LASERS

LASER:
The acronym for LASER is Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
Characteristics features of lasers:
Laser light is characterized by
1. Directionality.
Laser light is highly directional and highly collimated beam of light.
2. Monochromaticity.
Laser light is characterized by a high degree of monochromatic.
Δλ = 10-7 Å

3. Coherence.
Laser light has high degree of coherence. There are two types of coherence,
a) Temporal coherence
If we consider two waves in the same wavefront, and the difference between the
wavelengths of them is less, then the source is said to be highly temporal coherence. Since
laser light is highly monochromatic, it has a high temporal coherence.
b) Spatial coherence
Consider phase difference between two points in a wave at any time, separated by
some distance. If the phase difference between the same two points in a wave at later time,
separated by same distance is constant, then one can say that the light is highly spatially
coherent.
4. Light intensity.
Because of the phase correlation and high monochromaticity, the laser light is
more intense among all the known sources.
5. Focussability.
Since the laser light is highly monochromatic and also a highly collimated beam, it
can brought to a sharp focus by using lens. It is so sharp that, the diameter of the spot will
be close to the wavelength of the focused light.
Interaction of Radiation with Matter:
Radiation Interacts with matter under appropriate conditions. The interaction leads
to an abrupt transition from one energy level to another. There are 3 kinds of transition
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involving electromagnetic radiation is possible between two energy levels E 1 and E2 in an
atom.
1. Induced Absorption:
If the atom is initially in the lower state E1, it can be raised to E2 by absorbing a
photon of energy E2 – E1 = hγ. This process is called induced absorption.

Incident photon

E1

a) Before b) After

Atom + Photon Atom*

2. Spontaneous emission:
If the atom is initially in the upper energy state E2, it can drop to E1 by emitting a
photon of energy hγ, this is spontaneous emission.

Emitted photon

a) Before b) After

Atom* Atom + Photon

3. Stimulated emission:
Einstein suggested that under certain conditions, it is possible to stimulate an
excited atom to emit a photon by another matching photon. An atom in an excited state
may under the influence of electromagnetic filed of a photon of frequency γ incident upon
it, jump to a lower energy state, emitting additional photon of same frequency γ. This is
known as stimulated emission of radiation. The radiated light waves are exactly inphase
with the incident ones. So the result is an enhanced beam of coherent light.

Incident photon Stimulated photon

Emitted photon
Before
After

Atom* + Photon Atom + (Photon + Photon)

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Boltzmann factor:
At thermal equilibrium the ratio of population of the upper energy state to the
lower energy state is given by,
h
 N2   E2  E1 
  
   e   KT   e KT
 N1 
E2 > E1, e-(hγ/KT) < 1, Then N2 < N1
Einstein’s coefficients [Expression for energy density at thermal equilibrium]
Consider two energy states E1 and E2 of a system of atoms. Let N1 and N2 be the
atoms with energy E1 and E2 per unit volume of the system. N1 and N2 are called the
number density of atoms in the states 1 and 2 respectively. Let the radiation be incident on
the system. Let ‘Uγ dγ’ be the energy incident per unit volume of the system in the
frequency range γ and γ + dγ. Here ‘Uγ’ is energy density.
Case i) Induced absorption
Here the radiation absorbed is a frequency γ. The number of such absorption per
unit time, per unit volume is called rate of absorption. The rate of absorption depends
upon,
a) the number density of lower energy state. i.e., N1 Incident photon
b) energy density, i.e., Uγ

Rate of absorption  N1Uγ

Or, Rate of absorption = B12 N1Uγ ---- (1)

Where ‘B12’ is constant of proportionality called Einstein’s
coefficient of induced absorption,
Case ii) Spontaneous emission
Here transition is voluntary. The number of spontaneous
emissions per unit time, per unit volume is called rate of
spontaneous emission. It depends upon only the number density
in the higher energy state, i.e., N2
 Rate of spontaneous emission = A21N2 ---- (2)

Where ‘A21’ is called Einstein’s coefficient of spontaneous emission.

