MECHANICS OF SOLIDS

DEGREE YEAR 1 LEVEL NVQ 5/6

MECHANICAL AND STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING C105

TUTORIAL 8 - THE DEFLECTION OF BEAMS

You should judge your progress by completing the self assessment exercises.

On completion of this tutorial you should be able to solve the slope and deflection of the following types of
beams.

 A cantilever beam with a point load at the end.

 A cantilever beam with a uniformly distributed load.
 A simply supported beam with a point load at the middle.
 A simply supported beam with a uniformly distributed load.

You will also learn and apply Macaulay’s method to the solution for beams with a combination of loads.

Those who require more advanced studies may also apply Macaulay’s method to the solution of Encastré
Beams.

1. General Theory

2. Case 1 - Cantilever with Point Load at Free End.

3. Case 2 - Cantilever with a Uniformly Distributed Load.

4. Case 3 - Simply Supported Beam With a Point Load in the Middle.

5. Case 4 - Simply Supported Beam with a Uniformly Distributed Load.

6. The Theory of Superposition for Combined Loads.

7. Macaulay's Method

8. Encastré Beams
8.1 Point Load in Middle
8.2 Uniformly Distributed Load

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1. General Theory

When a beam bends it takes up various shapes such as that illustrated in figure 1. The shape may be
superimposed on an x – y graph with the origin at the left end of the beam (before it is loaded). At any
distance x metres from the left end, the beam will have a deflection y and a gradient or slope dy/dx and it is
these that we are concerned with in this tutorial.

We have already examined the equation relating bending moment and radius of curvature in a beam, namely

M is the bending moment.

I is the second moment of area about the centroid.
E is the modulus of elasticity and
R is the radius of curvature.

Figure 1 illustrates the radius of curvature which is defined as the radius of a circle that has a tangent the
same as the point on the x-y graph.

Figure 1

Mathematically it can be shown that any curve plotted on x - y graph has a radius of curvature defined as

In beams, R is very large and the gradient dy/dx is very small. The equation may be simplified without loss
of accuracy to

It follows that

The product EI is called the flexural stiffness of the beam.

In order to solve the slope (dy/dx) or the deflection (y) at any point on the beam, an equation for M in terms
of position x must be substituted into equation (1A). We will now examine this for the 4 standard cases.

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2. Case 1 - Cantilever with Point Load at Free End.

Figure 2

The bending moment at any position x is simply -Fx. Substituting this into equation 1A we have

Integrate

Integrate again

A and B are constants of integration and must be found from the boundary conditions.

These are at x = L, y = 0 (no deflection)

at x = L, dy/dx = 0 (gradient horizontal)

Substitute x = L and dy/dx = 0 in equation 2A. This gives

Substitute A into equation B and put x = L at y = 0

The complete equations for this case are

Integrate again

At the Free End x = 0 so the slope and deflection is

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 WORKED EXAMPLE No. 1

A cantilever beam is 4 m long and has a point load of 5 kN at the free end.
The flexural stiffness EI is 53.3 MN m2. Calculate the slope and deflection at the free end.

SOLUTION

i. Slope - Using formula 2E we have

ii. Deflection - Using formula (2F) we have

The deflection is 2 mm downwards.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 1

1. A cantilever beam is 6 m long and has a point load of 20 kN at the free end.
The flexural stiffness is 110 MN m2. Calculate the slope and deflection at the free end.
(Answers 0.00327 and -13 mm).

2. A cantilever beam is 5 m long and has a point load of 50 kN at the free end. The deflection at the free
end is 3 mm downwards. The modulus of elasticity is 205 GPa. The beam has a solid rectangular section
with a depth 3 times the width. (D= 3B). Determine

i. the flexural stiffness. (694.4 MNm2)

ii. the dimensions of the section. (197 mm wide and 591 mm deep).

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3. Case 2 - Cantilever with a Uniformly Distributed Load.

