Social Studies Notes 2018 1 220715 080130

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Social Studies Notes 2018 (1) 220715 080130
Introduction to Social Studies (University of Botswana)
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SOCIAL STUDIES NOTES
SEKGAKWE REGION
COMPILE BY
NEW SYLLABUS

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MAPS
A map is a drawing representing all or a part of the earth9s surface.
ATTRIBUTES/ ELEMENTS OR CHARACTERISTICS OF MAPS
1. Title – shows us what the map is about.

2. Scale – is used to calculate the ground distance between places on a map. It shows map
users how many times smaller the map is when compared to the real area on the ground.
Scale shows the relationship between real life ground distance and distances on the map.
3. Key (Legend) and symbols – The key / legend explains the meaning of symbols used on
the map. Symbols show information and physical features on the ground.
4. Direction sign – Shows us where north is.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A MAP AND A PLAN
 Maps provide general information while plans give detailed and specific information
about a small area.
 Plans are drawn to a large scale while maps are drawn to a small scale.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A MAP AND AN AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH
 Maps are drawings made by hand while aerial photographs are photos taken using a
camera from an aircraft/ air balloon/ drone.
 Maps only show the information that the mapmaker wants to show while aerial
photographs show everything that the camera was able to pick at the time the picture is
taken.
 Maps have a key, scale, title and direction sign while aerial photographs do not have a
key, scale, title and direction sign.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A MAP AND A SATELLITE IMAGE
 Maps are drawn on hand while satellite images are taken by a satellite orbiting around the
earth.
 Maps only show what the mapmaker wants to show but satellite images show everything
that is on the way of the camera when the picture is taken.
 The altitude and slope of the land can easily be shown on a map but these are difficult to
show on satellite images.
 Maps have a key, scale, title and direction sign while satellite image do not have a key,
scale, title and direction sign.

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MAP SCALE
There are three types of map scale
a) STATEMENT SCALE – This type of scale is written in the form of a statement. For
example, one centimetre on the map represents hundred kilometres on the ground.
How to use statement scale to calculate ground distance
Given a map scale as one centimetre on the map represents hundred kilometres on the
ground. Measured map distance between the two places is 10 cm apart.
The calculated ground distance = 100km x 10cm
Answer = 1000 km.
b) LINEAR SCALE/LINE OR BAR SCALE – This type of scale is shown in the form of
a line or bar. E.g.
Bar scale
How to use linear/ Line/ Bar scale to calculate ground distance
Measuring distance along a straight line
You take a piece of paper; place it along the line that you are measuring. Mark each of the
distance and hold it along the linear scale.
Measuring distance along curved lines
i. Take a straight-edged piece of paper. Mark the starting point then move it until it
touches the shortest straight section of the curved line. Make a mark on the piece
of paper and the line that you are measuring. Continue doing this until the end of
the line that you are measuring. Place the marked piece of paper carefully against
the linear scale to find the exact distance.
ii. A string can also be used. Take string and put it along the winding line and mark
at the beginning of the line and at the end of the line. Take the string to the bar/
line scale, and determine the distance.

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c) RATIO SCALE / REPRESENTATIVE FRACTION (RF) SCALE – This type of

scale is written in ratio form e.g. 1: 200 000. This means that 1centimeter on the map
represents 200 000 centimetres on the ground. Note that the units of the scale for the map
distance and ground distance are the same. It can also be in the form of a fraction
e.g.1/200 000.
How to use ratio scale to calculate ground distance

Ratio scale: 1: 200 000
Map distance between two places = 10cm
Calculate the ground distance
Answer: 10cm * 200 000cm = 2 000 000cm
Now convert 2 000 000cm to kilometres
2 000 000 / 100 000 = 20km.
The ground distance = 20km.
MAP DIRECTION
We use an instrument known as the compass to find the direction of one place from
another.
Cardinal Points
The main compass directions are North, South, East and West. Between the main
directions are intermediate points; north-east, south-east, south-west and north-west.

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Giving direction
When holding a book upright, always note that the top of the book is where your north is. The
bottom is the south, the right side of the book is the east and the left side is west.
When giving direction always imagine that you are standing at the place mentioned immediately
after the word from. For example, find the direction of X from T below. This is like saying if
you stand at T and point at X where would you be pointing. The answer is North West.
MAP KEY
The purpose of a map key is to help the map user to interpret the symbols used on the map.
LOCATION PLACES USING LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE LINES.
Latitude lines
These are horizontal lines drawn on a map. All latitude lines begin at the line of equator. This is
the zero degrees (0º) line. The equator divides the earth into northern and southern hemisphere.
Other latitude lines are the:
i) Tropic of Capricorn - 23½ºS. This line passes in Botswana near Mahalapye.

ii) Tropic of cancer - 23½ºN.
iii) Arctic Circle – 66½º N
iv) Antarctic Circle – 66½º S
Lines of Longitude (meridians)
These are vertical lines. The zero degrees (0º) longitude line is known as the Greenwich meridian
or prime meridian. This line divides the earth into eastern and western hemispheres.

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How to locate places on the map using latitude and longitude lines
 Always start by giving the latitude, which are always either South or North of the Equator
 Then find the longitude, Which are either East or West of the Greenwich Meridian
 The latitude and longitudes are measured in degrees (O)
Source: Exploring S/ studies bk1
The latitude of Gaborone in the above map is 24ºS
The longitude of Gaborone in the above map is 25 º E

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GRID REFERENCES
A grid reference is a network of uniformly spaced horizontal and vertical lines used to locate
places on a topographic map. The horizontal lines of a grid reference are called northings
because their numbers / values increase as one move northwards. The vertical ones are called
eastings because their values increase as one move eastwards.
Locating Places using 4 figure grid reference
 Start with vertical lines (eastings).

 Find the horizontal line (northing)
 The position of any point will be described by the bottom left corner of the point that
you are locating or southwest corner of a square in which a particular point is found.
e.g 20 21 22 23
12
*K *P
11
The position of point K above is 2011
Landforms
Landforms are features such as hills, mountains, depressions, rivers, lakes etc. that we find in our
environment.
Contour lines
These are lines drawn on maps joining places of the same height above sea level or altitude.
Altitude is always shown in metres, E.g 50m. Contour lines are used to determine landforms on
a map.
Vertical interval / contour interval
This is difference between two adjacent / successive contour lines. For example;
10
20
30
The vertical interval of the above feature is 30 – 20 = 10m

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DETERMINING PHYSICAL FEATURES USING CONTOUR LINES
Hills & Mountains- Hills and mountains are shown by contour lines whose values increase
towards the centre.
Hill/ Mountain
Plateau – Plateaus are flat at the top. There is a large open space at the centre of the contour
lines. E.g.

