1

PHY 1311 (MECHANICS) LECTURE NOTE

THE CONCEPT OF UNIT

Assuming,a teacher measured the length of a wire and found it to be 20cm. Instead of writing
20cm, he mistakenly wrote 20 only on the board. He then asked three of his students to tell
him what was the length of the ruler measured. As such, based on what was written on the
board, student A said it was 20mm, student B said it was 20m, student C said it was 20
inches. What brought about the different answers was the failure of the teacher to attach aunit
to the quantity measured. Thishas really illustrates an important point. Therefore, quoting the
result of a calculation or measurement without attaching a UNITto it is useless. Frankly, this
is a common reason for many students losing marks in examinations. So, the concept of
UNIT is of paramount importance not only in physics.

To make accurate and reliable measurements, weneed units of measurement thatdo not
change and that can be duplicated by observers in various locations around the globe.
Thesystem of units used by scientists and engineers around the world is commonlycalled"The
metric system”, but since 1960 it has been known officially as theInternational system of
units, or SI (the abbreviation for its French name is SystemeInternational). The main
advantage of using a set of agreed units is that scientists from all over the world can exchange
ideas and designs for experiments without having to translate specifications into different
units. It is rather like having a common language.

There are two types of units namely:

• Base or Fundamental Units.

• Derived Units.

Fundamental Units

Scientists have worked out that they can measure any quantity in nature in terms of a small
number of base units. The challenge is to reduce the number of base/fundamental units to a
minimum and still be able to measure anything that can come up. Thus, it has been possible
to keep to combinations of the seven base units as listed below:
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NOTE:Any number that is used to describe a physical phenomenon quantitatively is called a

physical quantity.

Derived Units
From the word ‘derive’, the derived units are obtained from combination of two or more
fundamental units. They enable us to measure more than the basic quantities of length, time,
mass, etc. For instance, there is no unit for speed among the base units. However, a suitable
unit can be derived from the equation for speed as:
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑚)
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑠)
This suggests that the unit of speed is metres divide by seconds; unfortunately, such a
division is impossible. Division can only happen when the quantities are of the same type.
We now say instead that the unit of speed is metres per second and denoted as ms-1.
Accelaration is another important quantity. It is the rate at which speed is changing:
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (𝑚𝑠 !" ) − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (𝑚𝑠 !" )
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑠)
The top line is the difference between two quantities in ms-1. The bottom line is in seconds.
Thus, the units of acceleration are ‘metre per second per second’, or ms-2.
The following table shows some other examples of the derived units:

Quantity Derived Unit Name

force kg m s-2 Newton (N)
pressure kg m-1 s-2 Pascal (Pa)
energy kg m2 s-2 Joule (J)
charge As Coulomb(C)
volume m3 -

Unit Prefixes
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Once we have defined the fundamental units, it is easy to introduce larger andsmaller units
for the same physical quantities. In the metric system,these other units are related to the
"
fundamental units by multiples of 10 or . Thus, one kilometer (1 km) is 1000 meters, and
"#
" "
one centimetre (1 cm)is "##
meter. Weusually express multiples ofl0 or "#
in exponential
"
notation; 1000 = l03, "###
= 103and so on. With this notation, 1 km = l03mand 1cm = 10-2

m.The names of additional units are derived by adding a prefix to the name of the
fundamental unit. For example, the prefix "kilo-," abbreviated k, always means a unit larger
by a factor of1000; thus

1kilometer = 1km = 103meters = 103m.

1 kilogram = 1kg = 103gram = 103g.
1 kilowatt =1 kW = 103 watts = 103 W.
The table below shows the standard prefixes:

Prefix Symbol Multiplies unit by Multiples

kilo- k 103
mega- M 106
giga- G 109
tera- T 1012
Peta- P 1015
exa- E 1018
Multiplies unit by Submultiples
milli- m 10-3
micro- μ 10-6
nano- n 10-9
pico- p 10-12
femto- f 10-15
atto- a 10-18
Other common prefixes
deci- d 10-1
centi- c 10-2
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THE CONCEPT OF DIMENSION

Let consider a simple arithmetic equation such as:
3+5=8
The equation balances, because the value of the numbers on the left-hand side is equal to the
value of numbers on the right-hand side. In physics, equations usually equate quantities that
have magnitude (values), dimensions and units. All three must balance for the equation to be
meaningful.
However, the word dimension has a special meaning in physics. It denotes the physical nature
ofa quantity. Whether a distance is measured in units of feet or metres or inches, it isstill a
distance. We say its dimension is length.
In other words, dimension is the type of quantity we are dealing with independent of its units
or value. For instance, 100cm, 1m, 2 miles and 3 light-years all have the dimension of length,
but are expressed in different units. Simple numbers, as in the above arithmetic equation, are
dimensionless, whereas dimensions are valueless.
The examples below show situations in which values balance but dimensions and/or units do
not.
3 kg + 5 kg = 8 m(1)
3 m + 5 m = 8 cm (2)
ü Equation (1) is meaningless because the left-hand side has the dimension of
mass while the right-hand side has the dimensions of length.
ü Equation (2) is also incorrect. Both sides of the equation have the same
dimension of length but the units are different.
Equations whose dimensions and units balance are said to be homogeneous. Although being
homogeneous does not guarantee that an equation is correct. An example of homogeneous
but incorrect equation is F = 2ma with all quantities measured SI units.
However, all the quantities used to describe mass and motion are combinations of the three
fundamental dimensions of mass (M), length (L) and time (T). To find dimensions of any
particular quantity, you must find an equation that relates it to quantities you do know and
then balance the dimensions.
It helps to introduce square brackets to mean ‘the dimensions of ….’ For example: [v] means
‘the dimensions of velocity’. Then [v] = LT-1 means ‘the dimensions of velocity are length
divided by time’.
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The units of a quantity follow from its dimensions. In principle, there is a free choice of all
possible units for each dimension. That is, velocity could be measured in metres per second,
or centimetres per century, or feet per hour. In practice, SI is usually adopted, so that all
lengths are in metres, masses in kilograms and times in seconds.
Example1. Find the dimensions and units for energy.
Solution
Any equation for energy would do, for example
1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 $
2
Hence,
1
[𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦] = A B [𝑚][𝑉 ]$ = 𝑀𝐿$ 𝑇 !$
2
"
Note that the number $
is simply replaced by unity (1) because it is dimensionless. The

suitable SI units for energy are kg m2 s-2, which is renamed the Joule (J).
Using Dimensions
Although dimensions are more fundamental than units, either can be used in a similar way to
check equations and to predict the form of new relationship. This can be illustrated in the
followings two examples:
Example 1: A student derives an expression for frictional drag on a car body and comes up
"
with 𝐹 = $ 𝐶𝜌𝐴𝑣

Where 𝜌 is the density of the air through which the vehicle moves at a velocity 𝑣, A is the
cross-sectional area of the vehicle, C is a dimensionless constant of proportionality.
Solution
LHS: [F] = M L T-2 (taken from the dimensions of 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎)
"
RHS: K$L [𝐶 ][𝜌][𝐴][𝑣] = 1 × 1 × 𝑀𝐿!% × 𝐿$ × 𝐿𝑇 !" = 𝑀𝑇 !"

The two sides have different dimensions by LT-1. The difference corresponds to the
"
dimensions of velocity. Therefore, the correct relation is 𝐹 = $ 𝐶𝜌𝐴𝑣 $ .

Example 2: Suppose a small mass is suspended from a long thread so as to form a simple
pendulum. We may reasonably suppose that the period, T, of the oscillations depends only on
the mass m, the length 𝑙 of the thread, and the acceleration, 𝑔, of free-fall at the place
concerned. Suppose then that
𝑇 = 𝑘𝑚 & 𝑙 ' 𝑔 ( (1)
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Where 𝑥. 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 are unknown numbers. The dimensions of 𝑔 are LT-2. Now the
dimensions of both sides of equation (1) must be the same.
∴ 𝑇 ≡ 𝑀 & 𝐿' (𝐿𝑇 !$ ) ( (2)
Equating the indices of M, L, T on both sides, we have
𝑥=0
𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0and
−2𝑧 = 1
1 1
∴ 𝑧 = − ,𝑦 = ,𝑥 = 0
2 2
Thus, from equation (1), the period T is given by:
! !
)
𝑇 = 𝑘𝑙 " 𝑔 −" or𝑇 = 𝑘 V*

We cannot find the magnitude of k by the method of dimensions, since it is a number. A

)
complete mathematical investigation shows that 𝑘 = 2𝜋 in this case, and hence, 𝑇 = 2𝜋V*.

Note that T is independent of the mass m.

VECTORS AND SCALARS QUANTITIES

Physical quantities which have only magnitude (numerical value) are called SCALARS. On
other hands, the physical quantities having both magnitude and direction in space are called
VECTORS. However, scalars and vectors are both very important in physics. The followings
are examples of scalars and vectors:
ü Scalars: mass, energy, distance, speed, temperature, potential, time, density.
ü Vectors: displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum, field strength.
Working with scalars is easy, because they obey the rules of simple arithmetic. On the other
hands, combining vectors require a different set of operations. The simplest way to tackle
vector problems is to start with avector diagram. The beauty of vectors is that they all behave
in the same way, thus, anything we say about combining displacements for example, will also
hold for forces, field strengths, momenta. The combined effect (sum) of two or more vectors
is called the resultant vector.
Moreover, in some textbooks, a boldface letter, such as A, is usedto represent a vector
quantity. Another notation is useful when boldface notation is difficult, such as when writing
Y⃗.
on paper or on a chalkboard—an arrow is written over the symbol for the vector such as𝑨
The letter represents the magnitude while the arrow head shows direction. The magnitude of
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YY⃗is written either asA or|𝐴|. The magnitude of a vector has physical units, such as
the vector 𝑨
metres for displacement or metres per second for velocity. It is alwaysa positive number.

Vector Addition
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Subtraction of Vectors

Components of Vectors
Any vector quantity can be resolved (split) into components along any axes. This helps
because components along any given axis add like ordinary number. To find a resultant of
several vectors, it is simplest to resolve them along a common set of axes, find the resultant
components, and then reconstruct the resultant vector.
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Resolving a Vector
Y⃗ in the figure below? The
Example 1: what are the x- and y- components of vector 𝐷
magnitude of the vector is D = 3.00m and the angle 𝜃 = 45# .

Example 2: What is the resultant displacement when a ship sails 200km due north and then
150km due east.
Solution

Using Pythagoras’s theorem, we have

R2 = 2002 + 1502 = 62500
Therefore, R = 250km.
Since the resultant displacement is a vector, its magnitude and direction must be stated. This
can be done by giving a bearing(angle to the east of north) in this case.
From trigonometry,
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150𝑘𝑚
tan 𝜃 = = 0.75
2000𝑘𝑚
∴ 𝜃 = 37#

Unit Vector
This is a vector having unit magnitude(a magnitude of 1), with no units. Its only purpose isto
points-that is to describe a direction in space. A caret or “hat” (ᴧ) is included in the symbol
for a unit vector to distinguish it from ordinary vectors whose magnitude may or may not be
equal to 1.
In an x-y coordinate system, we can define a unit vector 𝚤̂ that points in the direction of the
positive x-axis and a unit vector 𝚥̂that pointsin the direction of positive y-axis. We can
YY⃗in terms of its components as:
express a vector 𝑨

YY⃗ and Y𝐁
When two vectors 𝐀 Y⃗ are represented in terms of their components, we can express the

vector sum YY⃗

𝐑 using unit vectors as follows:

If the vectors do not lie in the xy-plane, then we need a third component. We introduce a third
unit vector 𝑘h that pointsin the direction of positive z-axis as shown below:
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Then, we can write

Example 1:

Solution
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Product of Vectors
Vectors are not ordinary numbers, so ordinary multiplication is not directly applicable to
vectors. Let define two different kinds of products of vectors, The SCALAR PRODUCT
which yields a result that is a scalar quantity and the VECTOR PRODUCT which yields
another vector.
Scalar Product:

Y⃗and 𝐁
It is defined as the product of the magnitude of the two vectors (𝐀 Y⃗) and the cosine of the
angle 𝜙between them.

0≤𝜙 ≤𝜋

The scalar product is a scalar quantity, not a vector, and may be positive, negative, or zero.
When ϕ = 900, then 𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐵
Y⃗ = 0. The scalar product of two perpendicular vectors is always
zero.
Vector Product

YY⃗and𝑩
The vector product of vectors𝑨 YY⃗is a vector 𝐂⃗ = 𝐀
Y⃗ × Y𝐁⃗ (reads 𝑨
Y⃗cross𝑩
YY⃗). The magnitude
Y⃗ × Y𝐁
of 𝐀 Y⃗ is defined as the product of the magnitude of 𝑨
Y⃗and𝑩
YY⃗and the sine of the angle
𝜙between them. Symbolically,
Y⃗ × 𝐁
𝐀 YY⃗ = AB sin 𝜙 𝐮, 0≤𝜙 ≤𝜋
Y⃗ × 𝐁
Where uis a unit vector indicating the direction of𝐀 Y⃗.