Figure 3

The bending moment at position x is given by

Substituting this into equation 1A we have

Integrate with respect to x

Integrate again

A and B are constants of integration and must be found from the boundary conditions. These are

x = L y = 0 (no deflection)
x = L dy/dx = 0 (horizontal)

Substitute x = L and dy/dx = 0 in equation 3A and we get

Substitute this into equation 3B with the known solution y = 0 and x = L results in

Putting the results for A and B into equations 3A and 3B yields the complete equations

The main point of interest is the slope and deflection at the free end where x = 0. Substituting x = 0 into (3C)
and (3D) gives the standard equations. The slope and deflection at the free end is

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 WORKED EXAMPLE No. 2

A cantilever beam is 4 m long and has a u. d. l. of 300 N/m. The flexural stiffness is 60 MN m2.
Calculate the slope and deflection at the free end.

SOLUTION

i. Slope

From equation 3E we have

ii. Deflection

From equation 3F we have

Deflection is 0.16 mm downwards.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 2

1. A cantilever is 6 m long with a u. d. l. of 1 kN/m. The flexural stiffness is 100 MN m2.

Calculate the slope and deflection at the free end.
(360 10-6 and -1.62 mm)

2. A cantilever beam is 5 m long and carries a u. d. l. of 8 kN/m. The modulus of elasticity is 205 GPa and
beam is a solid circular section. Calculate

i. the flexural stiffness which limits the deflection to 3 mm at the free end.
(208.3 MN m2).

ii. the diameter of the beam. (379 mm).

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4. Case 3 - Simply Supported Beam With a Point Load in the Middle.

Figure 4

The beam is symmetrical so the reactions are F/2. The bending moment equation will change at the centre
position but because the bending will be symmetrical each side of the centre we need only solve for the left
hand side.

The bending moment at position x up to the middle is given by M = Fx/2. Substituting this into equation 1A
we have

Integrate

Integrate again

A and B are constants of integration and must be found from the boundary conditions. These are

x = 0 , y = 0 (no deflection at the ends)

x = L/2, dy/dx = 0 (horizontal at the middle)

Putting x = L/2 and dy/dx = 0 in equation 4A results in

Substitute into 4B

Put y = 0 at x = 0

Equations 4A and 4 B become

The main point of interest is the slope at the ends and the deflection at the middle. Substituting x = 0 into
(4C) gives the standard equation for the slope at the left end. The slope at the right end will be equal but of
opposite sign. (negative on the left and positive on the right). The slope at the ends is

Substituting x = L/2 into equation 4D gives the standard equation for the deflection at the middle:

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 WORKED EXAMPLE No. 3

A simply supported beam is 8 m long with a load of 500 kN at the middle. The deflection at the middle
is 2 mm downwards. Calculate the gradient at the ends.

SOLUTION

Put y = - 2 mm intoequation 4F we have

From equation 4E we have

The gradient will be negative at the left end and positive at the right end.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 3

1. A simply supported beam is 4 m long and has a load of 200 kN at the middle. The flexural stiffness is
300 MNm2. Calculate the slope at the ends and the deflection at the middle.
(0.000667 and -0.89 mm).

2. A simply supported beam is made from a hollow tube 80 mm outer diameter and 40 mm inner diameter.
It is simply supported over a span of 6 m. A point load of 900 N is placed at the middle. Find the
deflection at the middle if E = 200 GPa.
(-10.7 mm).

3. Find the flexural stiffness of a simply supported beam which limits the deflection to 1 mm at the middle.
The span is 2 m and the point load is 200 kN at the middle.
(33.3 MNm2).

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5. Case 4 - Simply Supported Beam with a Uniformly Distributed Load.

Figure 5

The beam is symmetrical so the reactions are wL/2. The bending moment at position x is

Substituting this into equation 1A we have

Integrate

Integrate again

A and B are constants of integration and must be found from the boundary conditions. These are
at x = 0 , y = 0 (no deflection at the ends)
at x = L/2, dy/dx = 0 (horizontal at the middle)

Putting x = L/2 and dy/dx = 0 in equation (5A) results in

Substitute for A in (5B) and put y = 0 at x = 0

Substitute for A and B in equation (5A) and (5B)

The main point of interest is the slope at the ends and the deflection at the middle. Substitute x = 0 into (5C)
gives the standard equation for the slope at the left end. The slope at the right end will be equal but of
opposite sign. The slope at free end is

The slope is negative on the left end but will be positive on the right end.
Substituting x = L/2 into equation 5D gives the standard equation for the deflection at the middle:
Deflection at middle

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 WORKED EXAMPLE No. 4

A simply supported beam is 8 m long with a u. d. l. of 5 000 N/m. Calculate the flexural stiffness which
limits the deflection to 2 mm at the middle. Calculate the gradient at the ends.