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A Cliff
Depressions – These are low lying areas. For example rivers, lakes, deltas etc. Contour lines
values decrease towards the centre.
e.g
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River Valley – this is another example of a depression. Rivers flow from a high land to a low
land. Its contour lines are V-shaped and the V points towards high land.
The river in the valley above is flowing to the south west.
Flat land – Contour lines of a flat land are very far from each other.
100
200
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Sketch Maps
This is a simple map which shows only the main features of an area and their locations. Features
of sketch maps must be labelled clearly so that they can be identified easily. A map key and
direction symbol should always be provided.
The following is a description that will be used to draw a sketch map.
From my house I go south and follow a road that passes a hospital on the east. I then pass a bus
stop on the west. I ignore the road that turns east and turn on the next road that turns west. The
road crosses a river that has a bridge. After the river there is a school on the northern part of the
road where my friend works.
Sketch Map.
Key / Legend
- bridge
- School
- road
- hospital
- bus stop
- river
- house
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RESEARCH SKILLS
A research is a careful study or investigation about an issue or a problem.
Purpose of Research.
 To make an important decision – research will provide adequate information to allow the
research to make informed decision.
 To identify the causes and possible solutions to problems. It helps the researcher to be
able to find sources of the problem and possible answers to the problem.
 To get new knowledge. Research enable the researcher to be able to gain knowledge on
issues or problems where there has never been available information.
 To increase our understanding about an issue or a problem. It provides an opportunity to
expand our knowledge and have a thorough understanding of issue or a problem.
COMPONENTS OF A RESEARCH
1. Title (topic) – this tells us what the project or research is about. A correct title should
have an issue of research, a site / place / area of study and a period.
2. Background information - this is a description of an issue being researched. It gives us
detailed information about the issue being researched.
3. Statement of the problem – The researcher explains things that caused him or her to
carry out the research that in his or her view warrants a research about it.
4. Research aim or objectives – These are the statements that shows what the research
wants to find out / establish.
5. Hypotheses – This is a reasonable guess of what one thinks are the possible answers the
research will provide. The researcher attempts to provide possible answers to his or her
research questions.
6. Literature review – The researcher reads other sources on related topic to try and see
what other authors / researchers have written about the same / similar issue.
7. Research methods – These will include methods of data collection, data analysis and
data presentation.
A researcher can collect two forms of data :
a) Quantitative data – This is data that is in the form of numbers.
b) Qualitative data – This is data that is in the form of text. It can be people9s
knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, perceptions etc.
METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA

These are the different ways of collecting data e.g.
 Observation – the researcher observes by taking part in the activity (participatory
observation) or observes an event as it takes place and note the points.
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 Questionnaire – the researcher writes questions on pieces of paper and gives them to
respondents to answer.
 Documents study / documents analysis / Reading documents – these are reports,
diaries, minutes that the researcher reads and note specific points for the research.
 Interview – the researcher asks people questions orally.
8. DATA ANALYSIS
Analysis involves describing and comparing facts using different themes / classes of data
collected.
Data presentation – Data can be presented in the form of tables, pie charts and graphs
9. Acknowledgements – The researcher thanks the people that helped him / her to carry out
the research.
e.g. I would like to thank my father Thabo and my mother Thando for helping me with
this research.
9. Limitations – These are the problems that the researcher came across when doing the
research.
e.g. It was raining and I could not manage to go out and research.
- I did not have money for transport.
10. Conclusion – the researcher summarizes the research findings.
11. Recommendations – These are suggestions by the researcher on what may be done to
address the problem or an issue being researched on. A recommendation should have someone /
an organization responsible to take action and the action to be taken. e.g. The government
should educate farmers on different animal diseases.
12. Bibliography/Reference – The researcher lists the books that he or she used in his or her
research. These must be written in alphabetical order.
e.g
1. Maotwe, T. (1998). Principles of Agriculture. Gaborone: Macmillan.
2. Mauto. X. (2008). Living with HIV and AIDS. Gaborone: Longman
Ways of writing a report
i)
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THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT OF BOTSWANA
Physical Environment is the natural surrounding where people plants and animals live. It is made
up of elements such as soil, water, animals, vegetation, atmosphere and landforms. These
elements of the physical environment are very important to humanity but at the same time have
very serious challenges due to the manner in which human beings interact with them and other
natural challenges.
1. SOIL/ LAND: There are different types of soil in the environment e.g. sandy soils, clay
soils etc. People live on the land, produce and source their food from the soil, get water
from the soil, construct their shelter using water. The land/soil is faced with challenges
such as soil pollution and soil erosion due to deforestation and poor waste management.
2. WATER: There are different sources of water that include underground water and
surface water. People use water for building of houses, construction of roads, watering
plants and livestock. The challenges facing water resources include; high temperatures
that leads to high rate of water evaporation, low rainfall, sandy soils that loses water
quickly, water pollution due to poor waste management.
3. ANIMALS: These animals include domesticated and wildlife. They are a source of food,
a source of raw materials and tourist attraction. Animals are faced with challenges like
shortage of land, depletion/decrease on their number due to over-hunting and poaching.
4. VEGETATION: The different types of vegetation include scrubs, shrubs, forests, grass,
creepers and climbers. It is a source of food, a source of raw materials and energy, it
produces oxygen for people, helps in the formation of rainfall and regulates temperatures.
However, the vegetation is being destroyed by different human activities such as clearing
land for developments, timber production, fencing etc.
5. ATMOSPHERE: It contains different gases e.g. nitrogen, carbon dioxide, oxygen etc.
The air provides life to people and all living things. It influences rainfall and plants. The
challenges facing the atmosphere include pollution that has led to global warming and
climate change.
6. LANDFORMS: Landforms are features such as hills, mountains, depressions, rivers,

lakes etc. that we find in our environment. They are a tourist attraction, a source of food,
sources of raw materials etc. The challenges facing these different landforms include
pollution of rivers, lakes, littering, destruction of hills etc.
WEATHER AND CLIMATE
Weather is the condition of the atmosphere over a short period of time e.g. a week, a day or a
month while Climate is the average weather conditions of the atmosphere over a long period of
time 40 years in a given area.
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Instruments for measuring weather
Weather Element Instrument Units of Measurement

