EXPERIMENT -3

Aim: To verify the laws of combination (series & parallel) of resistances using meter bridge (slide Wire Bridge)
Apparatus: A meter bridge, laclanche cell, a galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey, two resistances wires, set
square, sand paper and connecting wires.
(0) in sories

(100-1)

Fig. 3.1 Series combination of reaintancos

In parallel

(100-4

Fig. 3.2 Parallel combination of resistancos

Observations: Table for length () & unknown resistance (r):

Page 3 (PHYSICS)

Resistance
from Length Resistance Mean
Resistant Obs. No. Length BC= 100 -I
100-/
resistance Resistant
Coil AB =1 (cm) (cm) r= R
box, (ohm)
R (ohm)
1 0.5 35 65 0.92
r; only 2 1.0 43 57 1.32 1.24
3 1.5 50 50 1.5
0.5 30 70 1.16
I; only 2 1.0 38 62 1.63 1.51
3 1.5 46 54 1.76
1.3 34 66 2.52
, &r; in 2 2.2 45 55 2.68 2.72
series
3.5 54 46 2.97
2 75 25 0.67
r, &r, in 0.66
2 82 18 0.66
parallel
3 4 86 14 0.65
Calculations:
(i) In Series: Experimental value of R_ = 2.72 2
Theoretical value of Rs = I +r= 2.75 2
(ü) In parallel: Experimental value of Rp = 0.66 S2
Theoretical value of Rp = =0.682

Result: Within limits of experimental error, experimental & theoretical values of R_ are same. Hence the law of
resistance in series i.e. R_ = r + r2 is verified. (1) Within limits of experimental error, experimental & theoretical
values of Rp are same. Hence law of resistances in parallel i.e. Rs = is verified.

Precautions:
(i) The connections should be neat, clean & tight.
(i) Move the jockey gently over the wire & don't rub it.
(iii) All plugs in resistant box should be tight.
Sources of Error:
(i) The plugs may not be clean.
(iü) The instrument screws maybe loose.
 EXPERIMENT
Aim: To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method & to find its figure of merit.
Apparatus: A Weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery, a rheostat, two resistance boxes (10,000 2 and 500
2), two one-way keys, a screw gauge, a meter scale, connecting wires and a piece of sandpaper.
Circult Diagram : 0 For half deflection method For fiqure of merit
K, K

Fig. 7.1 : Resistance of galvanometer Fig. 7.2: Figure of merit

Formulae Used:
(i) The resistant of the given galvanometer found by half-deflection method:
R.S
G=
R-S
Where R: resistance connected in series with the galvanometer
S: shunt resistance For Half Deflection:
E
Half Galvanometer
(ii) Figure of merit: k= (R+G) O Resistance
Deflection in Shunt
Deflectio Resistance
No. R (2)
galvanometer resistance n RS
Where E: emf of the cell (0) s (2) 0/2
G=
R-S
O; deflection produced with resistance R. 1 4500 30 70 15 71.1
9500 14 70 7 70.5
3 S200 26 70 13 70.9
4 5700 24 70 12 70.8
Mean G= 70,8 2

Calculation: Mean G= 70.8 S2

(i) For G:Calculate G using formula. For Figure of Merit:

Take mean of all values of G recorded in table. Figure of
Resistance
(ii) For k: Calculate k using formula & record in table. S Emf of the Deflection Merit
from R. B.
Take mean of values of k. No cells E (v) R2
0(div.) K=
Result: (R+Gje
1.5 x 2 3 4500 30 2.18 x 1o5
(i) Resistance of Galvanometer by half - deflection method: 2 9500 14 2.23 x 105
G=70.82 3 5200 26 2.18 x 1o5
(ii) Figure of merit, k = 2.19 x 10 A/div 4 3 5700 24 2.16 x 10o5
Mean K= 2.19x 10 AVdiv.
Precautions:
() All the plugs in resistance boxes should be tight.
(ii) The emf of cell or battery should be constant.
(ii) Initially a high resistance from the resistance box (R) should be introduced in the circuit. Otherwise for small
resistance, an excessive current will flow through the galvanometer or ammeter &damage them.
Sources of error:
(i) Plug of the resistant boxes may not be clean.
(ii) The screws of the instruments maybe loose.
(iii) The emf of the battery may not be constant.
 EXPERIMENT 12)
Aim: (i) To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by ploting a graph between angle of incidence
& angle of deviation.
(ii)To determine the refractive index of the material (glass) of the prism.
Apparatus: Drawing board, a white sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil, half metre scale, office pins, graph
paper & protector.
Diagram

