,

LECTURE NOTES ON ALGEBRA

(MI1036)

TUAN ANH DAO

FACULTY OF MATHEMATICS AND INFORMATICS

HANOI UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Tuan Anh Dao, FaMI-HUST ALGEBRA I ♡ HUST

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Chapter 2: Matrices, System of linear equations

1 MATRICES

2 SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

Tuan Anh Dao, FaMI-HUST ALGEBRA I ♡ HUST

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Chapter 2: Matrices, System of linear equations

Lesson 1: MATRICES

Tuan Anh Dao, FaMI-HUST ALGEBRA I ♡ HUST

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Lesson 1: Matrices
I. Basic concepts
1. Definition: A matrix A = [aij ]m×n is a m × n array of real (or
complex) numbers as follows:
   
a11 a12 . . . a1n a11 a12 ... a1n
 a21 a22 . . . a2n   a21 a22 ... a2n 
A= . .. ..  or A =  .. .. ..  ,
   
 .. .. ..
. . .   . . . . 
am1 am2 ... amn am1 am2 ... amn

where
• aij = entries (or elements) of A with i = 1, m and j = 1, n.
• m = number of rows, n = number of columns.
• m × n = size of A.   
1 −2 1 2 3
Examples: A = and B =
3 4 −4 5 1
2. Remark: The set of m × n matrices with entries in the field K
(K = R or C) is denoted by Matm×n (K ) or Mm×n (K ) for simplicity.
Tuan Anh Dao, FaMI-HUST ALGEBRA I ♡ HUST
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Lesson 1: Matrices
3. Classification of matrices:
• Zero matrix: (or Null matrix) is a matrix of size m × n in which all its
entries are zero, denoted by 0m×n .    
  0 0 0 0 0
For examples: 01×1 = 0 , 02×2 = , 02×3 =
0 0 0 0 0
• Square matrix: (or n-square matrix) is a matrix with the same
number of rows and columns (m = n). Then,
i) a11 , a22 , · · · , ann are called diagonal entries of A.
ii) The line linking from a11 to ann is called the main diagonal of A.
• Diagonal matrix: is a n-square matrix with aij = 0, ∀i ̸= j, namely
 
a11 0 . . . 0
 0 a22 . . . 0 
A= . .. .. 
 
 .. ..
. . . 
0 0 ... ann
• Identity matrix: is a diagonal matrix in which all elements on the
main diagonal are equal to 1 (aii = 1). We denote In .
Tuan Anh Dao, FaMI-HUST ALGEBRA I ♡ HUST
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Lesson 1: Matrices
• Triangular matrix: is a n-square matrix in which all elements of A
below (above) the main diagonal are zero, in particular,
   
a11 a12 . . . a1n a11 0 ... 0
 0 a22 . . . a2n   a21 a22 . . . 0 
A= . . . or A =  . .. ..  .
   
 .. .. . .. .. 

 .. ..
. . . 
0 0 . . . ann am1 am2 . . . ann
Then, A is called an upper (lower) triangular matrix, respectively.
• Row (Column) matrix: is a matrix with a single row, i.e. m = 1 (or
a single column, i.e. n = 1) as follows:
 
a11
   a21 
A = a11 a12 . . . a1n or A =  .  .
 
 .. 
am1
4. Equality of Matrices: We say that [aij ]m×n = [bij ]m×n if they have
the same size and aij = bij , ∀i, j.
Tuan Anh Dao, FaMI-HUST ALGEBRA I ♡ HUST
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Lesson 1: Matrices
II. Matrix operations
1. Addition/Subtraction: Let A = [aij ]m×n , B = [bij ]m×n be two
matrices having the same size. Then,

A ± B = [aij ± bij ]m×n .

2. Scalar multiplication: Let A = [aij ]m×n be a matrix and k be a

constant. Then,
kA = [k.aij ]m×n .
Some properties: Let A, B and C be three matrices of the same
size, and k, ℓ be constants.
• A + B = B + A.
• (A + B) + C = A + (B + C ) = (A + C ) + B.
• A + 0 = A, where 0 is the zero matrix.
• k(A + B) = kA + kB.
• (k + ℓ)A = kA + ℓA.
• k(ℓA) = (kℓ)A.
Tuan Anh Dao, FaMI-HUST ALGEBRA I ♡ HUST
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Lesson 1: Matrices
3. Matrix multiplication: Let A = [aij ]m×n and B = [bij ]n×p be two
matrices. Then, the product of A and B, denoted by AB, is defined by

C = [cjk ]m×p , where cjk = aj1 b1k + aj2 b2k + . . . + ajn bnk
= Multiplying j th row of A with k th column of B.