Rain Rain gauge mm
Wind Speed Cup Anemometer km / hr
Wind Direction Wind vane Compass points
Temperature Thermometer ºC
Humidity Hygrometer %
Cloud Cover Eyes Oktas Scale
Atmospheric pressure Barometer Millibars
Sunshine Sunshine recorder Hours and minutes per day
Measuring Rainfall
source : Social Studies is fun
The rain gauge is placed in an open area so that rain falls directly into it.
 A measuring cylinder should be placed on a flat surface
 Rain water is then poured into a measuring cylinder
 Reading is taken and the amount of rainfall is recorded after 24 hours.
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Measuring Maximum Temperature
source: S/ studies is fun bk1
When air temperature rises, the mercury expands and rises up the metal tube. This forces the
index to rise too. Once the temperature drops, the mercury contracts and drops leaving the metal
index in the position to which it had been pushed. The reader takes the reading at the level of the
metal index closest to the mercury. The temperature readings are recorded then the metal index is
then drawn back by using a magnet.
Measuring Minimum Temperature
source: S/ studies is fun bk1
When temperature falls, the alcohol contracts and pulls the metal index downwards towards the
bulb. The minimum temperature is read by looking at the end of the metal index closest to the
bulb.
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Measuring Humidity
A hygrometer is made up of a wet – bulb and a dry – bulb thermometer. If the difference
between the two bulbs is small it means that the percentage moisture in the air is 100% and there
is high humidity. If the air is full of moisture there will be no evaporation and the readings on
both thermometers will be the same.
Wind Direction
Wind vane is used to find the direction of the wind. The direction is determined by observing the
direction of the arrow. The arrow points towards the direction from which the wind is blowing.
This is recorded using the cardinal points.
Wind Speed
A cup anemometer is used to measure wind speed. The speed is measured in km / hr. The
reading is taken from the speedometer mounted on the anemometer.
Cloud cover
The sky is observed and the period of cloud cover is recorded.
Air pressure
Atmospheric pressure is measured by mercury Barometer and Aneroid Barometer
Diagram,
How the mercury barometer works
 Air exerts (put pressure) weight on the mercury in the container
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 The mercury is forced to rise along the tube
 The height of the mercury in the class tube is the weight of the air at that particular point
 Take the reading at the height of the mercury which indicates the weight of the air and
record it
How the Aneroid Barometer works
diagram
 When atmospheric pressure increases the top of the collapsible box bends inwards, it
pulls down the string through the hook.
 The pulling causes the pointer to turn and point to the graduation or measurement on the
cylinder.
 The reading is obtained from the measurement cylinder in Millibars indicating the weight
of the air.
Sunshine recorder
 A strip of paper marked with hours and minutes is placed below the glass ball.
 As the sun shines through the ball it burns a small line along the paper.
 At the end of the day the paper is taken out and reading taken to determine the
number of hours the sun shined.
 The reading is then recorded.
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Types of Rainfall
Convectional Rainfall
Source : Diamond S / studies book 1
Relief or Orographic Rainfall
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Frontal or Convergence rainfall
Difference between Convectional and Frontal Rainfall / Convergence
 Convectional rainfall occurs when the sun heats the earth and water while frontal rainfall
occurs when cold and warm air masses meet.
 Convectional rainfall is accompanied by thunder and lighting while frontal rainfall is light
and drizzles.
 Frontal rainfall commonly occurs along coastal areas while convectional commonly
occurs in areas that experience high temperatures
Difference between Convectional and Relief Rainfall
 Convectional rainfall occurs when the sun heats the earth and water while relief occurs
when moist air is forced to rise over hills / mountains.
 Convectional rainfall is accompanied by thunder and lighting while relief rainfall is calm
and gently.
Difference between Frontal and Relief Rainfall

 Relief occurs when moist air is forced to rise over hills / mountains while frontal rainfall
occurs when cold and warm air masses meet.
 Relief occurs around mountainous areas while frontal occurs mostly around coastal areas
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THE CLIMATE OF BOTSWANA
Botswana is generally a semi – arid area. Most of the parts in Botswana receive less than 500
mm of rainfall annually. Rains usually fall in summer, but it is unreliable and unpredictable.
Winters are usually dry and cold with the southern part being the coldest.
The driest areas in Botswana are the western and south western parts while the northern part is
the wettest. Most of Botswana is hot in summer with temperatures ranging between 25oC and
30ºC while winter temperatures range between 120C and 180C.
Botswana9s Major Environmental Zones
Source : S / studies is fun book 1
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DESERT ENVIRONMENT
Climate
a) Rainfall – This area receives average rainfall of less than 250mm annually. Rains fall
in summer and are unreliable.
b) Temperature – Temperatures in summer are between 27 and 40ºC while in winter
they are between 0 and 12ºC. Thus the desert area is very hot in summer and very
cold in winter.
c) Humidity- humidity is low due to low rainfall
d) Cloud cover- there is low cloud cover.
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Soil
Most of the desert area is covered with sandy soils. These have poor water holding
capacity as particles are loosely packed.
Vegetation
Vegetation – The desert has few scattered trees. It mostly has dry scrubs and shrub
vegetation. Most of the trees in this area are drought resistant. Examples, cactus, thorny
bushes.
Characteristics of vegetation
 They have long tap roots to enable them to reach water deep under the ground.
 They also have waxy leaves to help retain/ keep moisture.
 Plants have fleshy roots and leaves to store water
 Plants have small leaves to reduce transpiration
 Plants are short (stunted)
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SEMI DESERT ENVIRONMENT
Climate
a) Rainfall – This area receives average rainfall of between 250mm and 400 mm annually.
Rains fall in summer and are unreliable.
b) Temperature – Average temperatures in summer are between 260C and 28ºC while in
winter they are between 120C and 17ºC.
c) Humidity- Humidity is low due to low rainfall
d) Cloud cover- low cloud cover
Soils
Most of the semi desert area is covered with infertile sandy soils. The soils have poor water
holding capacity as particles are loosely packed.
Vegetation
The semi desert has bush and shrub, acacia thorn trees and savanna vegetation. The shrub
savanna grows closer to each other compared to that of the desert because rainfall is slightly
higher.
HOW THE DESERT AND SEMI DESERT ENVIRONMENT HAVE INFLUENCED