Note: If 𝐴⃗ = 𝐵
Y⃗, or 𝐴⃗ is parallel to 𝐵
Y⃗, then sin 𝜙 = 0 and we define 𝐀
Y⃗ × Y𝐁⃗ = 0.
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CONCEPT OFPROJECTILES
A proctile is any body that is given an initial velocity and then follows a path determined
completely by the effects of gravitational accelaration and air resistance. A thrown football, a
package dropped from an airplane, a bullet shot from a rifle, a stone released from catapult
and a thrown arrow are all examples of projectile. The path followed by a projectile is called
its trajectory and it is a parabola.
To show this, let consider a ball O thrown forward from the top of a cliff OA with a
horizontal velocity 𝑢, since 𝑢 is horizontal, it has no component in a vertical direction.
Similarly, since 𝑔 acts vertically, it has no component in a horizontal direction.

In a time 𝑡, the ball falls a vertical distance, 𝑦 say, from O given by:

Recall, from equation of motion,

"
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + $ 𝑎𝑡 $ , but 𝑠 = 𝑦, 𝑢 = 0, 𝑎 = 𝑔, then we can have,

" "
𝑦 = 0 + $ 𝑔𝑡 $ = $ 𝑔𝑡 $ (1)

In the same time the ball travels a horizontal distance, 𝑥 say, from O given by:

+,-.)/012134
From, 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 4,21

𝑥 = 𝑢𝑡 (2)
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Then, from (2), it follows,

&
𝑡=5 (3)

Substituting (3) into (1), we have,

*& "
𝑦= $5"
this is the equation of parabola and it is the path OB (trajectory).

MOTION OF PROJECTILE

In the figure below, a ball at O on the ground is thrown with a velocity 𝑢 at an angle 𝜃 to the
horizontal axis.

Motion of Projectile

The vertical and horizontal motions are considered separately in motion of this kind.

Vertical motion: The vertical components of 𝑢is 𝑢 sin 𝜃, the acceleration 𝑎 = −𝑔. When the
projectile reaches the ground at B, the vertical distance 𝑠 travelled is zero. So,

From,

"
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + $ 𝑎𝑡 $ , we have
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1
0 = 𝑢 sin 𝜃 × 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 $
2

$5 678 9
∴𝑡= *
(1)

Equation (1) is called the time of flight and it is defined as the total time taken for the
projectile to fall back to the same plane from which it was projected.

Horizontal motion: Since 𝑔 acts vertically, it has no component in a horizontal direction. So

the ball moves in a horizontal direction with an unchanged or constant velocity 𝑢 cos 𝜃,
because this is the component of 𝑢 horizontally. So,

𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 (𝑅) = 𝑂𝐵 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

2𝑢 sin 𝜃 2𝑢$ sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑢$ sin 2𝜃

= 𝑢 cos 𝜃 × = =
𝑔 𝑔 𝑔

5" 678 $9
∴𝑅= *
(2)

Equation (2) gives the range of a projectilewhich can be defined as the horizontal distance
covered by the projectile.

When 𝜃 = 45# , a maximum range is obtained, (because sin 2𝜃 = sin 90 = 1).

5"
Thus, 𝑅2/& = *
.

At maximum height (H) of the path, the vertical velocity of the ball is zero. So, applying 𝑉 =
𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 (in a vertical direction), the time 𝑡 to reach H is given by:

0 = 𝑢 sin 𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡

Making 𝑡 subject of the formula, we have,

5 678 9
𝑡= *
, this is half the time to reach B (it is the half of time of flight).

To derive expression for H,

Recall,

:;5
𝑠= $
× 𝑡,
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5 678 9
But, 𝑠 = 𝐻, 𝑣 = 0, 𝑢 = 𝑢 sin 𝜃, 𝑡 = , then
*

0 + 𝑢 sin 𝜃 𝑢 sin 𝜃 𝑢$ 𝑠𝑖𝑛$ 𝜃

𝐻= × =
2 𝑔 2𝑔

5" -,3" 9
∴𝐻= $*
This is called the maximum height and it is defined as the maximum

displacement on the vertical axis (y-axis) covered by the projectile.

Problems

1. A small ball A, suspended from a string OA, is set into oscillation. When the ball passes
through the lowest point of the motion, the string is cut. If the ball is then moving with the
velocity 0.8 m/s at a height of 5m above the ground. Find the horizontal distance travelled by
the ball (assuming 𝑔 = 10𝑚/𝑠).

2. A grasshopper jumps at angle of 300 to the horizontal with a take-off speed of 3m/s.

a. What is the height of its jump?

b. How long is it above the ground?

c. What is the range of its jump?

(Assuming g = 9.8m/s2)
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(-1-) - CONCEPT OF FORCE: Newton’s Laws of motion, mass, weight, Conservation of momentum,
elastic and inelastic collisions of particles along a straight line, Impulse of a force.
1.0 − Forces
In everyday language, a force is a push or a pull, or is a push or pull that one object exerts on
another which produces or tends to produce motion, stops or tends to stop motion, or change
the direction of motion. A force is something that is capable of changing an object’s state of
motion, that is, changing its velocity or producing an acceleration. Examples of common types of
force are:contact force, normal force, friction force, weight, tension force, electric force, magnetic
force, gravitational force and resistance (also known as viscous force), etc.

1.1 − Newton’s Laws of motion

ISAAC NEWTON English Physicist and Mathematician (1642–1727). Newton was one of the
most brilliant and greatest scientists in history. Before he was 30, he formulated the basic
concepts and laws of mechanics, discovered the law of universal gravitation, and invented the
mathematical methods of the calculus. As a consequence of his theories, Newton was able to
explain the motions of the planets, the ebb and flow of the tides, and many special features of
the motions of the Moon and Earth. He also interpreted many fundamental observations
concerning the nature of light. His contributions to physical theories dominated scientific
thought for two centuries and remain important today.

1.1.1 − Newton’s First Law of Motion: If no net force acts on a body, the body’s velocity cannot
change; that is, the body cannot accelerate. In other word, In the absence of an unbalanced applied
force , (Fnet = 0) a body at rest remains at rest, and a body in motion remains in motion with a constant
velocity (constant speed and direction).

The First Law tells us two things:

Ø If there is no resultant force acting on an object at rest, the object will remain at rest.
Ø If there is no resultant force acting on a moving object, the moving object will continue to move at
a constant speed in a straight line i.e. velocity is constant.

The First Newton’s law is sometimes called the law of inertia. Inertia is the natural tendency of
an object to maintain a state of rest or to remain in uniform motion in a straight line (constant
velocity) unless acted upon by an external force. The inertia of an object is determined by its
mass. The greater the mass of an object, the greater is its opposition to a change in its state of
rest or uniform motion.

1.1.2 − Newton’s Second Law of Motion

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What happens when there is a resultant force or net force acting on an object? Newton’s Second
Law explains how the motion of an object changes when the net force is not zero.

“If a net external force acts on a body, the body accelerates. The direction of acceleration is the same as
the direction of the net force.In other words,The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the
net force acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass.The direction of the acceleration is in the
direction of the applied net force”.

In symbols, (Newton’s second law of motion)

Where F is the net force, m is the mass in 𝑘𝑔 and a is the acceleration of an object in m/s2. Force
is a vector quantity and its SI unit is newton (N). Newton’s second law tells us that when there is
a resultant force acting on an object, the object will either slow down (decelerate) or speed up
(accelerate). Newton’s second law is a fundamental law of nature, the basic relationship
between force and motion.

Mass: is a quantitative measure of inertia of a body. That is, a massive object has more inertia,
or more resistance to a change in motion, than does a less massive object. For example, a car has
more inertia than a bicycle.Mass is constant all over the world; it would be the same at the
equator or at the poles, or even if it were landed on the moon as it is on the earth. Mass doesn’t
depend on the value of g, but weight does. Mass is measured in kilogrammes, 𝑘𝑔, by using a
chemical balance, beam balance, lever balance and sliding mass balance.

Weight: is defined as the gravitational force of attraction that a celestial body exerts on an
object. In other ward, the magnitude of the gravitational force acting on an object of mass m
near Earth’s surface is called the weight, w, of the object, given by
W = mg
where g is the acceleration of gravity. SI unit: newton (N), even though g varies but a constant
value is used as 9.80 m/s2 near the earth surface and on the surface of the moon is about 1.625
m/s2.

The value of 𝑔 varies from place to place on the earth, therefore, the weight of an object differs
in different part of the world, it will be greater at the north and south poles of the earth, for
example, than at the equator. So the weight is greater at the poles.

Example 01:A car of mass 1200 kg accelerates from rest to 25 m/s in a time of 7 sec. Compute
the forward thrust of the car. (Assume there is no friction.)

SOLUTION
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m = 1200 kg u=0 v = 25 m/s t = 7 sec

:!5 ($> ! #) 2/-
we have to find acceleration first, using first equation of motion. a = = = 3.6
4 A -10
m/s2

Applying 2nd Newton’s law, the forward thrust F = ma = 1200 kg x 3.6 m/s2 = 4286 kg. m/s2 =
4286 N

Example 02:Compute the least acceleration with which a 37-kg boy can slide down a rope if
the rope can withstand a tension of only 200 N.

SOLUTION
The weight of boy is W = mg = (37 kg)(9.8 m/s2) = 363 N. the rope can support only 200 N, the
unbalance downward F on the boy must be at least 363 N – 200 N = 163 N.
!
Her minimum downward acceleration is then a =
"
=163/37 =5.2 m/s2

Example 03:A force of 23.0 N is applied at an angle of to the horizontal on a 15-𝑘𝑔 block
initially at rest on a frictionless surface, as illustrated in Fig. below. (a) What is the magnitude of
the block’s acceleration? (b) What is the magnitude of the normal force?

ANS = (a) = 1.33 m/s2 (b) = 158.5 N.

Example 04:Abox rests on a frozen pond, which serves as a frictionless horizontal surface. If a
fisherman applies a horizontal force with magnitude 48.0 N to the box and produces an
acceleration of magnitude 3.00 m/s2,what is the mass of the box?
ANS = 16 kg

Example 05:A force of 20 N is directed at an angle of 60 ° above the x-axis. A second force of 20
N is directed at an angle of 60 ° below the x-axis. What is the vector sum of these two forces?

ANS = 20 N in the +ve x-direction

Example 06:A 70.0-kg man stands on a bathroom scale in an elevator. Compute its weight, if
the elevator is slowing down at a rate of 3.00 m/s2 while descending? (Take g as 9.80 m/s2)

ANS = 896 N
 20

Example 07:At the surface of Jupiter’s moon, the acceleration due to gravity is g =1.81 m/s2. A
watermelon weighs 44.0 N at the surface of the earth. (a) What is the watermelon’s mass on the
earth’s surface? (b) What are its mass and weight on the surface of Jupiter’s moon?

ANS = (a) watermelon’s mass on the earth’s surface = 4.5 kg (b) m = 4.5 kg, w = 8.1 N

Example 08:AConsider a 2.0-kg ball and a 6.0-kg ball in free fall. (a) What is the net force
acting on each? (b) What is the acceleration of each?

ANS = (a) 2.0 kg = 20 N, 6.0 kg = 59 N (b) each have the same acceleration of 9.80 m/s2

Example 09:Aisha, who has a mass of 50.0 kg, is riding at 35.0 m/s in her red sports car when
she must suddenly slam on the brakes to avoid hitting a deer crossing the road. She strikes the
air bag that brings her body to a stop in 0.500 s. What average force does the seat belt exert on
her?
ANS = 3500 N.

Example 10:A 0.50-kg cart (#1) is pulled with a 1.0-N force for 1 second; another 0.50 kg cart
(#2) is pulled with a 2.0 N-force for 0.50 seconds. Which cart (#1 or #2) has the greatest
acceleration? Explain.
ANS =Cart #2 has the greatest acceleration. Recall that acceleration
depends on force and mass. They each have the same mass, yet cart #2 has the greater force.
1.1.3 − Newton’s Third Law
Force acting on a body is always the result of its interaction with another body, so forces always
come in pairs. You can’t pull on a doorknob without the doorknob pulling back on you. When
you kick a football, the forward force that your foot exerts on the ball launches it into its
trajectory, but you also feel the force the ball exerts back on your foot. If you kick a boulder, the
pain you feel is due to the force that the boulder exerts on your foot.

In each of these cases, the force that you exert on the other body is in the opposite direction to
the force that body exerts on you. Experiments show that whenever two bodies interact, the two
forces that they exert on each other are always equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. This
fact is called Newton’s third law of motion:

𝐹"$ = −𝐹$"
 21

Newton’s third law of motion states that:If body A exerts a force on body B (an “action”), then
body B exerts a force on body A (a “reaction”). These two forces have the same magnitude but
are opposite in direction. These two forces acton different bodies.

1.2 − Momentum, Impulse, and Collisions

The term momentum may bring to mind a football player running down the field, knocking down players
who are trying to stop him. Or you might have heard someone say that a team lost its momentum (and so
lost the game). Such everyday usages give some insight into the meaning of momentum. They suggest the
idea of mass in motion and therefore inertia. We tend to think of heavy or massive objects in motion as
having a great deal of momentum, even if they move very slowly. However, according to the technical
definition of momentum, a light object can have just as much momentum as a heavier one, and sometimes
more.