K
Fig. 13.1 :Refraction through prism at diferent angies
Formulae Used:
The refractive index, l of the material of the prism is given by:
(A+ Dm
sin
2 Where Dam is the angle of minimum deviation & A is the angle of prism.

Calculations:
From graph between angle of incidence, Zi and angle of deviation, we get the value of D,, (angle of minimum
deviation): D,m= 37.8°

Thus, sin
A+ Dm
2 sin7.s)
sin 30
(8)
Deviation
S. Angle of Angle of
u=1.5077 No. Incidence Zi Deviation Z8
ofAngle
1 35° 430
400 38.8°
3 45° 37.8°
4 50° 38
5 55° 40°
Angle of Incidence (i) --->
Result: 6 60° 420

(i)From Zi-D graph we see that as Zi increases, D first decreases, attains a minimum value (D) & then again
starts increasing for further increase in Zi.
(ii) Angle of minimum deviation =Dm = 37.8°
Page 13 (PHYSICS)

(iii) Refraction index of material of prism, =15077

Precautions:
(i) The angle of incidence should be between 30°- 60.
(i) The pins should be fixed vertical.
(iii) The distance between the two pins should not be less than 8 cm.
Sources of Error:
(i) Pin pricks may be thick.
(i) Measurement of angles maybe wrong.
 ammeter should be in series with circuit.

EXPERIMENT
Aim: To find the value of v for different values of 'u' in case of a concave mirror & to find its focal length.
Apparatus: An optical bench with three uprights. Concave miror, a mirror holder, two optical needles, a knitting
needle & a half-meter scale.
Ray Diagram :
|Image
Formulae Used: The mirror formula is:

f uv
We have,f=
Image Object Needle
Where, f= focal length of concave mirror. Needle
u= distance of object needle from pole of mirror.
Fig. 9.1 :Focal Length of Concave Mirror
v= distance of image needle from pole of mirror.

Page 8 (PHYSICS)

Observation:
Rough focal length of given concave mirror = 10.9 cm
Actual length of the knitting needle, x = 15 cm
Observed distance between the mirror & object needle when knitting needle is placed between them, y = 15.2 cm.
Observed distance between the mirror & image needle when knitting needle is placed between them, z = 15.8 cm.
Index error for u, e, =y-x=-0.2 cm
Index error for v, e) = Z-X =-0.8cm
Position Corrected Distance
Sr. 1/u
Concave Object Image PO PI
No.
Needle I
(cm) (cm')
Mirror P (cm) Needle O u cm V Cm
0,0 18 26 17.8 25.2 0.056 0.037
0.0 17 30.3 16.8 29.5 0.06 0.034
3 0.0 16 33.4 15.8 32.6 0.063 0.031
|0.0 26 18 25.8 17.2 0.038 0.058
0.0 30.3 17 30.1 16.2 0.033 0.061
0.0 33.4 16 33.2 15.2 0.030 0.065

<-- u (cm)
Calculations:
()-vgraph:
Explanation: from mirror formula applied to point A:

As u=v.-or andf=or
2
f u
-OD -21
Hence,f=
2 2
=-10.5 cm
Graph Scale: X' axis: Icm =5 cm of u
Y' axis: lcm=5cm of v
-OB
Alsof= -=-10.5cm
2 Graph between u & v
Mean value of f= -10.5 cm
Co-l/u (cm)
i) -andgraph:
The focal length, f= 1 -10.47cmn
OA OB

