Math-115 Chapter 2: Polynomials and Rational Functions Fall 2024

2.4: Rational Functions

In chapter 2.2, we learned how to graph polynomial functions. We then generalized to the highly important
class of polynomials more broadly in 2.3. We now move to the most general class of functions which we
will deal with in 2.4: rational functions. These are simply the function version of rational expressions,
which we studied in A.3.

Learning Goals. By the end of this section, students will be able to...

• define and identify rational functions,

• define and identify horizontal and vertical asymptotes,

• identify when a rational function has a horizontal asymptote,

• find the horizontal asymptote of a given rational function,

• find the vertical asymptotes and holes of a given rational function,

• find the oblique asymptotes of rational functions without horizontal asymptotes,

• graph rational functions of the form a ,

x+b

• accurately graph rational functions.

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Math-115 Chapter 2: Polynomials and Rational Functions Fall 2024

Rational Functions

Given two polynomial functions, we can combine and compose them in many ways. It is a fact that
the sum, difference, product, and even the composition of two polynomials itself a .
However, the quotient of two polynomials is a bit more complicated.

Definition. A rational function is any function of the form

N (x)
f (x) =
D(x)

where N (x) and D(x) are both polynomials.

N (x)
We say that f (x) = is in lowest terms when N and D share no common factors.
D(x)

Domain

The domain of a rational function is all real numbers except those numbers c for which

Example: Find the domain of the following functions:

15 12
(a) 3x −212x + 3
x −1

(x + 1)(x − 1)(x2 + 1)
(b) x+1

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Math-115 Chapter 2: Polynomials and Rational Functions Fall 2024

To understand graphs of polynomial functions, we used x2 and x3 as prototypes. The prototypical rational
function is . Below is its graph.
10

−10 −5 5 10

−5

−10

Example: Sketch a graph of f (x) = x−2

+3 Example: Sketch a graph of g(x) = 3x
x+3
+7

10 10

5 5

-10 -5 5 10 -10 -5 5 10

-5 -5

-10 -10

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Math-115 Chapter 2: Polynomials and Rational Functions Fall 2024

Asymptotes
1 . As x → ∞, f (x) goes neither to infinity nor negative infinity.
First, observe the end behavior of f (x) = x
Instead, we have that f (x) → 0 as x → ∞, and f (x) → 0 as x → −∞. When a function exhibits this type
of behavior, we say it has a horizontal asymptote:

Definition. A function f (x) has a horizontal asymptote of y = k if f (x) → k as x → ∞ and/or if

f (x) → k as x → −∞.

N (x)
Finding Horizontal Asymptote: If f (x) = , where the leading term of N (x) is an xn and the
D(x)
leading term of D(x) is bd xd , then we have three cases

 
 



 y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote, if n < d  



 

y= a n is a horizontal asymptote, if n = d 

 bd 

 

 
 there is no horizontal asymptote, if n > d 
 

N (x)
If n > d, then the end behavior of f (x) follows the quotient of much like it would an asymptote.
D(x)
When this quotient is a line, we call it an oblique asymptote.

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Math-115 Chapter 2: Polynomials and Rational Functions Fall 2024

Example: In each case, find the horizontal asymptotes:

(1) g(x) = 5x + 7
x2 + 15 − 7

3 2
(2) p(x) = 2x 3− 4x + 15
−8x − 3x + 12

15 3
(3) f (x) = 3x + 2x − 17
12
x

This end behavior is likely not the most striking feature of the graph of x1 , as perhaps more interestingly
is its behavior around x = 0.
(Note: 0 is not in the domain of x1 )

1
Around x = 0, the function f (x) = x
gets very very large, either approaching positive or negative infinity.
In particular, as x approaches 0 from ‘the right’, f (x) approaches infinity. We express this by f (x) → ∞
as x → 0+ . Similarly, we have that . When a function exhibits
this type of behavior, we say it has a vertical asymptote:

Definition. A function f (x) has a vertical asymptote of x = a if f (x) → ∞ as x → a+ or as x → a−

and/or if f (x) → −∞ as x → a+ or as x → a− .

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Math-115 Chapter 2: Polynomials and Rational Functions Fall 2024

Finding Vertical Asymptote: Vertical asymptotes occur where D(x) = 0, but not at every such place.
Let D(c) = 0. Then there are two possibilities.
N ′ (x) N (x)
If ′ is in lowest terms, then....
D (x) D(x)
 
 x = c is a vertical asymptote, if D′ (c) = 0 

 

′
 (c, N ′ (c) ) is a hole, if D′ (c) ̸= 0 

 

D (c)
So, we find all the zeroes of the denominator first. Then, we simplify into lowest terms. The zeroes of the
denominator that remain result in vertical asymptotes, the ones which do not result in holes.

2
Example: Find the asymptotes of f (x) = x 2+ x − 12
2x − 3x − 9

Problem. Find the asymptotes of g(x) = 3x − 7

3x − 7x2 − 75x + 175
3

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Math-115 Chapter 2: Polynomials and Rational Functions Fall 2024

Much as simple power functions determine much of the behavior of polynomials, functions of the form
a
determine much of how rational functions work. There are effectively four sorts of cases, as all
(x − b)m
that really matters is the sign of a and the parity of m.

m even m odd

a>0

a<0

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Math-115 Chapter 2: Polynomials and Rational Functions Fall 2024

Rules to Graph a Rational Function

N (x)
Steps to graph f (x) =
D(x)

0 Record all points not in the domain of f , then reduce to simplest terms

1 Find the x− and y− intercepts and mark them on the graph

(x − c)m S(x)
• If c is a zero of N (x) with multiplicity n, we can write f (x) =
D(x)
(x − c)m S(c)
• Around the zero x = c, f (x) behaves just like
D(c)
• The parity of m determines if the graph pierces or touches at c
S(c)
• The sign of determines positive/negative on either side of the zero
D(c)

2 Find and mark the vertical asymptotes

• If k is a vertical asymptote and m is the multiplicity of k in D(x),we can write f (x) =

N (x)
(x − k)m Q(x)
N (k)
• Around the asymptote x = k, f (x) behaves just like
(x − k)m Q(k)
• The parity of m and the sign of A determine how the pieces of f (x) act on either side of the
asymptote

3 Find and mark the horizontal asymptotes

• If there is a horizontal asymptote, rewrite f (x) by simplifying it into a proper fraction: f (x) =
R(x)
k+
D(x)
R(x)
• Plot on a number line points where is either zero of undefined
D(x)
R(x)
• Between adjacent pairs of points, find the sign of
D(x)
• This tells you where the graph is above/below the asymptote. Mark points of crossing.

4 Connect what has been graphed so far!

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Math-115 Chapter 2: Polynomials and Rational Functions Fall 2024

Example: Graph the following rational functions:

3 2
(1) 2
x ; (2) x3 − 4x ; (3) 2x x−−3x1 + 2
x −4 x − 9x

10

-10 -5 5 10

-5

-10

10

-10 -5 5 10

-5

-10

10

-10 -5 5 10

-5

-10

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