1.2.1 − Momentum:

Newton referred to what modern physicist’s term linear momentum (p) as “the quantity of
motion arising from velocity and the quantity of matter conjointly.” In other words, the
momentum of a body is proportional to both its mass and velocity. By definition,

“The linear momentum p of an object of mass m moving with velocity v is the product of its mass
and velocity”.
𝑝⃗ = 𝑚𝑣⃗

The SI unit of momentum is kilogram meter per second (kg . m/s)

It is common to refer to linear momentum as simply momentum. Momentum is a vector quantity

that has the same direction as the velocity, and x- and y-components with magnitudes of 𝑝! =
𝑚𝑣! and, 𝑝" = 𝑚𝑣" respectively.

Equation above, expresses the momentum of a single object or particle. For a system of more
5⃗) of the system is the vector sum of the
than one particle, the total linear momentum (𝐏
momenta of the individual particles:

5⃗ = P
P 5⃗# + 5P⃗$ + 5P⃗% + . . . = 9 P
5⃗&

∆𝑃5⃗
∆𝑃5⃗ = 𝐹'() 𝑥 ∆𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝐹'() = 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛′𝑠 2𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
∆𝑡

1.2.2 − Impulse:

When two objects—such as a hammer and a nail, a golf club and a golf ball, or even two cars—
collide, they can exert a large force on one another for a short period of time, or an impulse. The
 22

force is not constant in this situation. However, Newton’s second law in momentum form is still
useful for analyzing such situations by using average values.

Impulse is the product of the average force acting on the object and the time of action of the
force. The term 𝐹*+, ∆𝑡is known as the Impulse(I⃗)of the force:

𝐼⃗ = 𝐹*+, ∆𝑡 = ∆𝑃5⃗ = 𝑚𝑣⃗- − 𝑚𝑣⃗.

Where 𝐹*+, is the average force and t or ∆𝑡 is the time taken or interval. Thus, the impulse
exerted on an object is equal to the change in the object’s momentum. This statement is referred
to as the impulse–momentum theorem. The SI unit of impulse is newton-second (N.s) or
kilogram metre per second (kg ms-1), which are also units of momentum.

Example 11:A 5 kg mass is sitting on a frictionless surface. An unknown constant force pushes
the mass for 3 seconds until the mass reaches a velocity of 7 m/s. (a) What are the initial and the
final momentum of the mass? (b) What are the force and the impulse acting on the mass?

ANS = (a) 0, 35 kg m/s (b) 11.6 N, 34.8 Ns.

Example 12:(A) - cue stick hits a cue ball with an average force of 24 N for a duration of 0.028
s. If the mass of the ball is 0.16 kg, how fast is it moving after being struck?
ANS = 4.2 m/s

(B) - A ball of mass 5.0 kg moving with a speed of 2.0 m/s in the +x-direction hits a wall and
bounces back with the same speed in the −x-direction. What is the change of momentum of the
ball?

ANS = 20 kg m/s in the –ve x direction

Example 13:A system consists of three particles with these masses and velocities: mass
3.0 kg, moving north at 3.0 m/s; mass 4.0 kg, moving south at 5.0 m/s; and mass 7.0 kg,
moving north at 2.0 m/s. What is the total momentum of the system?
ANS = 3 kg m/s north
 23

Example 14:(A) - When tossed upward and hit horizontally by a batter, a 0.20-kg softball
receives an impulse of 3.0 Ns with what horizontal speed does the ball move away from the bat?
ANS = 15 m/s

(B) - An automobile with a linear momentum of 3.0 x 104 kg.m/s is brought to a stop in 5.0 s.
What is the magnitude of the average braking force?
ANS = 6000 N.

(C) - A pool player imparts an impulse of 3.2 Ns to a stationary 0.25-kg cue ball with a cue stick.
What is the speed of the ball just after impact?
ANS = 12.8 m/s

Example 15:(A) - An object of mass 3.0 kg is allowed to fall from rest under the force of gravity
for 3.4 s. What is the change in its momentum? Ignore air resistance. ANS = 100 kg m/s, downward in
the direction of motion

(B) - What average force is necessary to bring a 0.05-g sled from rest to a speed of 3.0 m/s in a
period of 0.02 min? Assume frictionless ice.
ANS = 0.000125 N.

1.2.3 Conservation of Linear Momentum

The principle conservation of linear momentum is an important concept when dealing with
problems that involve particles in collisions or explosive event such as the firing of a gun.

“The principle conservation of linear momentum states that, if no external force act on a system
of colliding objects, the total momentum of the objects in a given direction before collision is
equal to the total momentum in same direction after collision”.

If the net force acting on a particle is zero, that is,

∆𝑃5⃗
5⃗/01 =
F =0
∆𝑡

Then

∆𝑃5⃗ = 0 = 𝑃5⃗- − 𝑃5⃗.

where 𝑃5⃗. is the initial momentum and 𝑃5⃗- is the momentum at some later time. Since these two
values are equal, the momentum is conserved, and
 24

𝑃5⃗- = 𝑃5⃗. or 𝑚𝑣⃗- = 𝑚𝑣⃗.

final momentum = initial momentum

Note that this conservation is consistent with Newton’s first law: An object remains at
rest (𝑃5⃗ = 0), or in motion with a uniform velocity (𝑃5⃗ ≠ 0), unless acted on by a net
external force.

Mathematically, the principle conservation of linear momentum is:-

𝑚# 𝑢#. + 𝑚$ 𝑢$. = 𝑚# 𝑣#- + 𝑚$ 𝑣$-

or
𝑚2 𝑢2 + 𝑚3 𝑢3 = 𝑚2 𝑣2 + 𝑚3 𝑣3

When no net external force acts on a system, the total linear momentum of the system remains
constant with time. The principle conservation of linear momentum is a direct consequence of
Newton’s Second and Third Laws.

In general, a collision may be defined as a meeting or interaction of particles or objects that

causes an exchange of energy momentum. In collisions, momentum is conserved. Kinetic energy
may or may not be remain the same after a collision. Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a
body as a result of its motion.

#
Kinetic energy, K= 𝑚𝑣 $
$

Collision can be classified into two types: Elastic and Inelastic collisions.

1.2.4 − Elastic Collisions

An elastic collision is defined as one in which both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved.
For example, two steel balls (collisions between the steel balls in ‘Newton’s cradle’) or two
billiard balls may have a nearly elastic collision, with each ball having the same shape afterward
as before; that is, there is no permanent deformation. The collisions of air molecules with the
walls of a container at ordinary temperatures are highly elastic.

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐾 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐾 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒

𝐾- = 𝐾. 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

The principle conservation of Kinetic energy is

" $ " $ " $ " $

$
𝑚" 𝑢", + $ 𝑚$ 𝑢$, = $ 𝑚" 𝑣"B + $ 𝑚$ 𝑣$B
 25

1.2.5 − Inelastic Collisions

An Inelastic collisionis defined as a collision in which momentum is conserved, but total kinetic
energy is not conserved. Because some of the kinetic energy is converted to sound energy,
internal energy, heat energy or frictional heat may be generated and some kinetic energy is lost,
and the work needed to permanently deform the objects involved, such as cars in a car
crash.The collision of a rubber ball with a hard surface is inelastic, because some of thekinetic
energy is lost when the ball is deformed during contact with the surface.

For another example, is a hollow aluminum ball that collides with a solid steel ball may be
dented. Permanent deformation of the ball takes work, and that work is done at the expense of
the original kinetic energy of the system.

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐾 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 < 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐾 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒

𝐾- < 𝐾. 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

Everyday collisions are inelastic. For isolated systems, momentum is conserved in both
elastic and inelastic collisions. For an inelastic collision, only an amount of kinetic energy
consistent with the conservation of momentum may be lost.

A special case of inelastic collision is the perfectly inelastic collision. In a perfectly inelastic
collision, momentum is conserved, kinetic energy is not, and the two bodies stick together after
the collision, so their final velocities are the same.

𝑚" 𝑢", + 𝑚$ 𝑢$, = ( 𝑚" + 𝑚$ )𝑣B

"5 $56 & "7 $76
To solve for the final velocity using conservation of momentum alone: 𝑣# =
( "5 & "7 )

Example 16:A 3.0-kg ball with a speed of 2500 mm/s strikes a 7.0-kg stationary ball. If the
collision is completely inelastic, (a) what are the speeds of the balls after the collision? (b) What
percentage of the initial kinetic energy do the balls have after the collision? (c) What is the total
momentum after the collision?

SOLUTION
(a) The final speed of the balls after collision is?
The momentum is conserved and
𝑝, = 𝑝B
𝑚" 𝑢, = ( 𝑚" + 𝑚$ )𝑣B The balls stick together and have the same speed after collision.
 26

Substitute the values and solve for the final velocity, vf :

𝑚1
This speed is then, 𝑣𝑓 = , - 𝑢 = 0.75 𝑚/𝑠
( 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 ) 𝑖
(b) The percentage of the initial kinetic energy do the balls have after the collision is
Calculate the initial kinetic energy of the system:
𝐾-
(𝑥 100%)
𝐾.
𝐾- ½ (𝑚# + 𝑚$ )𝑣-$ ½ (3.0 𝑘𝑔 + 7 𝑘𝑔)(0.75 𝑚/𝑠)$
= $ = = 0.3
𝐾. ½ 𝑚# 𝑢#. ½ (3.0 𝑘𝑔)(2.5 𝑚/𝑠)$
𝐾-
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, (𝑥 100%) = 30%
𝐾.
(c) The total momentum is conserved in all collisions (in the absence of external forces), so
the total momentum after collision is the same as before collision. That value is the
momentum of the incident ball, with a magnitude of
𝑃5⃗- = 𝑃5⃗. but 𝑃5⃗. = 𝑚1 𝑢1𝑖 = (3.0 𝑘𝑔)(2.5 𝑘𝑔) = 7.5 𝑘𝑔 𝑚/𝑠

and the same direction as that of the incoming ball. Also,

𝑃5⃗- = (𝑚# + 𝑚$ )𝑣- = (10 𝑘𝑔)(0.75 𝑚/𝑠) = 7.5 𝑘𝑔 𝑚/𝑠

Example 17:A 1200-kg car moving to the right with a speed of 25 m/s collides with a 1500-kg
truck and locks bumpers with the truck. Calculate the velocity of the combination after the
collision if the truck is initially (a) at rest, (b) moving to the right with a speed of 20 m/s.

SOLUTION
(a) The truck is initially at rest,
2! 5!# %####
𝑣B = ( 2! ; 2" )
= $A##
= 11 𝑚/𝑠 to the right.

(b) The velocity of the combination after the collision if the truck is moving to the right with
a speed of 20 m/s is
𝑚# 𝑢#. + 𝑚$ 𝑢$. 60000
𝑣- = = = 22 𝑚/𝑠to the right.
( 𝑚# + 𝑚$ ) 2700

Example 18:A 2.0-kg block is moving to the right at 1.0 m/s just before it strikes and sticks to a
1.0-kg block initially at rest. What is the total momentum of the two blocks after the collision?

SOLUTION
(a) The total momentum of the two blocks after the collision will be?
 27

𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙, 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑃5⃗- = 𝑃5⃗.

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑠 = 2 𝑘𝑔 𝑚/𝑠, moving to the right.

Example 19: A 75-kg man is at rest on ice skates. A 0.20-kg ball is thrown to him. The ball is
moving horizontally at 25 m/s just before the man catches it. How fast is the man moving just
after he catches the ball?

SOLUTION
From the relation, 𝑚" 𝑢", + 𝑚$ 𝑢$, = ( 𝑚" + 𝑚$ )𝑣B
𝑚$ 𝑢$. 0.5
𝑣- = = = 0.0066 𝑚/𝑠
( 𝑚# + 𝑚$ ) 75.2

Example 20: A 5.0-kg ball is at rest when it is struck head-on by a 2000-g ball moving along a
track at 10.0 m/s. If the 2000-g ball is at rest after the collision, what is the speed of the 5.0-kg
ball after the collision?

SOLUTION
Applying relation and recall the momentum is elastic
𝑚# 𝑢#. + 𝑚$ 𝑢$. = 𝑚# 𝑣#- + 𝑚$ 𝑣$-

After cancellation of some terms the equation becomes

𝑚$ 𝑢$. = 𝑚# 𝑣#-
𝑚$ 𝑢$. 20
𝑣#- = = = 4.0 𝑚/𝑠
𝑚# 5

(-2-) - WORK, ENERGY AND POWER:Units, Conservation of energy, Conservative and dissipative
forces, Hook’s law. Elastic spring. Equilibrium and Stability.
Introduction
There are many cases where motion involves changing forces and accelerations. In this chapter,
we introduce the important physical concepts of work, energy and power. These powerful
concepts enable us to “shortcut” the detailed application of Newton’s law to analyze these more
complex situations. We begin with the concept of work.

2.1 − WORK
 28

The word work is commonly used in a variety of ways: We go to work; work on projects; work
at our desks or on computers; carrying a piece of furniture upstairs involves work. The heavier
the furniture or the higher the stairs, the greater the work. Pushing a stalled car involves work.
The harder you push or the farther you push the more work you do. A man pushing against a
solid wall, the wall remains stationary, in this case this man is not doing work, because work is
said to be done on an object when it moves the influence of force. In physics, however, work has
a very specific meaning.

Mechanically, work involves force and displacement, and the word work is used to describe
quantitatively what is accomplished when a force acts on an object as it moves through a
distance. In the simplest case of a constant force acting on an object, work that the force does is
defined as follows:

“The work done by a constant force acting on an object is equal to the product of the magnitudes
of the displacement and the force, or component of the force, parallel to that displacement.”