THE TRADITIONAL LIFESTYLES OF PEOPLE LIVING THERE
People who originally lived in these environments are Basarwa and Bakgalagadi.
a) They were hunter gatherers- The availability of wild animals and vegetation enabled
them to gather for food. Dependency on these resources made them to develop
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conservation measures to protect their environment. However over dependence on these

resources led to depletion and migration of animals.
b) They built temporary shelter – Temporary shelter was influenced by their nomadic type
of life. Shelter was built using branches and grass because these were readily available in
their environment. The use of simple materials for building shelter by Basarwa conserved
the environment.
c) They were nomadic people- they moved from one place to another following wild
animals and in search of wild fruits. Bakgalagadi moved mainly in search of water for
their livestock. Their movement from one place to another allowed the vacated area to
recover in terms of animals and vegetation.
d) They painted on rocks- the availability of rocks made it possible for them to paint rocks
to indicate the activities they did at that particular area and their ways of life. It
strengthened their relationship with their environment. This also helped to preserve the
environment as these rocks remained protected.
e) They wore clothes made of animal skins-They wore clothes made from skins of
animals that they hunted from their environment. High temperatures influenced them to
put on light clothes hence needed fewer animal skins to make clothes. However, hunting
animals to acquire skins meant that animals could get depleted.
f) They used ostrich egg shells to store water - they did this due to little rainfall
experienced in the area and limited water sources. They gathered unfertilised eggs whose
shells were used for storing water and that conserved the environment as the ostriches
continued multiplying.
g) Bakgalagadi were semi-nomadic pastoralists- Limited water resources and pastures
influenced Bakgalagadi to move occasionally from one place to another in search of
water and pastures for their livestock. Moving their livestock around allowed the
environment to recover. However, since they kept large herds of cattle, this had the
potential to deplete the vegetation and cause soil erosion.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HARD VELD OR EASTERN MARGIN

ENVIRONMENT
Climate
a) Rainfall – This area receives average rainfall of between 350mm and 550 mm annually.
Rains fall in summer and are of mostly of convectional type.
b) Temperature – Average temperatures in summer are between 260C and 27ºC while in
winter they are between 120 C and 18 ºC.
c) Humidity- humidity is moderate
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Soils
The area is covered by Limpopo soils which are fertile soils. The soils are well drained. The
rocky soils are found particularly on hills and areas around Bobonong.
Vegetation
The vegetation consists of tall trees with thick trunks and grass. For example tree and bush
savanna and mophane trees. Trees are deciduous type of trees that lose their leaves in winter
and grow again in summer.
HOW THE HARDVELD/ EASTERN MARGIN ENVIRONMENT HAS

INFLUENCED THE TRADITIONAL LIFESTYLES OF PEOPLE LIVING
THERE
People found in this environment are Bangwato, Bakwena, Bakalanga etc.
a) They hunted - They hunted wild animals such antelopes, kudu etc that were available in
their environment.
b) They gathered –gathered fruits, mophane worms that were found in their environment.
c) They built their shelter using clay soil – They built huts using clay soil and roofed with
grass as these were available in their environment.
d) They practiced arable farming – Since their environment had fertile soils, they grew
crops.
e) They practiced pastoral farming – Because their environment received high rainfall
they reared livestock.
f) They caught fish– Those who lived near rivers caught fish to supplement their diet.
NB- The dependence on these natural resources such as soil, water, fish wild animals and
vegetation for their survival has influenced the inhabitants to develop conservation
strategies, e.g. controlled hunting. However over dependence on these natural
resources has led to their depletion. In some instances traditional methods of
farming have had negative impact on the environment, e.g. loss of soil fertility and
soil erosion.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SWAMP ENVIRONMENT
Climate
a) Rainfall – This area receives rainfall of between 450mm and 600 mm annually.
Rains fall in summer and are of mostly of convectional type.
b) Temperature – Temperatures in summer are below 27ºC while in winter they are
below 16 ºC.
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c) Humidity is high.
Soils
The area is covered by fertile alluvial soils. Soils around the Makgadikgadi area are greyish in
colour, poorly drained and saline (salty) soils.
Vegetation
The vegetation consists of tall trees and grass. It also has water loving plants such as reeds and
water lilies. Palm trees are found around the swamps.
HOW THE SWAMP ENVIRONMENT HAS INFLUENCED THE TRADITIONAL

LIFESTYLES OF PEOPLE LIVING THERE
People who live here are Bayei, Bambukushu, Batawana, Basubiya e.t.c.
a) They were Hunting- They hunted animals such as hippopotamus that were found in their
environment to supplement their diet.
b) They were gathering – They gathered water-lilies, reeds, that were found in their
b) They practiced farming – They practices small scale pastoral farming due to available
tsetse fly and predators in the area. Due to available fertile alluvial soils, people also grew
crops.
c) They used canoes for transport – They used canoes made from tree trunks that they got
from their environment to use in the swamp.
d) They practiced fishing – Their environment had perennial rivers so they were able to catch
fish.
e) Built shelter using reeds - they used reeds that grew in the swamps and rivers as building
materials.
f) They practiced basketry- they used reeds that grew in the swamps and rivers to make
baskets and mats
g) They practiced wood carving- this was enabled by the availability of hardwood in the area.
NB- The inhabitants of this environment benefitted from these resources that includes,
fish, wild animals, birds, and vegetation such as reeds, palm trees and grass. Despite
the somewhat dangerous nature of this environment due to variety of animal species
living in this area the inhabitants have learnt to live in harmony with these animals.
However overexploitation of these natural resources such as fish, wild animals, birds,
trees and reeds had led to their depletion.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DECIDUOUS FOREST ENVIRONMENT
Climate
a) Rainfall – This area receives average rainfall of 600 mm or more annually. Rains fall
in summer and are of mostly of convectional and frontal type.
b) Temperature – Temperatures in summer are below 26 ºC and in winter they are
between 12 and 18 ºC.
c) Humidity is high
Soils
The area is covered mostly with sandy soils. There is also clay soils which are easily water
logged (poorly drained).
Vegetation
Most of the vegetation found in this area is deciduous. This type of vegetation loses its leaves
in winter. It consists of tall trees which are hardwoods e.g. mukwa and mukusi, few bushes
and scattered grasses.
HOW THE DECIDUOUS ENVIRONMENT HAS INFLUENCED THE

TRADITIONAL LIFESTYLES OF PEOPLE LIVING THERE
People who live here are Bayei, Bambukushu, Herero, Basubiya e.t.c.
a) They were hunting- They hunted animals such as kudu, antelopes, elephant, etc that
were found in their environment to supplement their diet.
b) They were gathering – They gathered water-lilies, reeds,that were found in their
c) They practiced farming – They practices small scale pastoral farming due to
available tsetse fly and predators in the area. Due to available fertile alluvial soils,
people also grew crops.
d) They used canoes for transport – They used canoes made from tree trunks that they
got from their environment to use in the Chobe river .
e) They practiced fishing – Their environment had perennial rivers so they were able to
catch fish.
f) Built shelter using reeds - they used reeds that grew in the rivers as building
materials.
g) They practiced basketry- they used reeds that grew in the rivers to make baskets and
mats
h) They practiced wood carving- this was enabled by the availability of hardwood in the
area.
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NB- The inhabitants of this environment benefitted from these resources that
includes, fish, wild animals, birds, and vegetation such as reeds and grass. Despite
the somewhat dangerous nature of this environment due to variety of animal
species living in this area the inhabitants have learnt to live in harmony with
these animals. However overexploitation of these natural resources such as fish,
wild animals, birds, trees and reeds had led to their depletion.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS THAT LEAD TO AN UNSUSTAINABLE