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Case iii) Stimulated emission
Since the system requires an external photon of appropriate frequency γ, to stimulate the
atom. The number of stimulated emissions per unit time, per unit volume, called
rate of stimulated emission, is proportional to

a) the number density of the higher energy state, i.e., N 2

Before
b) the energy density, i.e., Uγ

 Rate of stimulated emission = B21 N2 Uγ ---- (3)

Where ‘B21’ is called Einstein’s coefficient of stimulated emission. After

Under thermal equilibrium, the number of photons absorbed by the system per
second must be equal to the number of photons it emits per second by both the stimulated
and the spontaneous emission processes.

i.e., Rate of absorption = Rate of spontaneous emission + Rate of stimulated emission

From equations (1), (2) and (3),

B12 N1Uγ = A21N2 + B21 N2 Uγ
Or, Uγ (B12 N1 – B21 N2) = A21N2
A21 N 2
Or, U 
B12 N1  B21 N 2
By rearranging the above equation, we get,
 
A21  1 
U    ---- (4)
B21  B12 N 1 
 B N  1
 21 2 
But, by Boltzmann’s law, we have,
h
 N2   E2  E1 
  
   e   KT   e KT
 N1 
h
N1
  e KT
N2

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 Equation (4) becomes,
 
 
A21  1 
U  ---- (5)
B21  B12 KTh

 e  1
 B21 
According to Planck’s law, the equation for ‘Uγ’ is
 
8h 3  1 
U  ---- (6)
c 3  KTh

 e  1
By comparing equations (5) and (6), we have,
A21 8h 3 B12
 and 1 or B12 = B21
B21 c3 B21

i.e., The probability of induced absorption is equal to the probability of stimulated

emission.
 At thermal equilibrium the equation for energy density is

A
U 
 h 
B e KT  1
 
Discussions of Einstein’s coefficients
i) Dependence of emission on frequency
A21 8h 3
We know that,  --- (1)
B21 c3
Where ‘A21’ is called Einstein’s coefficient of spontaneous emission.
and ‘B21’ is called Einstein’s coefficient of stimulated emission.
A21
  3
B21

 E 
Since     , When the energy difference between the two levels E 1 and E2 is large,
 h 
A 
Then,  21   1 OR A21  B21
 B21 
 For higher ΔE values, the probability of spontaneous emission is more.

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 ii) System in thermal equilibrium
 
8h 3  1  A21 8h 3
We know that, U   -- (2) and 
c 3  KTh
 B21 c3
 e  1
h
A21  KT 
   e  1 --- (3)

B 21 U   
h

Case (a): hγ >> KT: e KT   1

A 
Hence equ (3)   21   1 OR A21  B21
 B21 
Spontaneous emissions are much larger.
h

Case (b): hγ = KT: Here e KT

will be low and comparable to 1.  A21 and B21 are
comparable, which means that stimulated emission becomes significant
B21 >> A21
h
 KT   A21 
Case (c): hγ << KT:  e  1   1 and     1 OR B21  A21
 
   21 
B

Hence for lower frequencies, stimulated emissions dominate. This is what we observe at
room temperature.
iii) Non-equilibrium conditions leading to amplification

We know that, Rate of emissions = A21N2 + B21 N2 Uγ ---- (4)

Rate of absorption = B12 N1Uγ ---- (5)

Rate of emissions A 21 N 2 + B 21 N 2 U  N  A21  B 21U  

  2  
Rate of absorption B12 N 1 U  N 1  B12U  

Since B12 = B21

Rate of emissions N  A 
 2  21  1 --- (6)
Rate of absorption N 1  B12U  

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If ΔE < < KT i.e., hγ < < KT (Case 1)

 A21 
Then    1
 B12U  

Then equation (6) becomes

Rate of emissions N
 2
Rate of absorption N1

We know that in normal condition N2 < N1. If we made N2 > N1 by some means,
the system will be in non equilibrium condition since by Boltzmann factor.