SOLUTION

Putting y = -0.002 m into equation 5F we have

From equation 5E we have

The gradient will be negative at the left end and positive at the right end.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 4

1. A simply supported beam is 4 m long with a u.d.l. of 200 N/m.

The flexural stiffness is 100 MN m2. Calculate the slope at the ends and the deflection at the middle.
(5.33 10-6) and -6.67 10-6 m).

2. A simply supported beam is made from a hollow tube 80 mm outer diameter and 40 mm inner diameter.
It is simply supported over a span of 6 m. The density of the metal is 7 300 kg/m3.
E =200 GPa. Calculate the deflection at the middle due to the weight of the beam.
(-12 mm)

3. Find the flexural stiffness of a simply supported beam which limits the deflection to 1 mm at the middle.
The span is 2 m and the u.d.l. is 400 N/m.
(83.3 kN m2)

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6. The Theory of Superposition for Combined Loads.

This theory states that the slope and deflection of a beam at any point is the sum of the slopes and
deflections which would be produced by each acting alone. For beams with combinations of loads which are
standard cases we only need to use the standard formulae. This is best explained with a worked example.

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 5

A cantilever beam is 4m long with a flexural stiffness of 20 MN m2. It has a point load of 1 kN at the
free end and a u. d. l. of 300 N/m along its entire length. Calculate the slope and deflection at the free
end.

SOLUTION

For the point load only

For the u. d. l. only

The total deflection is hence y= - 1.54 mm.

For the point load only

For the u. d. l. only

The total slope is hence

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7. Macaulay's Method

When the loads on a beam do not conform to standard cases, the solution for slope and deflection must be
found from first principles. Macaulay developed a method for making the integrations simpler.

The basic equation governing the slope and deflection of beams is

Where M is a function of x

When a beam has a variety of loads it is difficult to apply this theory because some loads may be within the
limits of x during the derivation but not during the solution at a particular point. Macaulay's method makes it
possible to do the integration necessary by placing all the terms containing x within a square bracket and
integrating the bracket, not x. During evaluation, any bracket with a negative value is ignored because a
negative value means that the load it refers to is not within the limit of x. The general method of solution is
conducted as follows. Refer to figure 6. In a real example, the loads and reactions would have numerical
values but for the sake of demonstrating the general method we will use algebraic symbols. This example
has only point loads.

Figure 6

1. Write down the bending moment equation placing x on the extreme right hand end of the beam so that it
contains all the loads. Write all terms containing x in a square bracket.

2. Integrate once treating the square bracket as the variable.

3. Integrate again using the same rules.

4. Use boundary conditions to solve A and B.

5. Solve slope and deflection by putting in appropriate value of x. Ignore any brackets containing negative
values.

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 WORKED EXAMPLE No. 6

Figure 7
The beam shown is 7 m long with an E I value of 200 MN m2. Determine the slope and deflection at the
middle.

SOLUTION

First solve the reactions by taking moments about the right end.

30 5 + 40 2.5 = 7 R1 hence R1 = 35.71 kN R2 = 70 - 35.71 = 34.29 kN

Next write out the bending equation.

Integrate once treating the square bracket as the variable.

Integrate again

Boundary Conditions- x = 0, y = 0 and x = 7 y = 0

Using equation 2 and putting x = 0 and y = 0 we get

Ignore negative brackets and it follows B = 0

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 Using equation 2 again but this time x = 7 and y = 0

A = -187 400

Now use equations 1 and 2 with x = 3.5 to find the slope and deflection at the middle.

The last bracket is negative so ignore

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 WORKED EXAMPLE No.7

Figure 8
The beam shown is 6 m long with an E I value of 300 MN m2. Determine the slope at the left end and
the deflection at the middle.

SOLUTION

First solve the reactions by taking moments about the right end.

30 4+2 62/2 = 6 R1 =156 hence R1 = 26 kN

Total downwards load is 30 + (6 2) = 42 kN R2 = 42 - 26 = 16 kN

Next write out the bending equation.