ENVIRONMENT
Unsustainable environment is situation where the environment is degraded to an extent that it

can no longer effectively support human use. Mismanagement of the environment makes it
difficult for people both present and future generations to meet their needs.
Socio-economic factors are such factors that have both social and economic implications on
the lives of people. In the process, these factors force the affected to depend entirely on the
environment for their survival. People exploit resources such as vegetation and soil to create
their own income (e.g. cutting trees to make fire wood for sale)
The following are some of the socio - economic factors that lead to an unsustainable
environment:
a) Impact of Poverty/ Unemployment –Poverty means the poor have no means of
survival and therefore they depend on the natural resources on the environment such
as vegetation, soil etc to make a living. Poverty makes people to cut down trees to
make firewood and sell to make money. This results in over exploitation of such
resources leading to unsustainable environment.
b) Lack of Environmental awareness – Some people lack education & knowledge on
the need to conserve the environment. They therefore over cut grasses & over hunt
animals in order to satisfy their present needs without consideration of the damage
caused to the environment. This results in soil erosion.
c) Desire for wealth: The desire by people to create more wealth to raise their social
status influence them to over exploit resources from the environment. For example
over harvesting of soil, cutting down trees to produce timber and industrial activities.
These leads to land degradation, deforestation and pollution.
d) Impact of HIV & AIDS: This brings financial difficulties in affected families.
Money is spent on the sick buying them medication, food and other necessities. Due
to shortage of financial resources, the family turn to resources in the environment to
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try and meet their needs. For example they depend on fire wood for energy and sell it
for money. In the process, the environment is depleted.
e) Use of Pit-latrines: People mainly resort to using pit-latrines because they cannot
afford to build water system toilet or lack of water supply in the area. The use of pit-
latrines pollutes under ground water. This makes such water not usable.
MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS IN BOTSWANA AND THEIR SOLUTIONS
a) Pollution – Some people make the environment dirty and untidy. This affects other
people9s health.
Solutions to problems of Pollution
 The government must punish people who pollute the environment.
 People must be taught about recycling and reusing waste.
 Areas where old equipment can be disposed safely must be created.
b) Deforestation/Woodland depletion – Some people cut down trees to make fire and for
building their houses. This results in the top soil been easily eroded.
Solutions to problems of Deforestation/ depletion of woodland
 People must be encouraged to use solar energy.
 People must practice afforestation
c) Soil Erosion – Activities that lead to soil erosion include; deforestation, ploughing up &
down the slopes and overgrazing.
Solutions to problems of Soil Erosion
 Practicing afforestation
 Ploughing across the slopes
 keeping correct stock rate
 Provide public education on environmental management.
d) Desertification – This is caused by a number of factors such as overgrazing, burning the
bush, depletion of the woodland etc.
Solutions to problems of Desertification
 Practicing afforestation
 keeping correct stock rate
 Provide public education on environmental management.
e) Overgrazed land: The vegetation gets depleted due to overstocking which results in
overgrazing.
Solutions to problems of Overgrazed land.
 The government must come up with laws of how many cattle each farmer should
keep. If the cattle exceeds the set number farmers must be forced to sell them.
 Farmers must be encouraged to buy ranches.
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 Over grazed areas must be given time to grow by moving livestock to un-grazed
areas.
ANALYSE THE ROLE OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS (IKS) IN THE

MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES IN BOTSWANA
Conservation of the natural resources
Indigenous Knowledge System is also referred to as the traditional knowledge of different

societies that they used to survive in their different aspects of life.
Batswana use their taboos (meila) to communicate important information about their
environment. The Bangwato never harmed or hunted a duiker (phuti). As a way of preserving
the duiker it was believed that a person9s body would peel off if they ate it. This belief
protected the animal from extinction.
Owls multiply slowly therefore to conserve them Batswana said they were a witch bird. It
was supposedly used by witches therefore it was not edible. This enabled them to multiply.
When Basarwa hunted, they killed only what they needed or what they thought would last
them for days to come. Thus if they had meat at their homes they did not hunt. This ensured
that plants and animals multiplied. Also Farmers knew which cattle breeds were best for
meat and milk. So those for milk were never killed.
It is a taboo to burn heaps of cut trees in winter as this can annoy the gods who would
eventually stop bringing rains. People only burnt heaps after the rains had stopped falling.
This prevented veld fires as grasses are dry in winter and can easily catch fires.
Certain trees were never cut for firewood (mosetlha, motopi, mogonono and morula).
This conserved the trees as they take a long time to grow.
Veld products such as phane and wildlife were carefully harvested in such a way as to
allow them to reproduce and replenish themselves.
DISCUSS THE FACTORS AFFECTING WATER RESOURCES IN BOTSWANA
a) Low rainfall – Botswana receives little rainfall so it takes long for dams to fill up. Low
rainfall leads to drought and shortage of surface water.
b) Seasonal rainfall – Rains only fall in summer so water sources dry up when there is no
rain. (Winter). This leads to little or no surface water.
c) Drought – Botswana often experiences drought so water sources dry up.
d) High temperature – Because of high temperatures in summer surface water evaporates.
This leads to drying of rivers.
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e) Pollution of underground water– this is a result of use of pit-latrines. Polluted water is

unsafe for people to drink it. Water is polluted through poor waste management and use
of pit latrines. Polluted water is useless to people.
f) Sandy soils – Botswana9s soils have poor water holding capacity so water quickly runs
off.
WATER CONSERVATION PRACTICES IN BOTSWANA
1. Water restriction measures put in place-In times of drought, the water authorities put
up restriction measures to regulate the use of water. For example, as not allowing people
to water their gardens with clean water. This conserves water as clean water will only be
used for essential purposes. However, insufficient monitoring mechanisms have led to
clean water being used for purposes not allowed.
2. Recycling of water- Large businesses are encouraged to install water recycling systems
to save clean water. This conserves water as clean water will only be used for essential
purposes. Recycling systems are very expensive to install and can only be afforded by
few businesses.
3. Installation of water tanks. People both at commercial and residential level are
encouraged to install water tanks to collect rain water. This water can be used during the
dry period and to reduce pressure on the available cleaned water. However, cleaning
rainwater can be very expensive.
4. Educating people about water Conservation-Businesses and organizations teach

