The Concept of Fluid

 You know all matter on earth is constituted of molecules.

 It is the way that the molecules are packed that suggests whether a matter is a
solid, liquid or gas.
 For solids, the molecules are tightly packed and the molecules have strong
inter- molecular cohesive bonding. The solids can retain a definite shape and
volume.
 Liquids are composed of relatively close packed molecules (but not as close in
solids).
 Liquids have good cohesive forces among its molecules and can mostly retain
its volume.
 Liquids form a free surface in a gravitational field, if the upper portion is not
confined by a solid.
 Gas molecules are spreaded widely. They have negligible cohesive forces
among themselves and do not retain a constant volume.

Fig.
1: Difference between the three phases of matter

Definition of Fluid:-

A substance, as a liquid or gas, that is capable of flowing and that changes

its shape at a steady rate when acted upon by a force tending to change its
shape.
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 •Types of Flow
Fluid flows are classified as:

1. Steady and unsteady flow

2. Uniform and non-uniform flow
3. Laminar and turbulent flow
4. Compressible and incompressible flow
5. Rotational and irrotational flow
6. Ideal and real flow
7. One, two and three-dimensional flow

1- Steady and unsteady flow:

Steady flow is that type of flow in which fluid parameters (velocity, pressure, density etc.) at any
point in the flow field do not change with time. This means that the fluid particles passing through a
fixed point have the same flow parameters like velocity, pressure, surface tension etc. The
parameters may be different at the different cross-section of the flow passage.
Mathematically, a steady flow is defined as

Unsteady flow is that type of flow in which fluid parameters (velocity, pressure, density etc.) at a
point changes with time.
Mathematically, an unsteady flow is defined as

2-Uniform and Non-uniform flow:

Uniform flow is defined as that type of flow in which the velocity of flow of a fluid at any instant
does not change with respect to space. In other words, it is the flow in which the velocity of flow
remains constant throughout the flow field at any given time.

Mathematically, for uniform flow

where ∂ Ʋ = change in velocity

∂ s = length of flow in a direction, s.
Non-uniform flow is defined as that type of flow in which the velocity of flow changes with respect
to space at any given time.
In other words, it is the flow in which the velocity of flow is different for a different section in the
path of flow.
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Mathematically, for non-uniform flow

3-Laminar and Turbulent flow:

Laminar flow is defined as that type of flow in which each fluid particle has a definite path and
paths of individual particles do not cross each other.

Laminar flow is also called streamline or viscous flow. This type of flow occurs in smooth pipes
having the low velocity of flow. It also occurs in liquids having high viscosity.
Turbulent flow is defined as that type of flow in which each fluid particle does not have a definite
path and the paths of individual particles cross each other.
In other words, it is the flow in which fluid particles move in a zigzag path.

When a fluid is flowing in a pipe, the type of flow is determined by a non-dimensional number, called
Reynold’s number.
For laminar flow, Reynold number ˂ 2000
For turbulent flow, Reynold number ˃ 4000

4-Compressible and Incompressible flow:

The flow in which the density of fluid changes, due to pressure and temperature variations, from
point to point during the flow is called compressible flow.
In other words, it is the flow in which the density of a fluid is not constant during the flow.
Mathematically, for compressible flow
P ≠ constant
The flow in which the density of fluid does not change during the flow is called incompressible flow.
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In other words, it is the flow in which the density of a fluid is constant during the flow.
Mathematically, for incompressible flow
P = constant
Liquids are generally incompressible which means that pressure and temperature changes have a very little
effect on their volume. Gases are compressible fluids.

5-Rotational and Irrotational flow:

Rotational flow is that type of flow in which fluid particles also rotate about their own axes while
flowing along a streamline.

Irrotational flow is that type of flow in which fluid particles do not rotate about their own axes while
flowing.
6-Ideal and Real flow:

An ideal flow is the flow of a non-viscous fluid. In the ideal flow, no shear stress exists between two
adjacent layers or between the fluid layer and boundary, only normal stresses can exist in ideal
flows.
The flow of real (viscous) fluids is called real flow. In real flow, shear stress exists between to
adjacent fluid layers. These stresses oppose the sliding of one layer over another.

7- One, Two and Three-dimensional flow:

One dimensional flow is the flow in which parameters (velocity, pressure, density, viscosity and
temperature) vary only in one direction and the flow is a function of only one co-ordinate Axis and
time. The flow field is represented by streamlines which are straight and parallel.

Mathematically, for one-dimensional flow

Two-dimensional flow is the flow in which fluid parameters vary along two directions and the flow is
the function of two rectangular space coordinates (x and y-axis) and time. The flow field is
represented by streamlines which are curves.

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Mathematically, for two-dimensional flow

Three-dimensional flow is the flow in which flow parameters change in all the three directions and
the flow is the functions of three mutually perpendicular co-ordinate Axis (x, y, z-axis) and time.
The streamlines are space curves.