Integrate once treating the square bracket as the variable.

Integrate

Boundary Conditions- x = 0, y = 0 and x = 6 y = 0

Using equation 2 and putting x = 0 and y = 0 we get

Hence B = 0

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 Using equation 2 again but this time x = 6 and y = 0

Now use equations 1 with x = 0 to find the slope at the left end.

Now use equations 2 with x = 3 to find the deflection at the middle.

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 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 5

1. Find the deflection at the centre of the beam shown. The flexural stiffness is 20 MN m2. (0.0607 mm)

Figure 9

2. Find the deflection of the beam shown at the centre position. The flexural stiffness is 18 MNm 2.
(1.6 mm)

Figure 10

3. Find value of E I which limits the deflection of the beam shown at the end to 2 mm. (901 800 N m2)

Figure 11

4. A cantilever is 5m long and has a flexural stiffness of 25 MN m2. It carries a point load of 1.5 kN at the
free end and a u.d.l. of 500 N/m along its entire length. Calculate the deflection and slope at the free end.
(-4.06 mm and 1.167 10-3)

5. A cantilever beam is 6 m long and has a point load of 800 N at the free end and a u.d.l. of 400 N/m along
its entire length. Calculate the flexural stiffness if the deflection is 1.5 mm downwards at the free end.
(81.6 MN m2).

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6. A simply supported beam is 6 m long and has a flexural stiffness of 3 MN m2. It carries a point load of
800 N at the middle and a u. d. l. of 400 N/m along its entire length. Calculate the slope at the ends and
the deflection at the middle.
(1.8 10-3 and 3.45 mm).

7. Calculate the flexural stiffness of a simply supported beam which will limit the deflection to 2 mm at the
middle. The beam is 5 m long and has a point load of 1.2 kN at the middle and a u. d. l. of 600 N/m
along its entire length.
(4 MN m2).

The beam has a solid rectangular section twice as deep as it is wide. Given the modulus of elasticity is
120 GPa, calculate the dimensions of the section.
(168 mm 84 mm).

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8. Encastré Beams

An encastré beam is one that is built in at both ends. As with a cantilever, there must be a bending moment
and reaction force at the wall. In this analysis it is assumed that

 There is no deflection at the ends.

 The ends are horizontal.
 The beam is free to move horizontally (hence the rollers).

Figure 12

First let us consider two standard cases, one with a point load at the middle and one with a uniformly
distributed load. In both cases there will be a reaction force and a fixing moment at both ends. We shall use
Macaulay’s method to solve the slope and deflection.

8.1 Point Load in middle

In this case RA = RB = F/2

Figure 13

The bending moment at distance x from the left end is

Integrate

Since the slope is zero at both ends then use x = 0 and

The square bracket is negative so equal to zero. Hence A = 0

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Integrate again

The deflection at both ends is zero so put x =0

It follows the B = 0

The constants of integration A and B are always zero for an encastré beam but the problem is not made easy
because we now have to find the fixing moment M.

Equations 1 and 2 give the slope and deflection. Before they can be solved, the fixing moment must be
found by using another boundary condition. Remember the slope and deflection is both zero at both ends of
the beam so we have two more boundary conditions to use. A suitable condition is that y = 0 at x = L. From
equation 2 this yields

If we substitute x = L/2 and M A = -FL/8 the slope and deflection at the middle from equations 1 and 2
becomes

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8.2 Uniformly Distributed Load

Figure 14
In this case RA = RB = wL/2
The bending moment at distance x from the left end is

Integrate

Since the slope is zero at both ends then put

Integrate again

The deflection is zero at both ends so put y = 0 at 0 and hence B = 0

As in the other case, A and B are zero but we must find the fixing moment by using the other boundary
condition of y = 0 when x = L

If we substitute x = L/2 and M A= -wL2/12 into equations 1 and 2 we get the slope and deflection at the
middle to be

The same approach may be used when there is a combination of point and uniform loads.

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 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 6

1. Solve the value of EI which limits the deflection under the load to 0.05 mm.
(Ans. 1.53 GN m2)

Figure 15

2. Solve the value of EI which limits the deflection under at the middle to 0.2 mm. (Ans. 11 MN m2)

Figure 16

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