Namely,

Tuan Anh Dao, FaMI-HUST ALGEBRA I ♡ HUST

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Lesson 1: Matrices
Remarks:
• The condition to ensure that A.B is well-defined is the column
number of A = the row number of B.
• A.B is well-defined, however, B.A may be not well-defined.
Moreover, if A.B and B.A are both well-defined, then A.B ̸= B.A in
general.
• A(BC ) = (AB)C , A(B + C ) = AB + AC , (B + C )A = BA + CA,
k(AB) = (kA)B = A(kB) for any k ∈ R, Im A = A = AIn ,
in which all calculations are well-defined.
• If A ∈ Matn×n , then Ak = A . . . A for any k ≥ 1 and A0 = In .
4. Transposition of matrices: Transposition of A = [aij ]m×n , denoted by
AT , is defined by
AT = [aji ]n×m , i.e. k th row of AT = k th column of A.
Remarks: If the followings are well-defined, then they hold

• (AT )T = A • (kA)T = kAT for any k ∈ R

• (A ± B)T = AT ± B T • (AB)T = B T AT
Tuan Anh Dao, FaMI-HUST ALGEBRA I ♡ HUST
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Chapter 2: Matrices, Determinants, System of linear

equations

Lesson 2: SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

Tuan Anh Dao, FaMI-HUST ALGEBRA I ♡ HUST

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Lesson 2: System of linear equations

I. Basic concepts
1. Definition: A general system of m linear equations with n unknown
variables can be written as follows:


 a11 x1 + a12 x2 + . . . a1n xn = b1

a x + a x + . . . a x = b
21 1 22 2 2n n 2
(1) − General form


 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + . . . amn xn = bm


where • aij with i = 1, m, j = 1, n are called coefficients.

• x1 , x2 , . . . , xn are unknown variables,
• b1 , b2 , . . . , bm are the right-hand side constants.
     
a11 a12 . . . a1n x1 b1
 a21 a22 . . . a2n  x2   b2 
(1) ⇔  . .. ..  .  ..  =  ..  ⇔ Am×n .Xn×1 = Bm×1 (2)
     
 .. ..
. . .  .  . 
am1 am2 . . . amn xn bm
Then, (2) is called the matrix form of (1).
Tuan Anh Dao, FaMI-HUST ALGEBRA I ♡ HUST
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Lesson 2: System of linear equations


2x1 + 7x2 + x3 = 9
     
 2 7 1 x1 9
Examples: 3x1 − x2 + 4x3 = 0 ⇔ 3 −1 4 . x2  = 0
5 9 2 x3 5

5x1 + 9x2 + 2x3 = 5

2. Remarks:
• If b1 = b2 = · · · = bn = 0, then (1) is called a homogeneous sytem.
• If there exists bi ̸= 0, then (1) is called a non-homogeneous sytem.
II. Gauss elimination method
1. Definition: Let Am×n .Xn×1 = Bm×1 be a matrix form of system of
linear equations. The augmented matrix of this system, denoted by
A, is obtained by adding matrix B to the right side of A: A = [A|B]
2. Some steps of Gauss elimination method:

• Interchange two equations ⇔ Interchange two rows

• Multiply one equation with
⇔ Multiply one row with k ̸= 0
k ̸= 0
• Multiply one equation with k ⇔ Multiply one row with k and
and add it to another equation add it to another row
Tuan Anh Dao, FaMI-HUST ALGEBRA I ♡ HUST
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Lesson 2: System of linear equations

3. How to apply Gauss elimination method to solve the system

Am×n .Xn×1 = Bm×1 (1)

Elementary operations
• Step 1: A = [A|B] −−−−−−−−−−−−→ Echelon matrix A∗ , i.e. A∗ is
written by

′
where akk ̸= 0 for any k = 1, 2, · · · , r .
Tuan Anh Dao, FaMI-HUST ALGEBRA I ♡ HUST
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Lesson 2: System of linear equations

• Step 2: Let us divide our consideration into the following cases:

▶ If there exists bk ̸= 0 with k = r + 1, · · · , n, then the system (1)
has no solution.
▶ If bk = 0 for any k = r + 1, · · · , n and r = n, then the system (1)
has a unique solution.
▶ If bk = 0 for any k = r + 1, · · · , n and r < n, then the system (1)
has infinitely many solutions.
Remark: Finally, in the last two cases we may turn to the matrix A∗ to
find solution of (1).
Tuan Anh Dao, FaMI-HUST ALGEBRA I ♡ HUST
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Lesson 2: System of linear equations

Examples: Solve the following system of linear equations:


2x1 + x2 − x3 − x4 + x5 = 1

x1 + x2 − 2x3 = 6

 
x − x + x + x − 2x = 0
1 2 3 4 5
2x1 + 3x2 − 7x3 = 16 and
 3x1 + 3x3 − 3x3 − 3x4 + 4x5 = 2
5x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 16
 

4x1 + 5x2 − 5x3 − 5x4 + 7x5 = 3


Tuan Anh Dao, FaMI-HUST ALGEBRA I ♡ HUST

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The end

Thank you for your attention!

Tuan Anh Dao, FaMI-HUST ALGEBRA I ♡ HUST