people to re-use, recycle and reduce (3Rs) water. This limits the amount of clean water
that is used. However public campaigns are expensive, and not all people are reached.
5. Increasing water tariffs- increasing the water charges may deter people from using
more water. This saves water as less water will be used as people would not want to
spend more. However, people who can afford continue to using water more / can leave
people in debt as poor people may not afford.
6. Water is conserved through the construction of dams/ wells/ sinking boreholes- these
are constructed to collect rainwater and to collect underground water. This water will be
used instead of using cleaned water. However this collected water needs to be cleaned
which is very expensive.
7. Dry gardening techniques – This is when people use objects such as stones and pottery
of different colours, shapes and texture instead of using plants. They also use plants that
use very little water and those that are drought resistant. This helps to conserve water as
little clean water is used.
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8. Use of modern technology- the use of innovative/modern shower taps, bath mixers
ensure use of less water by controlling the amount of water released. This saves water as
less water is used. However these innovations are very expensive to buy and to install.
FAMILY IN BOTSWANA
A family is a group of people living in the same household, related through marriage, blood,
adoption or assimilation.
Marriage is a legal union between man and woman as husband and wife.
The Importance of marriage
 Marriage makes the relationship between a man and a woman official and legal. It gives
the couple a lifetime commitment to begin their own family.
 Marriage gives the husband and wife certain rights and responsibilities towards each
other – married people give each other love, support and conjugal rights.
 Marriage gives the husband and wife special rights in their communities9 e.g. only
married people can attend traditional marriage ceremonies (patlo).
 Marriage raises the status of the married couple- The wife is addressed by her marital
name and the status Mrs.
 Basis for childbearing – Marriage legalizes ownership of children to a man and his family
thus once their parents are married, children have the right to use their father9s surname.
 Marriage creates new family relationships – this is between a husband and wife9s
extended family members.
TYPES OF MARRIAGES IN BOTSWANA
a) Customary marriage
This type of marriage is performed according to the traditional customs of an ethnic group.
The Implications / effects of customary marriages on the rights and responsibilities of

married couples
Rights in Customary marriage
 Marital power – The husband is the head of the family. He makes all decisions
concerning the family. This is good as prompt decisions can be taken. This denies the
woman her right to contribute in the decision making process in matters affecting the
family.
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 Property rights – The husband owns and controls all the family property except those
that the wife had before marriage. This denies the woman the right to accumulate own
wealth and to have control over family property.
 Polygamy is allowed– A man can marry as number of wives as he wants to. This can
jeopardise the health of the woman as the woman can be exposed to Sexually Transmitted
Infections (STI9s).
 Custody of children – Children belong to the husband9s family and identify with their
father9s home village and ethnic group. It takes away the right of women to have custody
of children except during divorce.
Responsibilities of the husband in a customary marriage
 The husband is the main provider of the family. He must work and provide the basic
needs such as food, clothes and shelter for his family. This put the man under a lot of
pressure as the burden fell on him only. The woman becomes a dependent on the
husband.
 The husband represents his family in all important matters. The husband represents the
family in all important matters e.g. wedding negotiations. This makes him accountable
for all decisions affecting the family.
 He manages family resources and property. He takes care of the all family property e.g
cattle. This makes him solely accountable for all decisions on the family property.
 He trains/socialized sons in the roles and responsibilities of a man and husband. This
leads to the man carrying the burdden of raising the boy child.
Responsibilities of the wife
 She does all household chores such as cooking, cleaning etc. It keeps the woman in the
home with limited opportunities to participate in economic activities.
 She takes care of children in the family. This confined the woman to the household. This
means the wife loses the opportunity to participate in activities out there that could
empower her.
 She trains/socialize daughters in the roles and responsibilities of a woman and wife. This
leads to the woman carrying the bidden of raising the girl child
 She grows and harvests crops for the family. This jeopardized the health of the woman.
b) Civil Marriage
This is when a woman and man marry according to marriage laws created by the
government.
The Implications / effects of civil marriages on the rights and responsibilities of

married couples
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Rights
 Both the man and woman are allowed to marry only one spouse. Both husband and wife
are accountable to their spouses. This gives them the right to claim their conjugal rights
to each other.
 The husband and wife are both heads of their family. They consult each other and have to
give consent (permission) before any decisions can be made about a family property.
That protects the rights of the couple over their family property.
 Couples can choose to marry 8in community of property9 or 8out of community of
property9. Those that marry in community of property share everything they own equally
and gives them equal rights over family property.
Those that marry out of community of property don9t share property. Their rights over
the property they own as individuals is equally and legally protected.
 When the couple divorce, custody of children is decided by the court of law. Anyone
among the couple can be given the custody of the children depending on the situation.
Responsibilities
 Both husband and wife have a responsibility to be remain faithful to each other. This
ensures stability of the marriage. This ensures promotion of health in the marriage.
 Both husband and wife are expected to respect and trust each other. This ensures stability
of the marriage. The chances of minimising conflicts in the family are high.
 Both husband and wife have a say in the decision making process. They are expected to
have open discussions about issues that affect them. It promotes common understanding
and cooperation in the marriage.
 Both husband and wife manage family resources and property. They are expected to both
take decisions and agree on issues affecting family resources. This promotes peace and
tolerance between the couple.
c) Religious marriage
This is when a man and woman get married according to the marriage laws of a particular
religion or religious group. The ceremony is usually conducted by a religious leader.
The Implications / effects of religious marriages on the rights and responsibilities of

married couples
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Rights in religious marriages