Work then involves a force acting on an object and moving it through a distance. A force may be
applied, as in Fig. below. Work is an energy transfer that occurs when a force acts on an object
that moves. If there is no displacement, (on motion)no work is done and no energy is transferred.

Work done by a constant force 𝐹⃗ acting on an object whose displacement is 𝛥𝑟⃗:

𝑊 = 𝐹 · 𝛥𝑟 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡)

Mathematically, Work is also given by

𝑊 = 𝐹 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑥 𝛥𝑟

Notice that 𝜃 is the angle between the force and the displacement vectors. When the angle
between 𝑭⃗ and 𝛥𝒓⃗ is less than 90 °, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃, is positive, so the work done by the force is positive
(W > 0). If the angle between 𝑭⃗ and 𝛥𝒓⃗ is greater than 90 °, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃is negative and the work done
 29

by the force is negative (W < 0). If the force is perpendicular to the displacement, 𝜃 = 90 ° and
𝑐𝑜𝑠 90 ° = 0, so the work done is zero.

Total Work

When several forces act on an object, the total work is the sum of the work done by each force
individually:

𝑊)8)*9 = 𝑊# + 𝑊$ + 𝑊% … + 𝑊:

Total work is sometimes called net work because the work done by each force can be positive,
negative, or zero, so the total work is often smaller than the work done by any one of the forces.
Because we assume a rigid object with no rotational or internal motion, another way to
calculate the total work is to find the work done by the net force as if there were a single force
acting:

𝑊)8)*9 = 𝐹'() 𝛥𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

To show that these two methods give the same result, let’s choose the x-axis in the direction of
the displacement. Then the work done by each individual force is the x -component of the force
times 𝛥𝑥. From Eq. above

𝑊)8)*9 = 𝐹#! 𝛥𝑥 + 𝐹$! 𝛥𝑥 + 𝐹%! 𝛥𝑥 … + 𝐹:! 𝛥𝑥

Factoring out the 𝛥𝑥 from each term,

𝑊)8)*9 = (𝐹#! + 𝐹$! + 𝐹%! … + 𝐹:! )𝛥𝑥 = r9 𝐹! s 𝛥𝑥

∑𝐹! is the 𝑥 −component of the net force. In Eq., 𝐹'() 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃is the component of the net force in
the direction of the displacement, which is the x-component of the net force. The two methods
give the same total work.

Work is a scalar quantity, its SI unit is joule (abbreviated J, pronounced “jool,” and named in
honor of the 19th-century English physicist James Prescott Joule). From Eq. above, we see that
in any system of units, the unit of work is the unit of force multiplied by the unit of distance. In
SI units the unit of force is the newton and the unit of distance is the meter, so 1 joule is
equivalent to 1 newton-meter (N · m).

2.2 − ENERGY

Energy is defined as the capacity of a body to do work. The SI unit of energy is therefore the
same as that of work i.e. the joule (J). Without a supply of energy, neither people nor machines
 30

can do work. There are many different forms (or types) of energy. Chemical energy, nuclear
energy, radiant energy, electrical energy, internal energy, heat energy, sound energy, light
energy, magnetic energy, mechanical energy etc.

Mechanical energy is the type of energy which comprises kinetic energy and potential energy.

2.2.1 − Potential Energy

An object in motion has kinetic energy. However, whether an object is in motion or not, it may
have another form of energy—potential energy. As the name implies, an object having potential
energy has the potential to do work. Potential energy (P.E. or U) is the energy possessed by a
body due to its position or condition. For example, an object raised above the ground has
gravitational P.E. due to its raised position. While a stretched rubber band has elastic P.E. due to
its stretched condition.

An object of mass m raised to a height h above the ground.

The work done 𝑊 by the gravitational force F is given by 𝑊 = 𝐹 𝑥 ℎ , Force 𝐹 is the weight of
the object given by 𝑚𝑔. Hence, 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ

The potential energy or gravitational potential energy P.E. of a body near the surface of the
earth is defined as the product of its weight 𝑚𝑔 and its height ℎ or 𝑑 above a reference level, in
this case, the ground. SI unit of gravitational potential energy: joule (J)

Gravitational P. E. 𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ

The work done in lifting is then equal to the change in potential energy

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

or 𝑊 = 𝐹 𝛥𝑑 = 𝑚𝑔|𝑑- − 𝑑. } = 𝑚𝑔𝑑- − 𝑚𝑔𝑑. = 𝛥𝑈 = 𝑈- − 𝑈.

 31

Elastic Potential Energy

The work done by an ideal spring depends on the initial and final positions of the moveable end,
but not on the path that was taken. Therefore, the force exerted by an ideal spring is
conservative and we can associate a potential energy with it. The kind of potential energy stored
in a spring is called elastic potential energy.

#
Recall that the work done in such a case is 𝑊 = $ 𝑘𝑥 $ (with𝑥8 = 𝑥. = 0). Note that the amount

of work done depends on the amount of stretching(𝑥 = 𝑥- ). Because work is done, there is a
change in the spring’s potential energy, which is equal to the work done by the applied force in
stretching (or compressing) the spring:

1 1
𝑊 = 𝛥𝑈 = 𝑈- − 𝑈. = 𝑘𝑥-$ − 𝑘𝑥.$
2 2

Thus, with 𝑥. = 0and 𝑈. = 0, as they are commonly taken for convenience, the potential energy
of a spring is

1
𝑈(9*;).< = 𝑈- = 𝑘𝑥-$ (𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔)
2

2.2.2 − Kinetic Energy

Kinetic energy (K.E. or K) is the energy possessed by a body due to its motion. In other words,
#
any moving object has K.E. In symbol 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 $
$

Where the Kinetic energy(in J), 𝑚 is the mass of the body (in kg) and 𝑣is the speed of the body
(in /𝑠 ), SI unit of energy: joule (J)

Relation between total work and kinetic energy

Therefore, the total work done is

 32

1 1 1
𝑊)8)*9 = 𝑚|𝑣-$ − 𝑣.$ } = 𝑚𝑣-$ − 𝑚𝑣.$
2 2 2

#
The total work done is equal to the change in the quantity 𝐾 = $ 𝑚𝑣 $ , which is called the

object’s translational kinetic energy (symbol K). Translational kinetic energy is the energy
associated with motion of the object as a whole; it does not include the energy of rotational or
internal motion.

𝐖𝐨𝐫𝐤 − 𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐞𝐦: 𝑊)8)*9 = 𝛥𝐾

Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity and is always positive if the object is moving or zero if it is at
rest. Kinetic energy is never negative, although a change in kinetic energy can be negative.

Example 21: How much work must Aisha do to drag her basket of laundry of mass 5.0 kg a

distance of 5.0 m along a floor, if the force she exerts is a constant 30.0 N at an angle of 60.0 °
with the horizontal?
Hint: Applying, = 𝐹 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑥 𝛥𝑟 , ANS = 75 J

Example 22: (a) -Umar pushes a 10.0-kg sack of bread flour on a frictionless horizontal

surface with a constant horizontal force of 2.0 N starting from rest. (i) What is the kinetic energy
of the sack after Umar has pushed it a distance of 35 cm? (ii) What is the speed of the sack after
Umar has pushed it a distance of 35 cm?
(b) - A 7.0 kg object is lifted 3.5 m. How much work is done against the Earth’s gravity?
SOLUTION

#
Hint: For (a) part, (i) applying 𝑊 = 𝐹 𝑥 𝑠 and (ii) 𝐾 = $ 𝑚𝑣 $ (b) 𝑃 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
 33

ANS = (a) (i) 0.70 J, (ii) 0.37 m/s (b) 240 J.

Example 23: A ball of mass 0.10 kg moving with speed of 2.0 m/s hits a wall and bounces

back with the same speed in the opposite direction. What is the change in the ball’s kinetic
energy? ANS = 0.

Example 24: Justin moves a desk 5.0 m across a level floor by pushing on it with a constant

horizontal force of 340 N. (It slides for a negligibly small distance before coming to a stop when
the force is removed.) Then, changing his mind, he moves it back to its starting point, again by
pushing with a constant force of 340 N. (a) What is the change in the desk’s gravitational
potential energy during the round-trip? (b) How much work has Justin done on the desk? (c) If
the work done by Justin is not equal to the change in gravitational potential energy of the desk,
then where has the energy gone?

ANS = (a) 0 (b) 3400 J (b) Dissipated as heat

Example 25:Emil is tossing an orange of mass 0.30 kg into the air. (a) Emil throws the orange

straight up and then catches it, throwing and catching it at the same point in space. What is the
change in the potential energy of the orange during its trajectory? Ignore air resistance. (b) Emil
throws the orange straight up, starting 1.0 m above the ground. He fails to catch it. What is the
change in the potential energy of the orange during this flight? ANS
= (a) 0 (b) applying, P = mgh, – 2.94 J

Example 26: A 69.0-kg short-track ice skater is racing at a speed of 11.0 m/s when he falls

down and slides across the ice into a padded wall that brings him to rest. Assuming that he
doesn’t lose any speed during the fall or while sliding across the ice, how much work is done by
$
the wall while stopping the ice skater? ANS = applying, 𝐾 = % 𝑚𝑣 % = –

4175 J, the workdone by the wall is in opposite direction.

2.2.3 − Conservation of Energy
The importance of the energy idea stems from the principle of conservationof energy: Energy is a
quantity that can be converted from one form to another but cannot be created or destroyed. In
an automobile engine, chemical energy stored in the fuel is converted partially to the energy of
the automobile’s motion and partially to thermal energy. In a microwave oven, electromagnetic
energy obtained from your power company is converted to thermal energy of the food being
 34

cooked. In these and all other processes, the total energy—the sum of all energy present in all
different forms—remains the same. No exception has ever been found.

The principal Law of conservation of energy states:

“𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑝ℎ𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠”

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟

Conservation of Total Mechanical Energy: The idea of a conservative force allows us to

extend the conservation of energy to the special case of mechanical energy. The sum of the
kinetic and potential energies is called the total mechanical energy:

𝐸 (mechanical energy) = 𝐾(𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦) + 𝑈(𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦)

For a conservative system (that is, a system in which only conservative forces do work), the
total mechanical energy is constant, or conserved:

𝐸- = 𝐸.

𝐾- + 𝑈- = 𝐾. + 𝑈.

1 1
𝑚𝑣-$ + 𝑈- = 𝑚𝑣.$ + +𝑈.
2 2

Equation a bove, is a mathematical statement of the law of the conservation of mechanical

energy:

“In a conservative system, the sum of all types of kinetic energy and potential energy is constant
and equals the total mechanical energy of the system at any time.”

(𝐾- − 𝐾. ) + (𝑈- − 𝑈. ) = 0

∆𝐾 + ∆𝑈 = 0 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚).

The following are example of the conversion and conservation of energy that can be explained
by the principal of conservation of energy.

(a) A cyclist going up to the top of a hill: Stored chemical energy in the body of the
cyclist allows him to do work against gravity. At the top of the hill, he will possess
gravitational P.E., which will allow him to go down the hill with increasing K.E., even
without pedaling.
 35

(b) The burning of fuels: Stored chemical energy in fuels such as oil, coal or wood is
converted into heat energy and light energy by burning them.

(c) Connecting a battery to a filament lamp: Stored chemical energy in the battery is
converted into electrical energy, which in turn is converted in the filament into heat
energy and light energy. Similarly, in an electrical torch, the stored chemical energy is
converted into electricalenergy and then light energy.

2.3 − POWER
The time rate at which work is done or energy is transferred is called power. Like work and
energy, power is a scalar quantity. The average power is the work done divided by the time it
takes to do the work, or work per unit of time:

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑊 𝐸 𝐹𝑥𝑑 𝑑

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = ⇒𝑃= = = = 𝐹” • = 𝐹∙𝑣
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡

If the force and displacement are not in the same direction, then we can write

𝐹(cos 𝜃) 𝑑
𝑃= = 𝐹 ∙ 𝑣⃗ cos 𝜃
𝑡
where 𝜃 is the angle between the force and the displacement.

Where 𝑃 is the power, 𝑊 is the work done (in J), E is the energy converted in (in J) and 𝑡 is the
time taken (in second). The SI unit of power is joule per second (𝐽𝑠 =# ) is called the Watt (W). In
symbols, 1 Watt = 1 𝐽𝑠 =# . The unit of power includes:

1 kilowatt (1 kW) = 10% 𝑊

1 megawatt (1 MW) = 10> 𝑊
1 horsepower (1 hp) = 746 𝑊

Power tells how fast work is being done or how fast energy is transferred. For example, motors
have power ratings commonly given in horsepower. A 2 − ℎ𝑝 motor can do a given amount of
work in half the time that a 1 − ℎ𝑝 motor would take, or twice the work in the same amount of
time. That is, a 2 − ℎ𝑝 motor is twice as “powerful” as a 1 − ℎ𝑝 motor.

Example 27: A pump lifts 200 kg of water per hour a height of 5.0 m. What is the minimum

necessary power output rating of the water pump in watts and horsepower?
?,@
Hint: 𝑃 = )
, ANS = 2.72 watt, 0.003646 hp.
 36

Example 28: A race car is driven at a constant velocity of 200 km/h on a straight, level track.