Mathematically, for three-dimensional flow

•Density:

The density of a fluid, designated by the Greek symbol ρ, is defined as its mass per unit volume.
Density is typically used to characterise the mass of a fluid system. In the SI system, ρ has units of
kg/m3.

ρ = mass = m-
Volume V

Density is an important characteristic of substances. It is crucial, for example, in determining

whether an object sinks or floats in a fluid.
The value of density can vary widely between different fluids, but for liquids, variations in pressure
and temperature generally have only a small effect on the values of ρ. The typical value of ρ for
water at standard pressure and temperature is 1000 kg/m3.

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•Viscosity:

The properties of density and specific weight are measures of the heaviness of a fluid. The viscosity
of a liquid is the measure of the thickness of a fluid and it is related to the ability of a fluid to flow
freely. The following experiment is used to compare the viscosity of fluids.

The upper plate moves at constant velocity under the influence of a

constant applied weight, w. The depth of the liquid layer has been
exaggerated below.

For both cases a number of parallel velocity vectors have been drawn between the plate and the large
surface. In both cases the velocity of the liquid adjacent to the large surface is zero, and the velocity of the
liquid adjacent to the moving plate is identical to that of the moving plate (i.e. no slip condition). The reason
is that fluid molecules tend to adhere to a solid.
The intermediate velocities are in direct proportion to their location
between the two flat surfaces. The velocity V of the fluid varies with distance y measured from some fixed
reference plane, as shown in above figure and is termed the velocity profile. The velocity gradient, dV/ dy
shows the rate of change of velocity in y direction. For many fluids, the shear stress between two adjoining
layers of fluid times the velocity gradient is a constant. This constant is called the dynamic viscosity μ, i.e.
μ = τ / (Δy / Δv)

or in differential form, τ = μ dV /dy

In SI unit, shear stress will be in Pa or N/m2, velocity in m/s and depth in m. Thus dynamic viscosity has units
of N.s/m2 or Pa .s. The typical value for water is 1.14 x 10-3 Ns/m2.Many calculations in fluid mechanics
involve the ratio of dynamic viscosity to mass density. Since both variables are properties, their ratio is also a
property. This quantity is called kinematic viscosity ν in m2/s.
ν =μ / ρ

Typical value for water is 1.14 x 10-6 m2/s.

If temperature and pressure are held constant, then the ratio of shear stress to velocity gradient
(called dynamic viscosity) will be constant. This is true for a wide range of gases, water, water

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solutions and many petroleum products. As a group, all those fluids for which the assumption holds
true are called Newtonian fluids. All other fluids are called non-Newtonian fluids.

Worked example:
The diagram above shows two plates Δy apart, the lower one fixed and the upper one free to move
under the action of a mass of 25 g. If the fluid between the plates is castor oil (dynamic viscosity,
μ = 650 x 10-3 Ns/m2)
and the area of contact of the upper plate with the oil is 0.75 m2, find the
velocity of the upper plate when the distance separating the plate is 1 cm.

Answer
For Newtonian fluid, τ = μ dV
dy and with a constant τ,
or τ = μΔV
Δy for constant velocity profile

weight of the hanging mass = mg

= 25/1000 * 9.81 N
Viscous shear stress, τ =shear force
area
= 25/1000*9.81 N
0.75 m2
2
= 0.327 N/m

Thus ΔV = τ/μ * Δy = 0.327*0.01-3 m/s

650 x 10
= 5.03 x 10-3 m/s
= 5.03 mm/s

Noted that: at fixed plate, V = 0 because of the ‘no slip’ condition at moving plate, V = 5.03 mm/s also
because of the no slip condition.
2.FLUID PRESSURES:
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 By definition, a fluid must deform continuously when a shear stress of any
magnitude is applied. Therefore when a fluid is either at rest or moving in such a manner that
there is no relative motion between adjacent particles, there will be no shear forces acting and,
therefore all forces exerted between a fluid and a solid boundary must be normal (i.e. right
angle to the given surface).
Pressure is used to indicate the normal force per unit area at a given point
acting on a given plane.
i.e. p = Fnormal /A

Pressure is a scalar quantity. Since it is a ratio of force and area, therefore

the unit of pressure in SI is pascal (Pa). Which is defined as N/m2.
Hence Pa = N/m2;kPa = kN/ m2 ;MPa = N/ mm2
2.1 Pressure at a Point
By considering the equilibrium of a small fluid element in the form of a triangular prism in
the fluid subject to a pressure px in x-direction, p y in y direction and ps in normal to any
plane inclined at an angle θ to the horizontal.

For simplicity, the forces in the z direction are not shown.

The equation of motion in the x and y directions are respectively,

H
ence px = py = ps
Therefore, Pressure at a point in a fluid is the same in all direction - Pascal’s Law
2.2 Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Depth
Considering an element of vertical column of constant cross-sectional area
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A and totally surrounded by the same fluid of mass density .

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•Pressure and Head

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