 Religions like Islam, ATR, allow a man to marry more than one wife. Some religion
allow only one partner e.g. Christianity. Where religious marriage allows polygamous
marriage, this can compromise/ put the health of married woman at risk. These women
can be exposed to Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI9s).
 Marital Power: Some religions give the husband the right to be the head of the family
and to manage family resources. He makes all decisions concerning the family and the
wife is expected to be completely submissive to the husband. This is good as prompt
decisions can be taken. This denies the woman her right to contribute in the decision
making process in matters affecting the family.
 Some religions discourage divorce. Men and Women are not expected to divorce their
partners. For example, Christianity. Where couples are not allowed to divorce, their right
of freedom and choice is denied. This is also likely to keep a couple in an unhappy
marriage.
Responsibilities
 Couples must be faithful to each other. This ensures stability of the marriage. This
ensures promotion of good health in the marriage.
 Couples have a responsibility to care for each other and to raise children to be members
of their parents9 church. The couple is expected to teach their children beliefs and
teachings and laws of the religious group. This makes the couple answerable to the
conduct and behaviour of their children.
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE FAMILY SIZES IN BOTSWANA
 Advanced medicine / Family planning services – Because of the use of contraceptives

such as the pill and condoms families have fewer children. However, lack of knowledge
and accessibility to family planning services might fail to control family size.
 Education –Women who are still on study or furthering their education tend to spend
more time studying delaying child bearing. At that stage the woman is left with limited
time to bear more children. Education also equips families with knowledge and skills on
family planning hence fewer children or smaller families.
 Traditional / Cultural customs – Some cultures still practice polygamy. So such
families usually have a larger number of children than where a man has only one wife.
 Early parenthood – Teenage pregnancies and early marriages result in a large family
because the period in which they can have children is longer.
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 HIV / AIDS – people are scared of contracting HIV and they choose not children and this
leads to small family.
 Government legislations – the country9s law on maternity leave discourages families
from having many children. E.g. a woman working for government is paid full salary for
the first 3 children. They are not paid full salary for maternity leave after the first 3
children. However this does not deter working women from exceeding this number of
children as they continue to give birth to more children.
 Employment: Parents who have full time jobs tend to have smaller/fewer children
because they spend most of their time engaged in their jobs. Eg. having to attend
meetings away, going on long trips and even transfers. This puts a lot of pressure on their
family time.
The rights and responsibilities of family members
 Basic needs e.g. food, clothes, water and shelter. Every member of the family is entitled
to these basic needs. It is also the responsibility of each member to ensure availability or
protect or use these in a responsible manner to ensure that they remain available.
 The right to love, care and protection by other family members. All members of the
family deserve love, care and protection from their family members. But it is their duty to
also conduct themselves in a way that will promote their safety and care.
 The right to help and sympathy in times of need. Whenever a family member is going
through difficulties other members of the family are expected to provide support to him
or her. The needy member should also show appreciation of the support given.
 The right to be treated fairly and justly by other family members. Where there are
differences in the family every member of the family should be heard and treated fairly.
The aggrieved member has a responsibility to act reasonably and with honesty.
Family members have a responsibility to:
 Obey family rules and respect each other.

 Parents have the responsibility to nurture their marriage by providing love to their
spouses and taking full responsibility to raise their children.
 Parents have the responsibility to educate their children.
 Children have the responsibility to learn how to do domestic work from their parents.
 Help each other in times of need.
 Work hard and do their best towards becoming self-reliant in meeting their basic needs.
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CHALLENGES FACING FAMILIES IN BOTSWANA
1. HIV & AIDS – Families have to have the resources to take care of the sick and pay for
the cost of burying those who die. Where both parents have died, other family members
find it difficult to take care and support the orphans. Most of the children left behind are
left vulnerable to social ills. (Drug and alcohol abuse, Rape, Prostitution, theft, incest).
Solutions to the challenge above
 People must be encouraged to go for HIV testing as they will be able to protect
themselves if they know their status.
 Those that are infected must be encouraged to enrol on Anti Retroviral therapy (ARV)
and follow prescription.
 Expectant mothers should be encouraged to enrol in Prevention of Mother To Child
Transmission Program (PMTCP).
 Public awareness on HIV & AIDS
2. Poverty and unemployment – People who are not working cannot support themselves
and their families sufficiently. The situations influence them into engaging into criminal
activities. They fail to support their children adequately.
 People should share ideas on how to generate money, e.g. self employment.
 They should be encouraged to take advantage of government poverty eradication
programmes. E.g. ISPAAD, LIMID, IPELEGENG,
 Government can come up with programs to export labour.
3. Divorce – There is high number of divorce cases in Botswana. This affects the couple
and their children as their family is torn apart. Family members experience trauma,
financial constraints, stigma etc.
 Encourage couples to go for marriage counselling before marriage, during marriage and
after divorce.
 Parents and other relatives should avoid interfering in the couple9s marriage.
4. Domestic violence/ Abuse– involves the verbal/emotional, sexual, physical violence

experienced in some families. Victims of this abuse suffer emotional or psychological
trauma (strain), which they sometimes find it difficult to deal with. This may lead to
problems such as depression, suicide, passion killing, bullying etc.
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Solutions to the Domestic violence/ Abuse
 Law enforcement officers must enforce the laws e.g. apprehend and prosecute offenders.
 Professional help must be provided to victims and perpetrators. E.g. counselling
 Public education on domestic violence
5. Disabilities in the family – there are different disabled people in different families in
Botswana. This is a challenge as some of them are blind, deaf, mute, paralysis etc. Some
families lack knowledge on how to handle or deal with this situation. The situation is
worsened by lack of financial resources which makes it difficult for these family to
support disabled members.
 Family members must be educated on how to deal with disabilities.
 Family members should be counselled and given support to accept and appreciate their
disabled members.
 Families with disabled members should be encouraged to allow them to mix with the
community for them to be appreciated.
Discuss the role of the family in conserving natural resources
Families must:
 Keeping the right number of livestock for the size of the grazing area. This is done to
prevent overgrazing. Thus reducing effects of soil erosion.
 Watering of flowers and vegetable gardens early in the morning and late in the evening.
This reduces evaporation rate. Hence water will be conserved.
 Plant woodlots.
 Collect litter – Some families use litter like used plastic bags for weaving hats and mats.
 Closing the water taps tightly after use.
 Practicing the 3R9s
 Use of Indigenous Knowledge Systems
 Use of Ecotourism
NB: the role of the family identified (activity), the importance of the activity. The
natural resource that is conserved. (Soil, water, vegetation, animals, minerals)
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Gender Issues
Gender is the social and cultural roles, characteristics and values given to males and females
by society.
Gender equality is the idea that males and females should be treated in exactly the same way.
Gender equity is treating males and females in ways that are fair to each in a given situation.
The Importance of gender equity
 It enables males and females to benefit from opportunities, resources and developments
in their countries fairly. E.g. by allowing them to study courses of their own choice, land
and property.
 It ensures political rights and fairness for both women and men. E.g. women are also
enjoying leadership positions.
 Helps men and women to value each other as human beings. This encourages them to
respect and support each other in a given situation.
 It shows society the values of both male and females. Both can contribute equally to the
development of the country.
The roles and status of men in a traditional society
Men were traditionally given a higher status than women in a society.
The traditional roles include:
 They were the heads of their families. They made all decisions concerning the family
maters. This denied women the opportunity to take part in the decision making.
 They represented and negotiated on behalf of their families especially during weddings.
 They owned and took care of the family cattle.
 Men held positions of power and authority.
 They were responsible for defending the community against attacks by enemies.
 They supervised the initiation school for boys.
NB: identify the role, expansion of the role, implication of the role on the women.
The roles and status of women in a traditional society
Women were given a subordinate status to men.
The traditional roles include:
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 Supported their husband9s decisions. They were expected to support their husband9s
decisions even when they did not agree with them. This could sometimes put family in a
disadvantage due to bad decisions taken by the husband.
 Took care of their husbands.
 Took care of household chores like cleaning, cooking etc.
 Planted and harvested the crops.
 They took care of the girl child during confinement period.
 They supervised the initiation school for girls.
NB: identify the role, expansion of the role, impact of the role.
Changes in the roles of men and women
 They are both heads of their families. They both contribute to the decision making and
welfare of the family. This has proven to increase wealth of the family.
 Some women nowadays earn better salaries than their husbands.
 Men also do household chores.
 Women can now take care and support their children on their own.
 Women now hold positions of authority in the society e.g. chiefs.
NB: identify the role, expansion of the role, positive impact of the role.
DISCUSS THE CULTURAL PRACTICES THAT DISCRIMINATE AGAINST MEN