The power delivered to the wheels is 150 kW. What is the total resistive force on the car?
ANS = 2.7 x 103 N

Example 29: An electric heater is rated at 150 W. Compute the quantity of heat generated in

12 minutes. Hint: E =
Pt, ANS = 108 kJ

Example 30: A construction hoist exerts an upward force of 500 N on an object with a mass of

50 kg. If the hoist started from rest, determine the power it expended to lift the object vertically
for 10 s to a height of 30 cm.
ANS = 14.7 watt

2.4 − CONSERVATIVE FORCES

A conservative force is a type of force that offers opportunity of two-way conversion between
kinetic and potential energies. A conservative force is defined to be conservative if the work
done by it in moving an object is independent of the object’s path (A force is conservative if the
work done by it in moving an object through a round trip is zero). This definition means that the
work done by a conservative force depends only on the initial and final positions of an object.

Thus, if a body stays close to the surface of the earth, the gravitational force is independent of
height, and the work done by this force depends only on the change in height. If the body moves
around a closed path, ending at the same point where it started, the total work done by the
gravitational force is always zero.

Fig1.1:The work done by a conservative force is independent of the path taken.

 37

The work done by a conservative force always has four properties:

ü It can be expressed as the difference between the initial and final values of a potential-
energy function.
ü It is reversible.
ü It is independent of the path of the body and depends only on the starting and ending
points.
ü When the starting and ending points are the same, the total work is zero.
When the only forces that do work are conservative forces, the total mechanical energy 𝐸 = 𝐾 +
𝑈 is constant. Hence, in a sense, a conservative force allows you to conserve or store energy as
potential energy, whereas a nonconservative force does not.

2.5 − NONCONSERVATIVE FORCES

Not all forces are conservative. Consider the friction force acting on the crate sliding on a ramp
in. When the body slides up and then back down to the starting point, the total work done on it
by the friction force is not zero. When the direction of motion reverses, so does the friction
force, and friction does negative work in both directions. When a car with its brakes locked skids
across the pavement with decreasing speed (and decreasing kinetic energy), the lost kinetic
energy cannot be recovered by reversing the motion or in any other way, and mechanical
energy.

A force that is not conservative is called a nonconservative force.Conversely, a nonconservative

force does depend on path. A force is said to be nonconservative if the work done by it in moving
an object depends on the object’s path. The work done by a nonconservative force cannotbe
represented by a potential-energy function. However, for a nonconservative forces, like kinetic
friction (which opposes motion or is in the opposite direction to the displacement, the total
work done by such a force in a round trip can never be zero and is always negative, that is,
energy is lost) or fluid resistance, cause mechanical energy to be lost or dissipated; a force of
this kind is called a dissipative force.

2.6 − ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

A solid object is elastic as long as it is able to regain its original shape after an external force
which deformed it has been removed. The ability of an object to do this is called elasticity. If the
object does not regain its original shape after deformation, it has exceeded its elastic limit.

2.6.1 − Work Done by Variable Forces: Hook’s Law and Ideal Springs
When a force is applied to an elastic material (e.g. spring and rubber band) in such a way as to
deform it, the material is said to be stressed. As a result, the material becomes extended or
 38

compressed. In 1676, Robert Hooke discovered the relationship between the force applied on
an elastic material and its extension (or compression).

“Hook’s law states that the magnitude of the extension (or compression) 𝑒of the elastic material
is directly proportional to the force applied on it, provided the limit of proportionality is not
exceeded”.

The limit of proportionality is defined as the limit up to which extension (or compression) of a
material is proportional to the deforming force. As long as the force applied on is within the
limit of proportionality, the following equation is valid:

𝐹 = 𝑘𝑒
Where 𝐹is the force applied (in N),
𝑘is the force constant of the elastic material (in N m&$ ),
𝑒 is the extension/compression of the material (in m)
𝐻𝑜𝑜𝑘 A 𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑤: 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑒

In general, forces are variable; that is, they change in magnitude, angle with time position. An
example of a variable force that does work is illustrated in Fig. below, which depicts a spring
being stretched by an applied force 𝐹* . As the spring is stretched (or compressed) farther and
farther, its restoring force (the spring force that opposes the stretching or compression)
becomes greater, and an increased applied force is required. For most springs, the spring force
(𝐹; ) is directly proportional to the change in length of the spring from its unstretched length. In
equation form, this relationship is expressed.

𝐹; = −𝑘 ∆𝑥 = −𝑘(𝑥 − 𝑥8 )

or if𝑥8 = 0, 𝐹; = −𝑘 𝑥(ideal spring force)

 39

Fig2.1: Spring force (a) An

applied force Fa stretches the
spring, and the spring exerts
an equal and opposite force
Fs on the hand. (b) The
magnitude of the force
depends on the change in the
spring’s length. This change
is measured from to the end
of the unstretched spring at
xo.

The k in this equation is a constant of proportionality and is commonly called the spring
constant, or force constant. The greater the value of k, the stiffer or stronger the spring, the SI
unit of k is newtons per meter. The minus sign in the Eq. indicates that the spring force acts in
the direction opposite to the displacement when the spring is either stretched or compressed.
Equation * below is a form of what is known as Hooke’s law, named after Robert Hooke, a
contemporary of Newton.

Work done by a uniformly variable spring force

1 1 1
𝑊= 𝐹𝑥 = (𝑘𝑥)𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥 $
2 2 2

* where 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥. Thus,

1
𝑊 = 𝑘𝑥 $ (𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑥8 = 0)
2

2.6.2 − Young Modulus

The elastic property of a material is represented by its Young’s modulus Y, defined as the ratio
of the stress to strain on the elastic material. The SI unit of Young’s modulus is Nm-2 or Pascal
(Pa).

B(';.9( ;)C(;; D)C(;; E/2 E9

𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 (𝑌) = B(';.9( ;)C*.' = DC*.'
i.e. 𝑌 = (/9
= (2

2.6.2.1−The Stress (σ): Tensile stress or stress is defined as the ratio of stretching force F on
the material to the cross-sectional area A of the material. Its SI unit measured in Nm-2 or Pascal
(Pa).
 40

𝐹
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (σ) =
𝐴

2.6.2.2 −The Strain (ε): Tensile strain or strain is the ratio of the extension 𝑒to the original
length 𝑙 of the material. It has no unit.

𝑒
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 (ε) =
𝑙

#
If a force 𝐹 produces an extension 𝑒 in a wire then the work done by the force 𝑊(𝐹) = $ 𝐹𝑒.

#
For a spring, 𝑊 = − $ 𝐾𝑥, where K is the restoring force (indicated by the negative sign).

Example 31: A metal wire 75.0 cm long and 0.130 cm in diameter stretches 0.0350 cm when a

load of 8.00 kg is hung on its end. Find the stress, strain, and the Young’s modulus for the
materials of the wire.
SOLUTION

𝐹 (8.00 𝑘𝑔)(9.81 𝑚/𝑠 $ )

𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜎) = = = 5.91 𝑥 10H 𝑁/𝑚$ = 5.91 𝑥 10H Pa
𝐴 𝜋(6.50 𝑥 10=G 𝑚)$

𝑒 0.0350 𝑐𝑚
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝜀) = = = 4.67 𝑥 10=G
𝑙 75.0 𝑐𝑚

𝜎 5.91 𝑥 10H 𝑃𝑎
𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔’𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠(𝑌) = = = 1.27 𝑥 10## 𝑃𝑎 = 127 𝐺𝑃𝑎
𝜀 4.67 𝑥 10=G

Example32: A solid cylindrical steel column is 4.0 m long and 9.0 cm diameter. What will be

its decrease in length when carrying a load of 80 000 kg? 𝑌 = 1.9 𝑥 10## Pa.
SOLUTION

Find the cross-sectional area of the column first = 𝜋𝑟 $ = 𝜋(0.045 𝑚)$ = 6.36 𝑥 10=% m$

Then, from 𝑌 = (𝐹/𝐴)/(𝑒/𝑙) we have

𝐹𝑙 {(8.00 𝑥 10G )(9.81)N}(4.0m)

𝑒= = = 2.6 𝑥 10=% m = 2.6 mm
𝐴𝑌 (6.36 𝑥 10=% m$ )(1.9 𝑥 10## Pa)

2.7 − Equilibrium and Stability

Human constructions are supposed to be stable in spite of the forces that act on them. A
building, for example, should be stable in spite of the gravitational force and wind forces on it,
 41

and a bridge should be stable in spite of the gravitational force pulling it downward and the
repeated jolting it receives from cars and trucks. One focus of physics is on what allows an
object to be stable in spite of any forces acting on it.

2.7.1 − Equilibrium
Consider these objects: (1) a book resting on a table, (2) a hockey puck sliding with constant
velocity across a frictionless surface, (3) the rotating blades of a ceiling fan, and (4) the wheel of
a bicycle that is travelling along a straight path at constant speed. For each of these four objects,
the four objects mentioned only one—the book resting on the table—is in static equilibrium (a
body at rest with no net force acting on it is said to be in static equilibrium). While the other
object are in dynamic equilibrium (if the body maintains constant linear velocity or rotates with
constant angular velocity, is said to be in dynamic equilibrium).

2.7.1.1− Conditions for Equilibrium: The particle is in equilibrium− if the particle does not
accelerate− in an inertial frame of reference if the vector sum of all the forces acting on the
particle is zero, Ʃ𝐹 = 0. For an extended body, the equivalent statement is that the centre of
mass of the body has zero acceleration if the vector sum of all external forces acting on the body
is zero. This is often called the first condition for equilibrium. In vector and component forms,
Ʃ𝐹 = 0, Ʃ𝐹! = 0 Ʃ𝐹" = 0 Ʃ𝐹I = 0(first condition for equilibrium)

A second condition for an extended body to be in equilibrium is that the body must have no
tendency to rotate. This condition is based on the dynamics of rotational motion in exactly the
same way that the first condition is based on Newton’s first law. A rigid body that, in an inertial
frame, is not rotating about a certain point has zero angular momentum about that point. If it is
not to start rotating about that point, the rate of change of angular momentum must also be
zero. this means that the sum of torques due to all the external forces acting on the body must
be zero. A rigid body in equilibrium can’t have any tendency to start rotating about any point, so
the sum of external torques must be zero about any point. This is the second condition for
equilibrium:

Ʃ𝜏 = 0about any point (second condition for equilibrium)

The sum of the torques due to all external forces acting on the body, with respect to any specified
point, must be zero.

By apply the first and second conditions for equilibrium tosituations in which a rigid body is at
rest (no translation or rotation). Such a body is said to be in static equilibrium. But the same
conditions apply to arigid body in uniform translational motion (without rotation), such as an
airplanein flight with constant speed, direction, and altitude. Such a body is in equilibriumbut is
 42

not static.To be in static equilibrium, a body at rest must satisfy both conditions for equilibrium:
It can have no tendency to accelerate as a whole or to start rotating.

2.7.2 − The Center of Gravity

The gravitational force on an extended body is the vector sum of the gravitational forces acting
on the individual elements (the atoms) of the body. Instead of considering all those individual
elements, we can say that:

The gravitational force 𝐹, on a body effectively acts at a single point, called the center of gravity
(cog) of the body.

Here the word “effectively” means that if the gravitational forces on the individual elements
were somehow turned off and the gravitational force 𝐹, at the center of gravity were turned on,
the net force and the net torque (about any point) acting on the body would not change.
Assumed that the gravitational force 𝐹, acts at the center of mass (com) of the body. This is
equivalent to assuming that the center of gravity is at the center of mass. Recall that, for a body
of mass M, the force𝐹, is equal to Mg, where g is the acceleration that the force would produce if
the body were to fall freely.

If is the same for all elements of a body, then the body’s center of gravity (cog) is coincident with
the body’s center of mass (com).The center of gravity coincides with the center of mass when
the gravitational field is uniform.

2.7.3 − Stability
If a body is disturbed from equilibrium, it generally experiences nonzero torques or forces that
cause it to accelerate. Figure below shows two very different possibilities for the subsequent
motion of two cones initially in equilibrium. Tip the cone on the left slightly, and a torque
develops that brings it quickly back to equilibrium. Tip the cone on the right, and over it goes.
The torque arising from even a slight displacement swings the cone permanently away from its
original equilibrium. The former situation is an example of stableequilibrium, the latter of
unstable equilibrium. Nearly all the equilibria we encounter in nature are stable, since a body
in unstable equilibrium won’t remain so. The slightest disturbance will set it in motion, bringing
it to a very different equilibrium state.
 43

Fig 3: Stable (left) and unstable (right) equilibria.

Stability is closely associated with potential energy. Because gravitational potential energy is
directly proportional to height, the shapes of the hills and valleys in the potential-energy curves.
Figure below shows example in four different equilibrium situations. Stable, unstable and
thesituation neither stable nor unstable; it’s called neutrally stable. But in metastable state,for
small disturbances, the ball or object will return to its original state, so the equilibrium is stable.
But for larger disturbances—large enough to push the ball or object over the highest points on
the hill—it’s unstable. Such an equilibrium is conditionally stable or metastable.

Figure: Stable, unstable, neutrally stable, and metastable equlilibria.