In this case, rate of emission exceeds the rate of absorptions. Further if the photons
emitted in a particular direction are returned in to the system by reflecting them back and
forth, then the rate of stimulated emission exceeds the absorption rate. If right conditions
are provided, all the stimulated emissions could be arranged to be identical in respect of
wavelength, phase and direction to the starting stimulating radiation, then that itself has
been amplified. To achieve this we should maintain N2 > N1 always. This forms the basis
for functioning of every laser.
Laser action:
Conditions for Laser action
The system should have
1. Population inversion
2. Metastable state

Population inversion:
Any material consists of collection of atoms, molecules or ions. Under normal
circumstances there is always a large number of atoms in the lower energy state than in the
excited state. Then by some means, we can make number of atoms (N 2) in the excited state
is grater than the number of atoms (N1) in lower state, then one can say that population
inversion is attained by the atomic system.

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Metastable State

A Metastable state is one which has a relatively longer lifetime and electrons excited to
these levels will come down to lower energy levels at a much smaller rate than the rate at
which they are excited.
As shown in figure, a lasing medium must have at least one metastable state where atoms
can be trapped long enough (microseconds to milliseconds) for a population inversion to
occur. Although laser action is possible with only two energy levels, most lasers have
three or more levels.

Three level laser energy diagram

Basic Requisites of a Laser system

The important requisites of a typical laser system are
1. Active medium and matrix
2. Pumping
3. Optical resonance cavity or Laser cavity
1.Active medium and matrix

For interaction of matter with radiation, we need suitable atoms. Generally, the group of
atoms required for laser action is present in some other group of atoms. The material in
which laser action takes place is called active material. The group of atoms in which the

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active material is embedded is called matrix. The matrix provides the energy levels for the
active material for laser action to take place.
2.Pumping

The process through which the atoms of the active medium are induced to absorb energy is
called pumping. The pumping can be achieved by photons-optical pumping, by electric
discharge-electrical pumping, or by chemical reaction-chemical pumping.
3.Laser cavity

The photons emitted by stimulated emission must be made to increase in number. This is
done inside a chamber called laser cavity or the resonant cavity. The laser cavity consists
of a chamber in which the active material and matrix are present. The chamber is fixed
with two mirrors, one fully reflecting, the other one partially reflecting. When the
stimulated emissions occur, the photons undergo repeated reflections and the population
builds up inside the chamber and ultimately the final beam emerges.
Partially
Amplifying chamber reflecting
mirror
Fully
reflecting
mirror Laser
output

Active medium + matrix

Collision of first kind

e1 + A e2 + A*
Collision of second kind

A* + B A + B*
Brewster window:
Reflected ray

Incident ray Refracted ray

Brewster angle ‘’ satisfies the condition, tan = µ, Where µ is RI of the material.

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Semi Conductor Laser
A semi conductor diode laser is a specially fabricated PN junction device that
emits coherent light when it is forward biased.
Construction:
A schematic diagram of semi conductor laser is shown in figure below.

P – Type
Laser light
HT

N – Type

Fig: Schematic diagram of semiconductor laser

The diode is extremely small in size with sides of the order of 1 mm. The junction
lies in a horizontal plane through the center with thickness 1 μm. A pair of parallel planes
are cleaved or polished perpendicular to the plane of the junction. The top and bottom
faces are roughened to prevent lasing action in that direction.
Working:
When a forward bias is applied to the semiconductor, perpendicular to the plane of
the junction a forward current flows. As the bias is increased, eventually a threshold
current is reached at which the stimulated emissions occurs and a monochromatic and
highly directional beam of light is emitted from the junction.

Condition to achieve laser action is, we have to pass a large current and both P –
type and N – type semiconductors are heavily doped. Because of large forward current a
holes moves from the P – to N – side and an electron moves from N – to P – side. At the
junction a recombination of electron and holes takes place and the energy is released in the
form of light, which is a stimulated radiation.

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 Recombination of
electron and hole

N – Type
hγ
+ + + +

+
P – Type

Junction

Fig: Energy level diagram

Here hγ = Eg

Where Eg is the energy gap

The frequency of the emitted light is given by

Eg

h

Advantages of semiconductor laser:

1. They are compact

2. They are efficient
3. They are highly stable
4. They can be easily fabricated
Applications of Lasers
Lasers find remarkable applications in the fields such as medicine (eye surgery,
cancer treatment, stomatology, plastic surgery, etc.), material processing (welding, cutting,
drilling etc.), communications (optical fibers), energy resource, photography, defense,
laser fusion, holography, etc,.

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