Graph Scale: X* axis: I cm = 0.0l cm' of

Y' axis: I cm = 0.0l cm' of

Result: The focal length of the given concave mirror:
(i) From u-v graph is :f= -10.5 cm
1 1
(ii) From -graph is:f= -10.47 cm
Precautions: Graph beween lhu and lw
(i) The uprights should be vertical.
(ii)Tip-to-tip parallax should be removed between the needle I and image of needle O.
(iii) To locate the pOsition of the image the eye should be at least 30 cm away from the needle.
Sources of Error: * The uprights may not be vertical. * Parallax removal may not be perfect.
Daao o /DuVCICSL
 EXPERIMENT
Aim: To find the focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens.
7
Apparatus: An optical bench with four uprights (2 fixed upright in middle two outer uprights with lateral movement).
convex lens, convex mirror, a lens holder, a mirror holder, 2 optical needles (one thin, one thick), a knitting needle, a
half meter scale.
Ray Diagram :

(a)

(b

Fig. : 10.1 Focal Length of Convex Mirror

Formula Used:
R
Focal length of aconvex mirror f = 2
Where R is radius of curvature of the mirror.
Observation:
(i) Actual length of knitting needle, x = 15 cm.
(i) Observed distance between image needle I and back of convex mirror, y= 15 cm
(iii) Index error =y -x = 15- 15 =0 cm No index correction
Observation Table:
Position of: Radius of
S. N. Object needle Lens Mirror Image needle Curvature
0 (cm) L cm M cm I(cm) MI (cm)
1 25 50 56 70.5 14.5
2 28.5 50 60 73.3 13.3
3 31.5 50 65 78.4 13.4
4 30.5 50 60 74 14
Mean R = 13.8

Caleulation:
R
Mean corrected MI =R= 13.8 cm f==6.9cm
Result:
The focal length of the given convex mirror = 6.9 cm
Precautions:
(i) The tip of the needle, centre of the mirror & centre of lens should be at the same height.
(ii)Convex lens should be of large focal length.
(ii) For one set of observations, when the parallax has been removed for convex lens alone, the position of the lens &
needle uprights should not be changed.
 EXPERIMENT 8
Aim: To draw the I-V characteristics curve of p-n junction in forward blas &reverse bias.

Page 14 (PHYSICS)

Apparatus: Ap-n junction semi-conductor diode, a three volt battery, a high resistance, a rheostat, a voltmeter (0
3v), a milli ammeter (0-.30 mA), one - way key, connecting wires.
’FOWAFDAPENT
(m

FORNNROVCLTAGE r

FEVEROE ASM
B

Observations:
Least count of voltmeter = 0.02 & 1 v/div Zero error =
Least count of milli-ammeter=0.2 mA/div Zero error =
Least count of micro-ammeter =2 A/div Zero error =
Observation Table:
S. No. Forward Bias Voltage Forward Current Reverse bias Voltage Reverse Current
() (mA) (V) (uA)
1 10 x 0.02 =0.20 2x 0.2 =0.4 10 x1 = 10 5x2= 10
2 0.30 4x 0.2 = 0.8 15
3 0.40 6x 0.2 = 1.6 20 22
0.50 11 x 0.2 = 2.2 25
5 0.60 18 x 0.2 = 3.6 30
6 0.70 23 x 0.2 =4.6 35 48
0.80 31 x 0.2 = 6.2 40 60
8 0.90 39 x 0.2 =7.8 45 72
IPCrvefor p-njuction ok

Page 15 (PHYSICS)

Caleulations:
Graph is plotted between forward - bias voltage (Vp) (on x-axis) and forward current, Ir (on y -axis)
Scale: X- axis: I cm =V of Ve Y-axis: lcm = mA of Ip
Graph is plotted between reverse bias voltage, Vg (alongX' axis) and reverse current, Ig (along Y' axis).
Scale: X' axis =I cm=V of Vg Y' axis =lcm =A of I
Result: The obtained curves are the characteristics curves of the semi-conductor diode.
Precautions:
(i) All connections should be neat, clean & tight. (ii) Key should be used in circuit & opened when the circuit is not
being used. (iii) Forward bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
Sources of error: The junction diode supplied maybe faulty.