(-3-) - CIRCULAR MOTION: Angular velocity and Acceleration, Relation between Linear Velocity and
Linear Acceleration, Angular Momentum, Conservation of Angular Momentum, Torque, Centripetal and
Centrifugal forces with their applications (centrifugal), Motion of a vehicle in a curve and banking of
roads.
Introduction
If you were to tire a small stone to the end of a string and whirl it above your head in a
horizontal circle, you will feel the pull of the string on your hand. Since a taut string can only
exerts a pulling forces on the objects at its ends. We can deduce that there is a pulling force
 44

(known as the tension force) exerted on the stone by the string. If the speed 𝑣 of the stone
moving around the circle (or orbit) is constant, we say that the stone is undergoing uniform
circular motion.

3.1 − Angular velocity

There are numerous cases of objects moving in a curve about some fixed point. The earth and
the moon revolve continuously round the sun, for example, and the rim of the balance-wheel of
a watch moves to-and-fro ina circular path about the fixed axis of the wheel.

If the object moves from A to B so that the radius OA moves through an angle its angular

velocity, about O is defined as the change of the angle per second. Thus if is the time taken
by the object to move from A to B,

Fig: Circular Motion

Angular velocity is usually expressed in ‘radian per second’ (rad ) from above,

Which is analogous to formula ‘distance = uniform velocity time’ for motion in a straight line.

It will be noted that the time to be describe the circle once, known as the period of the motion,

is given by

since by definition.

If is the length of the arc AB, then by definition of an angle in radians.

 45

Dividing by the time taken to move from A to B,

But the velocity, of the rotating object, and is the angular velocity.

Angular velocity is the rate of velocity at which an object or a particle is rotating around a
center or a specific point in a given time period. It is also known as rotational velocity.
Angular velocity is measured in angle per unit time or radians per second (rad/s).

3.2− Angular Acceleration

When the angular velocity of a rotating objects changes, object undergoes angular acceleration
(it has an angular acceleration). When you pedal your bicycle harder to make the wheels turn
faster or applythe brakes to bring the wheels to a stop, you’re giving the wheels an
angularacceleration. You also impart an angular acceleration whenever you change therotation
speed of a piece of spinning machinery such as an automobile engine’scrankshaft.

The defined analogously to linear acceleration:

𝜔- − 𝜔.
𝛼=
𝑡

The SI units of angular acceleration are rad/s2 although we sometimes use other units such as
rpm/s or rev/s2. Angular acceleration has the same direction as angular velocity—clockwise
(CW) or counterclockwise (CCW).

3.3− Equations for Uniformly Accelerated Angular Motion: are exactly analogous to those
for uniformly accelerated linear motion. In the usual notation we have:
 46

Take alone, the second of these equations is just the definition of average speed, so it is valid
whether the acceleration is constant or not.

3.4− Angular Momentum

is a vector quantity that is a measure of the rotational momentum of a rotating body or system,
that is equal in classical physics to the product of the angular velocity of the body or system and
its moment of inertia with respect to the rotation axis, and that is directed along the rotation
axis.

𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚, 𝐿 = 𝑟 𝑥 𝑝 = 𝑟 𝑚 𝑣 = 𝑚 𝜔 𝑟$, 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟

3.5− Conservation of Angular Momentum

The principle of conservation of angular momentum is useful for dealing with large rotating
bodies such as the earth, as well as tiny, spinning particles such as electrons, protons, neutrons.

The earth is an object which rotates about an axis passing through its geographic north and
south poles with a period of 1 day. If it is struck by meteorites, then since action and reaction
are equal, no external couple acts on the earth and meteorites. Their total angular momentum is
thus conserved.

Neglecting the angular momentum of the meteorites about the earth’s axis before collision
compared with that of the earth. Then, Angular momentum of earth plus meteorites after
collision = angular momentum of earth before collision.

Hence the principle of angular momentum states that:

“The angular momentum of a system of particles around a point in a fixed inertial reference frame
is conserved if there is no net external torque around that point”.
Or
“The total angular momentum of a system remains constant provided no external torque acts on
the system rigid or otherwise”.
 47

Mathematically we have that,

𝑑𝐿⃗
=0
𝑑𝑡
Or
𝐿⃗ = 𝑙" + 𝑙$ + 𝑙% + 𝑙F + ⋯ + 𝑙G = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Note that the total angular momentum L⃗ is conserved. Any of the individual angular momenta
can change as long as their sum remains constant. This law is analogous to linear momentum
being conserved when the external force on a system is zero.

The angular momentum is constant, so that

Y⃗, = 𝐿Y⃗B
𝐿H = 𝐿 𝑜𝑟𝐿
or
𝐼′𝜔′ = 𝐼𝜔,

The solar system is an example of how conservation of angular momentum works in our
universe. Our solar system was born from a huge cloud of gas and dust that initially had
rotational energy. Gravitational forces caused the cloud to contract, and the rotation rate
increased as a result of conservation of angular momentum. Another example of conservation of
angular momentum is seen in an ice skater executing a spin. The net torque on her is very close
to zero, because 1) there is relatively little friction between her skates and the ice, and 2) the
friction is exerted very close to the pivot point.

3.6 − Torque
Torque is the tendency of a force to cause or change the rotational motion of a body. It is a twist
or turning force on an object. Torque is calculated by multiplying force and distance. It is
a vector quantity, meaning it has both a direction and a magnitude. Either the angular velocity
for the moment of inertia of an object is changing, or both. Also known as: moment or moment of
force.

The SI units of torque are newton-meters or N*m. Even though this is the same as Joules, torque
isn't work or energy so should just be newton-meters. Torque is represented by the Greek letter
tau: 𝜏 in calculations. When it is called moment of force, it is represented by 𝑀.
 48

3.7− The Centripetal and Centrifugal forces

3.7.1− Centripetal Force (Fc)

Is the force that keeps an object moving with a uniform speed along a circular path. is the force
that must act on a mass 𝑚 moving in a circular path of radius r to give it the required centripetal
acceleration𝑣 $ /𝑟. From 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎, we have

𝑚𝑣 $
𝐹J = = 𝑚𝑟𝜔$
𝑟

Where 𝐹J is directed toward the centre of the circular path. Centripetal force is not a new kind
of force; it’s just the name given to whatever force (be it gravity, the tension in a string,
magnetism, friction, etc.) that causes an object to move (off it’s straight-line inertial path) along
an arc. Examples of centripetal force (1) The orbiting motion of the Moon around the Earth:
Centripetal force is the gravitational force exerted by the earth on the Moon. (2) A bicycle
turning around a corner on a horizontal rough surface: Centripetal force is given by the
frictional force exerted by the ground on the wheels of the bicycle towards the centre of the
 49

circular path (3) The orbiting motion of the electrons around an atomic nucleus: Centripetal
force is the electrostatic force exerted by the nucleus on the electrons.

3.7.2 − Centrifugal force

(Latin for "centre fleeing") describes the tendency of an object following a curved path to fly
outwards, away from the centre of the curve. It's not really a force; it results from inertia — the
tendency of an object to resist any change in its state of rest or motion.

The centrifugal force is directed outwards; in the same direction as the velocity of the object.
For circular motion, the velocity at any given point in time is at a tangent to the arc of
movement.

Examples of centrifugal forceis when a stone tied to a string is whirled in a circle, the force
acting on the passengers outwards in a car when the car is taking a turn, children pushed out on
a roundabout. The equation of centrifugal force is the same with that of centripetal force but
opposite in sign.

𝑚𝑣 $
𝐹J = − = −𝑚𝑟𝜔$
𝑟

Example 33: A 33-kg rock swings in a circle of radius 5 m. If its constant speed is 8 m/s, what
is the centripetal acceleration and centripetal force?
SOLUTION
𝑣$
𝑎< = 𝑚 = 3𝑘𝑔 𝑅 = 5𝑚; 𝑣 = 8𝑚/𝑠
𝑅
(8 𝑚/𝑠)$
𝑎< = = 12.8 𝑚/𝑠 $
5𝑚
𝑚𝑣 $
𝐹< = 𝑚𝑎< = ; 𝐹< = (3𝑘𝑔)(12.8 𝑚/𝑠 $ ) = 38.4𝑁
𝑅
 50

Example 34: A skater moves with 15 m/s in a in a circle of radius 30 m. The ice exerts a
central force of 450 N. What is the mass of the skater?
SOLUTION

𝑚𝑣 $ 𝐹< 𝑅 (450 𝑁)(30 𝑚)

𝐹< = ; 𝑚= $ =
𝑅 𝑣 (15 𝑚/𝑠)$

𝑚 = 60.0 𝑘𝑔

Example 35: The wall exerts a 600 N force on an 80-kg person moving at 4 m/s on a circular

platform. What is the radius of the circular path?

SOLUTION
Applying Newton’s 2nd law for circular motion

𝑚𝑣 $ 𝑚𝑣 $ (80 𝑘𝑔)(4 𝑚/𝑠)$

𝐹 = ; 𝑟= =
𝑟 𝐹 600 𝑁

𝑟 = 2.13 𝑚
3.7.3− Applications

Knowledge of centrifugal and centripetal forces can be applied to many everyday problems. For
example, it is used when designing roads to prevent skidding and improve traction on curves
and access ramps. It also allowed for the invention of the centrifuge, which separates particles
suspended in fluid by spinning test tubes at high speeds. Banking of the roads, washing machine
dryer, the cream separator are some examples of centripetal and centrifugal force.

(READ more on = →Motion of a vehicle (car, train) in a curve and banking of road)

REFERENCES
1- College physics, 7th edition by Wilson, Buffa and Lau
 51

2- Physics, 2nd edition by Alan Giambattista, Betty McCarthy Richardson and Robert C.
Richardson
3- College Physics, 8th edition by Raymond A. Serway, Chris Vuille and Jerry F. Fough.
4- Advanced Level Physics, 3rd edition by M. Nelkon and P. Parker.
5- University Physics, 13th edition by Young and Freedman.
 52

1.0 ROTATIONAL MOTION

Rotational motion is a kind of motion in which the body follows a curved path.
Examples are:

1. The rotation of the earth about its axis

2. The rotation of worm drive over worm gear
3. The motion of the blades of hand blender
4. The motion of a wheel of a car or train.
1.1MOMENT OF INERTIA, I

The moment of inertia (I) of a body is a measure of the rotational inertia of the
body. If an object that is free to rotate about an axis is difficult to set into
rotation, its moment of inertia about that axis is large. An object with small I
have little rotational inertia.

If a body is considered to be made up of tiny masses m1, m2, m3, ……, at

respective distances r1, r2, r3, ……, from its axis. Its moment of inertia from the
axis is …

I = m1r12 + m2r22 + m3r32 + ……………….

I = ∑ 𝑚3 𝑟34

The units of moments of inertia, I are kgm2.

1.2RADIUS OF GYRATION

This is defined as the distance a point mass M must be from the axis if the point
mass is to have the same moment of inertia I as the object. The radius of
gyration for an object about an axis is given by the relation ….

I = Mk2

5
k = +6

Where I is the moment of inertia of the object, M is the total mass of the object,
and k is called the radius of gyration.

Therefore, the moment of inertia ∑ 𝑚𝑟 4 is sometimes written as Mk2.

Let us discuss the moment of inertia of these three objects

 53

1. MOMENT OF INERTIA OF UNIFORM ROD:

(i) About axis through middle: The moment of inertia of a small element
𝛿𝑥 about an axis PQ through its centre O perpendicular to the length =
78
( 9 𝑀) x2, where l is the length of the rod, M is its mass, and x is the distance
of the small element from O, figure 1.1.∴

Figure 1.1: Moment of inertia of a uniform rod

;/4 :8
∴ The moment of inertia, I, = 2∫= ( 9
𝑀)x2,

46 ;/4 4 69 7 ……………………..(1)
= ∫ 𝑥 dx =
9 = ;4

(ii) About the axis through one end, A: In this case, measuring distance x
from A instead of O, the moment of inertia I is
9 :8
Moment of inertia, I, = ∫= ( 𝑀)𝑥 4 ,
9

6 9 69 7 …………………….(2)
=
9
∫= 𝑥 4 dx = >

Example (1)

Suppose a rod has a mass of 60g and a length of 20cm, calculate the moment
of inertia of the rod about an axis through middle and about axis through one
end.

Solution: M = 60g = 60/100 = 6× 10-2kg, l = 20cm = 20/100 = 0.2m

69 7
The moment of inertiaabout axis through middle, I =
;4

?×;=K7 ×(=.4)7
I= = 2× 10-4kgm2.
;4
 54

69 7 ?×;=K7 ×(=.4)7
The moment of inertia about axis through one end = =
> >

I = 8 × 10-4kgm2.

2. MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A RING:

Every element of the ring is the same distance from the centre. Hence, the
moment of inertia about an axis through the centre perpendicular to the plane of
the ring = Ma2, where M is the mass of the ring and a isits radius.

3. MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A CIRCULAR DISC:

Consider the moment of inertia of a circular disc about an axis through its centre
perpendicular to its plane, figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2: Moment of inertia of a circular disc

If we take a small ring of the disc enclosed between radii x and x+ 𝛿𝑥, its mass
4B878
= M, where a is the radius of the disc and M is its mass. Each element of
BC7
the ring is distant x from the centre, and hence the moment of inertia of the ring
4B878
about the axis through O = ( 𝑀)x2.
BC7

C 4B8:8
∴ The moment of inertia of the whole disc =∫= 𝑀𝑥 4
BC7

4B6 C >
= ∫ 𝑥
BC7 =
𝑑𝑥
 55

6C7
= 4
…………….(3)

Example (2)

If a ring and a disc weighs 60g and has a radius of 10cm, calculates its moment
of inertia of both the ring and the disc.

