine mapping, the 1960s and 70s, this technique measures
exploration, hydrography, oceanography, distances between ground stations and
marine geology, and geophysics, satellites, contributing to accurate geodetic
− connection and control of tide gauges measurements.
(unification of height systems). Global Navigation Satellite Systems
6. Related Fields (GNSS): The 1990s saw the emergence of
− position and velocity determination for competing systems like Russia's GLONASS,
geophysical observations (gravimetric, Europe's Galileo, and China's BeiDou.
magnetic,
seismic surveys), also at sea and in the air, MODERN ERA AND APPLICATIONS 2000s:
− determination of ice motion in glaciology, The availability of commercial GPS devices led
Antarctic research, oceanography, to widespread use in various fields, including
− determination of satellite orbits, and surveying, transportation, and agriculture.
− tomography of the atmosphere (ionosphere, Geodesy and Earth Observation: The
troposphere). integration of satellite data with remote sensing
technologies enabled precise monitoring of
Earth's surface changes, climate change, and
FROM DISCUSSION* natural disasters.
EARLY CONCEPTS AND THEORETICAL
FOUNDATIONS CURRENT TRENDS AND FUTURE
DIRECTIONS
18th Century: The groundwork for geode was Increased Accuracy: Continuous
laid with early triangulation methods used for advancements in satellite technology, such as
mapping and surveying, but the integration of multi-frequency and multi-constellation
satellite technology was not yet conceived. systems, enhance positional accuracy.
19th Century: Advances in astronomy and the Real-Time GNSS: Improvements in real- time
understanding of the Earth's shape and size data processing allow for applications in
helped develop the principles needed for autonomous systems, smart cities, and
satellite-based measurements. disaster response.
International Collaborations: Global
THE BIRTH OF SATELLITE GEODESY 1957: initiatives like the International GNSS Service
The launch of Sputnik 1 by the Soviet Union (IGS) support geodetic research and data
marked the beginning of the space age. It was sharing.
the first artificial satellite and initiated interest in
using satellites for Earth measurements. HOW ARE SATELLITE SYSTEMS USED IN
1960s: The development of satellite technology GEODESY?
continued with systems like Transit, the first GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM
satellite navigation system used by the U.S.
These include GPS (USA), GLONASS create comprehensive models of the
(Russia), Galileo (EU), and BeiDou (China). Earth's surface and subsurface
GNSS satellites broadcast signals that enable  Geophysical Modeling: Researchers use
receivers to determine their position through the processed data to model
trilateration. geophysical phenomena, such as
EARTH OBSERVATION SATELLITES tectonic movements. ocean dynamics,
Satellites like NASA's Landsat and ESA's and climate change impacts
Sentinel provide remote sensing data that can
be used for geodetic studies, such as land WHAT ARE THE APPLICATIONS OF?
deformation and sea-level rise. SATELLITE GEODESY?
DEDICATED GEODETIC SATELLITES NAVIGATION
Systems like the Gravity Recovery and Climate GNSS technology is critical for civilian and
Experiment (GRACE) and its successor, military navigation, enabling everything from
GRACE Follow-On, are specifically designed to personal GPS devices to global transportation
measure Earth's gravity field and changes over systems.
time MAPPING AND SURVEYING
Satellite geodesy provides high-precision
CORE TECHNIQUES IN SATELLITE geospatial data for creating accurate maps and
GEODESY conducting land surveys.
TRILATERATION AND POSITIONING NATURAL DISASTER MONITORING Satellite
• Trilateration: GNSS uses the principle of data helps track and predict natural disasters,
trilateration to determine a receiver's position, like earthquakes and tsunamis, improving
By measuring the time it takes for signals from response efforts.
at least four satellites to reach the receiver, the CLIMATE CHANGE RESEARCH
system can calculate its three-dimensional By monitoring changes in sea levels, ice sheet
position (latitude, longitude, and altitude). dynamics, and land deformation, satellite
• Differential GNSS (DGNSS): For enhanced geodesy contributes significantly to
accuracy, DGNSS employs a network of understanding and mitigating climate change
ground stations that receive satellite signals
and correct for atmospheric errors, multipath
effects, and other inaccuracies,

SATELLITE LASER RANGING

SLR measures the time it takes for a laser
beam to travel from a ground station to a
satellite and back. This technique provides
precise measurements of satellite positions
and contributes to monitoring tectonic plate
movements.

INTERFEROMETRIC SATELLITE APERTURE

RADAR
InSAR uses radar signals from satellites to
detect ground movement with millimeter
precision. By comparing images taken at
different times, researchers can identify
subsidence, landslides, and other geological
phenomena.

DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS

 Error Correction: Atmospheric effects
(like ionospheric and tropospheric
delays) are corrected, along with clock
discrepancies between satellites and
receivers.
 Data Integration: Measurements from
multiple sources (e.g., GNSS, InSAR,
and gravity data) are integrated to