Solution: m = 60g = 6x10-2kg

a = 10cm = 0.1m

Moment of inertia of the ring =Ma2

= 6x10-2 x (0.1)2 = 0.06x0.01 = 6x10-4kgm2.

6C7
Moment of inertia (I) of the disc = 4

?D;=KL
= = 3x10-4kgm2.
4

1.3 PARALLEL AXIS THEOREM

Fig. 1.3: Theorem of Parallel axis

From figure 1.3 above, suppose I is the moment of inertia of a body about an
axis CD, and IG is the moment of inertia about a parallel axis PQ through the
 56

centre of gravity, G, distant h from the axis CD. If A is a particle of mass m

whose distance from PQ is x, its moment of inertia about CD is m(h-x)2.

∴ I = ∑ 𝑚(ℎ − 𝑥)4 = ∑ 𝑚ℎ4 + ∑ 𝑚𝑥 4 - ∑ 2𝑚ℎ𝑥

Now ∑ 𝑚ℎ4 = h2 x ∑ 𝑚 = Mh2, where M is the total mass of the object, and

∑ 𝑚𝑥 4 = IG, which is called the moment of inertia through the centre of gravity.

Also, ∑ 2𝑚ℎ𝑥 = 2h∑ 𝑚𝑥 = 0, since ∑ 𝑚𝑥, i.e. the sum of the moments about the
centre of gravity, is zero; this follows because the moments of the resultant
weight about G is zero.

∴ I = IG + Mh2………………(4)
Equation 4 is called the parallel axis theorem.

1.4 PERPENDICULAR AXIS THEOREM

Fig. 1.4: Perpendicular axis theorem

From figure 1.4 (i) above, suppose OX, OY are any two perpendicular axes, and
OZ is an axis perpendicular to OX and OY. The moment I of a body about the
axis OZ = ∑ 𝑚𝑟 4 ,where r is the distance of a particle A from OZ, and m is its
mass. But r2 = x2 + y2, where x, y are the distances of A from the axes OY and
OX respectively.

∴ 𝐼 = ∑ 𝑚 (𝑥 4 + 𝑦 4 )

I = ∑ 𝑚𝑥 4 + ∑ 𝑚𝑦 4

I = Ix + Iy…………….(5)
 57

Where Ix and Iyare the moments of inertia about OX and OY respectively.

1.5 ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND ITS CONSERVATION

When an object spins or rotates about an axis, its angular momentum plays an
important part in its motion.

Fig. 1.5: Angular momentum

From the above figure, consider a particle A of a rigid object rotating about an
axis O. the momentum of A about O is defined as the moment of the momentum
about O. Its magnitude is thus m1vxp, where p is the perpendicular distance
from O to the direction of v.

Thus, angular momentum of A = m1vp = m1r1wxr1 = m1r12w.

∴Total angular momentum of the whole body = ∑ 𝑚; 𝑟;4 𝑤

= w ∑ 𝑚; 𝑟;4 = Iw ……………….(6)

Where I is the moment of inertia of the body about O, w is the angular velocity
in rad/s and the unit of angular momentum is kgm2/s.

Furthermore, the conservation of angular momentum states that the angular

momentum about an axis of a given rotating body or system of bodies is
constant, if no external couple acts about that axis.
 58

Example (3)

Consider a disc of mass 100g and radius 10cm is rotating freely about axis O
through its centre at 40rpm. Calculate the moment of inertia and angular
momentum of the disc.

Solution: m = 100g = 0.1kg, a = 10cm = 0.1m

6C7 =.;8(=.;)7
The moment of inertia, I, of a disc = =
4 4

I = 5x10-4kgm2.

And angular momentum = Iw,

But w is given in rev. per min., so we need to convert it to rad/s.

E=FG" ; 4BFC:
w=( )( )( ) = 4.2rad/s
;"3H ?=I ;FJK

Hence, angular momentum (A. M.) = 5x10-4x4.2

A. M. = 21x10-4kgm2/s

1.6 TORQUE

A torque 𝜏 acting on a body of moment of inertia I produces in it an angular

acceleration 𝛼 given by

𝜏=I𝛼

Here 𝜏 is in Nm, I is in kgm2 and 𝛼 must be in rad/s2.

1.7. KINETIC ENERGY OF ROTATION

The kinetic energy of rotation (KEr) of a mass whose moment of inertia about
an axis is I and which is rotating about the axis with angular velocity w, is given
by
;
K. Er = 4Iw2

Where K. Er is the kinetic energy in Joules.

 59

Example (4): A wheel of mass 6000g and radius of gyration 40cm is rotating at
300rpm. Find its moment of inertia and its rotational kinetic energy.

Soln: I = 0.96kgm2

K. Er = 473J = 0.473kJ

Example (5): An airplane propeller has a mass of 70000g and a radius of

gyration of 75cm. Calculate its moment of inertia. How large a torque is needed
to give it an angular acceleration of 4.0rev/s2.

Soln: I = 39kgm2

𝜏= 980Nm = 0.98kNm.

2.0 STATICS

This is a branch of mechanics which studies the effects and distribution of

forces of rigid bodies which are at rest. In this area of mechanics, the body in
which forces are acting is assumed to be rigid. Statics in Physics is the
subdivision of mechanics that is concerned with the forces that act on bodies at
rest under equilibrium conditions. This is a subject which concerns the
equilibrium of forces, such as the forces which act on a bridge.

Figure 2.1: Equilibrium of forces

2.1 POINT FORCES

A point force or forces at a point is any force where the point of application
is considered to be a single point. In reality, most forces are technically
surface forces, where the force is applied over an area, but when the area is
 60

small enough (in comparison to the bodies being analysed) it can often be
approximated as a point force. Because point forces can be represented as a
single vector (rather than a field of vectors for distributed forces), they are
much easier to work with in engineering analysis. For this reason, point
forces are used in place of distributed forces in engineering analysis
whenever possible.
2.2 MOMENTS
When the steering wheel of a car is turned, the applied force is said to exert a
moment or turning effect, about the axle attached to the wheel. From figure 2.1
(ii), the magnitude of a force P about a point O is defined as the product of the
force P and the perpendicular distance OA for all the forces.
Moment = P×OA

The magnitude of the moment is expressed in Newton metre (Nm) when P is in

Newtons and OA is in metres. We shall take an anticlockwise moment as
positive in sign and a clockwise moment as negative sign.

2.3 COPLANAR FORCE SYSTEMS

Coplanar force system refers to the number of forces which remain in same
plane. It is also stated as the number of forces in a system which remains in
single plane. This force system can be concurrent, parallel and non-concurrent
and non-parallel.
1. Concurrentcoplanar force system
The concurrent coplanar force system refers to the number of forces which
intersect at a common point with their lines of action. It is not recommended
that all the separate vectors are to meet at the common point. It is the simplest
coplanar force system to resolve to determine the resultant force.

Fig: 2.2 concurrent coplanar force system

2. Parallelcoplanar force system
 61

The concurrent coplanar force system refers to the number of forces which are
parallel to each other with their lines of action. This force system is mostly used
in the analysis of simple beams with number of point loads.

Fig 2.3: Parallelcoplanar force system

3. Non-concurrentand non-parallelcoplanar force systems
Non-concurrent and non-parallel coplanar force systems refer to the number of
forces which are not parallel and do not lie at the common point with their lines
of action. It is not the simplest coplanar force system to resolve to determine the
resultant force when compared to concurrent and parallel coplanar systems.

Fig. 2.4: Non-concurrent and non-parallel coplanar force systems

2.4 EQUILIBRIUM OF PARALLEL FORCES

The resultant of number of forces is zero, and the moment of the resultant at any
point is hence zero. It therefore follows that the algebraic sum of sum of the
moments of all the forces about any point is zero when those forces are in
equilibrium. This means that the total clockwise moment of the forces about any
point is equal to the anticlockwise moment of the remaining forces about the
same point.

2.5 PARALLEGRAM OF FORCES

A force is a vector quantity, i. e it can be represented both in magnitude and

direction by a straight line. From figure 2.1 (ii), if AB, AC represents the forces
P, Q respectively at the joint O, their resultant, R is represented in magnitude
 62

and direction by the diagonal AD of the parallelogram ABDC which has AB,
AC as two of its adjacent sides, fig 2.1 (ii). This is known as the parallelogram
of forces. Alternatively, a line ab may be drawn to represent the vector P, and
bdto represent Q, in which case ad represents the resultant R.

By trigonometry for triangle ABD, we have

𝐴𝐷 4 = 𝐵𝐴4 + 𝐵𝐷 4 – 2BA.BD cos ABD.

∴ 𝑅 4 = 𝑃4 + 𝑄 4 + 2PQ cos (180 − 𝜃),

Where 𝜃 = angle BAC; the angle between the forces P, Q, = 180= – angle ABD.
This formula enables R to be calculated when P, Q, and the angle between them
are known. The angle BAD, or ∝ say, between the resultant R and the force P
can then be found from the relation
L Q
MNO P
= MNO RM

Applying the sine rule to triangle ABD and noting that angle ABD = 180= - 𝜃.

2.6 TRIANGLE OF FORCES

Since the joint O is in equilibrium, fig. 2.1 (i), the resultant of the forces
P, Q in the rods meeting at this joint is equal and opposite to the reaction S at O.
Now the diagonal AD of the parallelogram ABDC in fig. 2.1 (ii) represents the
resultant R of P, Q; and hence DA represents the force S. Consequently the
sides of the triangle ABD represent the three forces at O in magnitude and
direction. This result can be generalised as follows. If three forces are in
equilibrium, they can be represented by the three sides of a triangle taken in
order. This theorem in statics is known as triangle of forces. In fig, 2.1 (ii), AB,
BD, DA, in this order represents, P, Q, S respectively in fig. 2.1 (i).

Example 2.1

Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the forces 1.3 kN and
2.7 kN, having the same line of action and acting in the same direction.

Solution:

The vector diagram of the two forces acting in the same direction is shown in
the diagram below, which assumes that the line of action is horizontal. The
resultant force F is given by:
 63

F = F1+ F2 i.e. F = (1.3 + 2.7) kN = 4.0 kNin the direction of the original forces.

F = (1.3 + 2.7) kN = 4.0 kNin the direction of the original forces.

Example 2.2

Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the forces 470 N and
538 N having the same line of action but acting in opposite directions.

Solution:
The vector diagram of the two forces acting in opposite directions is shown in
the diagram below. The resultant force F is given by:
F = F1- F2 i.e. F = (538 - 470) N = 68 N in the direction of the 538 N force.

2.7 HYDROMECHANICS
Hydromechanics, as its name implies, comprises all those portions of
Mechanics which relate to fluids. It is divided into two branches —
Hydrostatics and Hydrodynamics.

Hydrostatics
Hydrostatics deals with the equilibrium of fluids and with the forces acting on
them when at rest.

Hydrodynamics
Hydrodynamics deals with the motion of fluids under the action of force.

Fluid
A fluid is a substance which yields to any force, however small, tending to
change its shape or to produce movement of its parts among themselves.
 64

EXERCISES
1. Three small bodies, which can be considered as particles are connected by light
rigid rods, as in the Figure 1.0 below.
B

0.1kg

0.5m

A C

0.3kg 0.4m 0.2kg

Fig 1.0
What is the moment of inertia of the system (a) about an axis through A,
perpendicular to the plane of the diagram?
(b) About an axis coinciding with the rod BC?

2. If in Figure 1.0 above the body rotates about an axis through A and
perpendicular to the plane of the diagram, with an angular velocity w = 4 rad s1,
what is the rotational kinetic energy?

3. What is the radius of gyration of a uniform rod of mass m and length L about
an axis perpendicular to its length and passing through the center?
4. The flywheel of a gasoline engine is required to give up 300 J of kinetic energy
while its angular velocity decreased from 600 rev min-1 to 540 rev.min-1. What
moment of inertia is required?
5. Consider a disc of mass 100g and radius 10cm is rotating freely about axis O
through its centre at 40r.p.m. Calculates the moment of inertia I, kinetic
energy of rotation and its angular momentum.
 65

GRAVITATION

Sir Isaac Newton deduced the law of universal gravitation in 1686 from speculations
concerning the fall of an apple toward the earth. His proposalwas, that the gravitational
attraction of thesun for the planets is the source of the centripetal force which maintains the
orbital motion of the planets round the sun. Newton also affirms that this was similar to the
attraction of the earth for the apple. Thus, gravity (the attraction the earth has for an object)
which you are already familiar with, was a particular case of gravitation. According to
Newtonalso, thereis a gravitational force between all objects in the universe.It is this
universal gravitational force that is responsible for the orbital motion of the heavenly bodies.

Newton’s law of universal gravitation, states thatEvery particle of matter in the universe
attracts other particles with a force which is directly proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportionalto the square of their distances apart.This means there is
gravitational attraction between you and any object in the room where you are. The
gravitational force attraction between two bodies is given by
𝑚" 𝑚$
𝐹∝
𝑟$
𝐺𝑚" 𝑚$
𝐹=
𝑟$
Where F is the magnitude of the gravitational force on either particle, 𝑚" 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚$ are their
masses, r is the distance between them, and G is a fundamental physical constant called the
universal gravitational constant.It is assumed to have the same value everywhere for all
matter. (6.67 X 10-11Nm2kg-2)

For a system of particles, we can find the gravitational force on any one of them from the
others by using the principle of superposition.This is a general principle that says a net effect
is thesum of the individual effects. This means that we first compute the individual
gravitational forces that act on selected particle due to each of the other particles and then
find the net force by adding these forces vectorially, as it is done when adding forces.For n
interacting particles, we can write the principle of superposition for the gravitational forces
on particle 1 as

𝐹⃗"314 = 𝐹⃗"$ + 𝐹⃗"% + 𝐹⃗"% + … … … … + 𝐹⃗"3

Where 𝐹⃗"314 is the net force on particle 1 due to the other particles.This equation can be
expressed as a vector sum:
3

𝐹⃗"314 = … 𝐹⃗",
,I$

Example
 66

1. The mass of one of the small spheres of a Cavendish balance is 10 g, the mass of the
nearest large sphere is 500g, and the center-to-center distance between them is 0.0500
m. Find the gravitational force on each sphere due to the other. (Ans is 1.33×10-10N)
2. Calculate the gravitational force of attraction between the Earth and a 70 kg man if he
is standing at a sea level,6.38 x 106 m from the earth’s centre.(Ans is 685N)

Mass and weight

The weight of a body is the total gravitational force exerted on the body by all other bodies in
the universe. When the body is near the surface of the earth, we can neglect all other
gravitational forces and consider the weight as just the earth’s gravitational
attraction.Similarlyif an object is on the surface of the moon or any other planet, its weight
will be from the gravitational attraction of the moon or the planet.If the earth is assumed to be
a spherically symmetric body with radius r and mass M, the weight w of a small body of
mass m at the earth’s surface (a distance r from its center) is given by

𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑤=𝐹=
𝑟$
Then, when the body is allowed to fall freelytowards the centre of the earth, the force
accelerating it is its weight, w and the acceleration produced by this force is that due to
gravity known as acceleration due to gravity denoted by g.From Newton’s second law, force
that causes the acceleration g of free fall is given by

𝑤 = 𝑚𝑔

The magnitude of the gravitational force from Earth on a particle of mass m, located outside
Earth a distance r from Earth’s center, is then given by

𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑤=
𝑟$
Equating the two equations we get

𝐺𝑀
𝑔=
𝑟$
where r = radius of the earth, G = the universal gravitational constant and g is the acceleration
due to gravity.

This shows that the acceleration due to gravity is the same for all bodies or objects. From the
above equation, mas of the earth is then

𝑟$𝑔
𝑀=
𝐺
Example
 67

A robotic lander with an earth weight of 3430 N is sent to Mars, which has radius𝑟2 =
3.40 × 10J 𝑚 and mass 𝑀 = 6.42 × 10$% 𝑚. Find the weight of the lander on the Martian
surface and the acceleration there due to gravity.

Gravitational potential`

When a body of mass (m) is moved from infinity to a point inside the gravitational influence
of a source mass without accelerating it, the amount of work done in displacing it into the
source field is stored in the form of potential energy, this is known as gravitational potential
energy.

To find the expression for the gravitational potential energy, we consider a body of mass m
outside the earth, and first compute the work done W by the gravitational force when the
body moves directly away from or toward the center of the earth from 𝑟 to ∞. This work is
given by

K
𝑊 = ‹ 𝐹⃗(𝑟) ∙ d𝑟⃗
L

The integral contains the scalar (or dot) product of the force 𝐹⃗ (r) and the differential
displacement vector d𝑟⃗ along the ball’s path. We can expand that product as

𝐹⃗(𝑟) ∙ d𝑟⃗ = 𝐹(𝑟)𝑑𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑

Where 𝜑 is the angle between the directions of 𝐹⃗ (𝑟) and d𝑟⃗ which is 180o. The force is
MN2
given by:𝐹⃗ (𝑟) = " . Therefore,
L

𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐹⃗ (𝑟) ∙ d𝑟⃗ = − 𝑑𝑟
𝑟$
Where 𝑀 is Earth’s mass and m is the mass of the ball. Substituting the above equation in the
integral we get

K
1
𝑊 = −𝐺𝑀𝑚 ‹ 𝑑𝑟
L 𝑟$

𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑊=−
𝑟
where W is the work required to move the ball from point P(at distance r) to infinity. But the
work done in terms of potential energies is

∆𝑈 = −𝑊
 68

𝑈K − 𝑈 = −𝑊

The potential energy U at infinity is zero, therefore 𝑈 = 𝑊

𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑈=−
𝑟
Potential Energy of a System of particles

If a system contains more than two particles, its total gravitational potential energy U is the
sum of terms representing the potential energies of all the pairs. (weconsider each pair of
particles in turn, calculate the gravitational potential energy of that pair with as if the other
particles were not there, and then algebraically sum the results). As an example, for three
particles of masses 𝑚" , 𝑚$ and 𝑚% , the potentialenergy can be written as

𝐺𝑚" 𝑚$ 𝐺𝑚" 𝑚"% 𝐺𝑚$ 𝑚%

𝑈 = −( + + )
𝑟"$ 𝑟"% 𝑟$%

Artificial satellite

Artificial satellites orbiting the earth are a familiar part of modern technology. But how do
they stay in orbit, and what determines the properties of their orbits? We can use Newton’s
laws and the law of gravitation to provide the answers.

Satellites: Circular Orbits

A circular orbit is the simplest case. It is also an important case since many artificial satellites
have nearly circular orbits and the orbits of the planets around the sun are also circular. The
only force acting on a satellite in circular orbit around the earth is the earth’s gravitational
attraction, which is directed toward the center of the earth and hence toward the center of the
orbit. This means that the satellite is in Uniform circular motion and its speed is constant. The
satellite isn’t falling toward the earth; rather, it’s constantly falling around the earth.

Orbital velocity

To find the velocityv of a satellite in a circular orbit, let r be the radius of the orbit measured
:"
from the center of the earth; a be the acceleration of the satellite with magnitude L
and is
always directed toward the center of the circle. By the law of gravitation, the net force
MN2
(gravitational force) on the satellite of mass m has magnitude𝐹 = L"
.

:" :"
From Newton’s second law,𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎, Substituting 𝑎 = L
in, we have𝐹 = 𝑚 L .

Equating the two equations of force we get

𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑚𝑣 $
=
𝑟$ 𝑟
 69

Solving for v we have

𝐺𝑀
𝑣=•
𝑟

The above equation is called the orbital velocity and it is the velocity with which a satellite
revolves round the earth. This shows that the motion of a satellite round the earth does not
depend on its mass.

Energy of a circular orbit

The total energy of a satellite of mass m moving in a circular orbit with radius ris the sum of
both kinetic energy K and potential energy Ugiven by

𝐸 =𝐾+𝑈

MN2 " MN
Where 𝑈 = − L
and 𝐾 = $ 𝑚𝑣 $ . 𝑣 is the orbital velocity and is equal to V L

1 𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐸 = 𝑚‘ ’_
2 𝑟 𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐸=−
2𝑟
This means that the total energy is just one-half the potential energy fora circular
orbit.

Escape velocity

Escape velocity is the minimum velocity with which a body must be projected vertically
upwards from the earth’s surface so that it just crosses the earth’s gravitational field.Escape
velocity does not depend upon the mass or shape or size of the body as well as the direction
of projection of the body.

Consider a projectile of mass m, leaving the surface of a planet (or some other astronomical
"
body or system) with escape speed v. The projectile has a kinetic energy K given by $
𝑚𝑣 $
MN2
and a potential energy U given by − L
, where M is mass of the planet and r is its radius.
When the projectile reaches infinity, it stops and thus has no kinetic energy. Italso has no
potential energy because an infinite separation between two bodies isour zero-potential-
energy configuration. Therefore, Its total energy at infinity is zero.

𝐾+𝑈 =0
 70

1 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑚𝑣 $ + (− )=0
2 𝑟

2𝐺𝑀
𝑣=•
𝑟

MN
But 𝑔 = L"
Substituting, we get

𝑣 = ”2𝑔𝑟

The equation above gives the expression for the velocity of escape.

Example

1. Assuming you wish to put a 1000-kg satellite into a circular orbit 300 km above the
earth’s surface. (a) What speed, period, and radial acceleration will it have? (b) How
much work must be done to the satellite to put it in orbit? (c) How much additional
work would have to be done to make the satellite escape the earth?
2. A particle of mass m moves in a circular orbit of radius r under the influence
of the gravitational force due to a pointobject of mass M>>m. Calculate the total
energy of the particle as a function of r.

Weightlessness

It is a situation in which the effective weight of the body becomes zero,Weightlessness is

achieved

(i) during freely falling under gravity

(ii) inside a space craft or satellite

(iii) at the centre of the earth

(iv) when a body is lying in a freely falling lift.

Variation of acceleration due to gravity with height

Let us assume that 𝑔H is the acceleration due to gravity at a distance a from the
centre of the earth where a >r. r is the radius of the earth. Then 𝑔H can be written as

𝐺𝑀
𝑔H =
𝑎$
But we know that

𝐺𝑀
𝑔=
𝑟$
 71

Dividing we have

𝑔H 𝑟 $
=
𝑔 𝑎$

𝑟$
𝑔H = 𝑔
𝑎$
From this equation we conclude that, above the earth’s surface, the acceleration due to
gravity g′ varies inversely as the square of the distance, a between the object and the center of
the earth.Also r and g are constant and 𝑔H decreases with height.

At height h above the earth’s surface, a = r + h,

𝑟$ 1
𝑔H = 𝑔= 𝑔
(𝑟 + ℎ)$ O $
–1 + L —

H
ℎ !$
𝑔 = ‘1 + ’ 𝑔
𝑟
We see that if h is very small compared to r (where r is 6400km) we neglect the
powers of higher than the first

Hence,

2ℎ
𝑔H = ‘1 − ’𝑔
𝑟
2ℎ
𝑔 − 𝑔H = 𝑔
𝑟
𝑔 − 𝑔H = reduction in acceleration due to gravity

Variation of g with depth

The acceleration due to gravity on the earth surface is given by

𝐺𝑀
𝑔=
𝑟$
 72

Let 𝜌 be the density of material of the earth, then

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 × 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

3
𝑀 = 𝜋𝑟 % 𝜌
4
Substituting M we have

𝐺 3𝜋𝑟 % 𝜌
𝑔=
𝑟$ 4
3
𝑔= 𝜋𝐺𝑟𝜌 (𝑎)
4
Let the body be taken to a depth d below the earth surface, the distance from the centre of the
earth will be (r-d). Assuming the earth has a uniform density, the acceleration due to gravity
at depth d below the surface of the earth will be given by

3
𝑔+ = 𝜋𝐺(𝑟 − 𝑑)𝜌 (𝑏)
4
Dividing (b) by (a) we have

𝑔+ 𝑟 − 𝑑
=
𝑔 𝑟

𝑑
𝑔+ = A1 − B 𝑔
𝑟
This is the expression for the acceleration due to gravity at d below the surface of the earth
and it shows that g increases for all depths below the surface of the earth.

Variation of g with Latitude

The acceleration due to gravity has been observed to vary from location to location. This is
because of the following:

(i) the equatorial radiusof the earth exceeding its polar radius byabout 21km hence
making g greater at the poles than at the equator because, a body is far from the
center of the earth here.
(ii) the effect of the earth’s rotation.

Let us look at how the earth’s rotation affects acceleration due to gravity. Recall that a body
of mass m at any pointon the surface of the earth (except the poles) must have centripetal
force acting on it. Part of this centripetal force is due to the force of gravity on the body. If
the earth were stationary, the pull of gravity on m would be mg where g is the acceleration
due to gravity. But due to the earth’s rotation the observed gravitational pull is less than this
and is equal to 𝑚𝑔P where 𝑔P is the observed acceleration due to gravity. Hence,
 73

𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑚𝑔P

At the equator, the body moves in a circle of radius r where r is the radius of theearth, and it
has the same angular velocity as the earth.Here, the centripetal force is 𝑚𝜔$ 𝑟 so we have

𝑚𝑔 − 𝑚𝑔P = 𝑚𝜔$ 𝑟

𝑔 − 𝑔P = 𝜔$ 𝑟

Assuming the earth is perfectly spherical, the equation above gives the difference between the
polar and equatorial values of 𝑔. At the poles ω= 0 and so

𝑔 = 𝑔P

At an altitude 𝜑, assume the earth is perfectly spherical and consider a body of mass m on the
surface of the earth, the body is acted upon by a gravitational force 𝑚𝑔 towards the centre of
the earth.

The net force towards the centre of the earth

= total force due to gravity − cetripetal force

𝑚𝑔P = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑚𝜔$ 𝑟 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑

L,
But𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 = L
, 𝑟 , = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑

𝑚𝑔P = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑚𝜔$ 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠 $ 𝜑

𝑔P = 𝑔 − 𝜔$ 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠 $ 𝜑

At the pole, 𝜑 = 90, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 $ 𝜑 = 0

𝑔P = 𝑔
 74

At the equator, 𝜑 = 0, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 $ 𝜑 = 1

𝑔P = 𝑔 − 𝜔$ 𝑟

This shows that 𝑔 is minimum at the equator and maximum at the poles.