AND WOMEN.
Discuss the Cultural practices that discriminate against men
 Confinement after child-birth - A man was not allowed to enter the confinement room
after child birth. This discriminated against men because they were prevented from
bonding with their children at an early stage.
 Payment of bride price - When a man marries he has to pay bride-price (bogadi) but a
woman does not. This discriminated against men as those who could not afford to pay
bride-price could not marry.
 Payment of damage- men were supposed to pay for impregnating a woman before
marriage. This discriminated against men as the decision was consensual.
Discuss the Cultural practices that discriminate against women.
 A woman has no right to claim maintenance from the father of the child if the child is
born out of marriage. Only the woman9s parents are paid compensation not the woman.
This made it difficult for the woman to take care of the child.
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 Marital power/ polygamy - Men are allowed to marry more than one wife but women are
not. This put the woman at a risk of contracting sexual diseases.
 Wearing of special mourning clothes. During bereavement, a woman whose husband has
died is expected to wear special mourning clothes but a man doesn9t. In some cultures the
widow was excluded from attending certain traditional activities.
 Socialization of women – women were taught that they are subordinate of men. For
example, a woman was not given the same opportunities as men. This made women feel
inferior to men.
EVALUATE ATTEMPTS MADE TO PROMOTE GENDER EQUITY IN BOTSWANA
 Males and females are given equal access to opportunities e.g. land, education, jobs. This
has enabled them to enjoy the same benefits. This gives both women and men a chance to
accumulate wealth. However, very few women hold high positions in government. The
government should intensify education on gender equity issues.
 Signing of international agreements on gender issues. This recognizes importance of

respect for human rights and the need for gender equity. This is done through celebration
of important international dates like international day for Elimination of Violence
Against Women and Children.
 A women9s Affairs department was established which ensures that gender equity issues
are included in the work of all government ministries and departments. The department
addresses topics like Women and Poverty, the Girl child, Women and Health etc.
 Educating the public on gender issues.
 Changing laws that discriminate on the basis of gender.
NB: identify the strategies made to promote gender equity in Botswana, explain the
strategy given, explain the failures and successes of the strategy. The learners are also
expected to give possible alternatives.
SUGGEST WAYS OF EMPOWERING MEN AND WOMEN
Empowering means to help people gain control of their lives by giving them the power,
knowledge, skills, attitudes and resources that they need to realize their full potential as
individuals or as a group.
Men and women can be empowered by:
 Removing laws that discriminate against them. Government should come up with laws
that are gender neutral. (those that give equal rights and opportunities)
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 Educating the workforce on gender issues by drawing gender policies, interpret them to
the employees and monitor implementation of gender issues in the work place.
Institutions like the Kgotla and Churches must be used for Educating and Sensitizing
people on gender based violence. Conducting campaigns to raise awareness on gender
based human rights violations such as forced or early marriages and domestic violence.
 Providing career guidance to encourage boys and girls to train for any career of their
choice.
 Inclusion of gender issues in the curriculum.
DESCRIBE THE FORMS, CAUSES AND SOLUTIONS OF GENDER BASED

VIOLENCE
This is any harmful act that is done against an individual or a group of people because of
their gender.
Forms of gender based violence
 Physical violence – This is about causing pain and injury to the body e.g. slapping,
kicking, beating etc.
 Sexual violence - This is about forcing a person into any sexual or persistent unwanted
sexual attention e.g. rape, forced prostitution, incest ( related people having sexual
activities)
 Mental/ emotional violence – damaging another person9s self-esteem and self
confidence e.g. being constantly humiliated and insulted, threats to life, safety and
security.
CAUSES OF GENDER BASED VIOLENCE
 Socialization – In some societies men are made to believe that women cannot challenge
them. Some people were raised in homes where violence and rage were part of their daily
living so it makes them violent.
 Unequal access to resources such as land and education. Because men have better access
to resources women depend on them for everything and they are therefore vulnerable to
them.
 Lack of proper guidance and non – violent mentors in upbringing of children – Children
grow up with anger emotions and therefore think that in order to show that you are hurt
you have to be violent.
 Unfaithfulness in relationships – this causes conflicts among couples due to lack of trust
and betrayal leading to violence.
 Low self esteem/ bitterness/ pride/ inferiority complex
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SOLUTIONS TO GENDER BASED VIOLENCE
 Provision of gender education-People must be educated about gender based violence

issues in order to encourage respect for men, women, girls and boys.
 Punishment of offenders- Offenders must be punished severely. E.g. lengthy sentences.
 Intensify law enforcement and policies- Laws and policies that promote gender equality
and equity must be enforced.
 Providing guidance and counselling- Counselling must be offered to victims and
perpetrators of gender based violence.
 Provide public awareness- There must public campaigns against gender violence and
discrimination. Community structures such as the Village Development Committees must
be used to change people9s cultures, beliefs and attitudes.
 Parenting and socialization techniques must put emphasis on gender equality. Duty
allocation within the home must be gender sensitive. Children should be raised to do all
kinds of jobs whether they are males or females.
THE ORIGINS OF HUMANS
Pre-history – is the period before people started writing.
History- is the study of past events. It is a period when people first developed writing and
started creating written documents.
Discuss various sources of historical information
1. Material remains / artefacts
When people leave a place, they leave behind objects such as bones, seeds, pottery, tools,
jewellery and fossils are important sources of history. These are things that Historians use to
learn about the past. They show us what kind of tools were used, animals and plants that
lived at that time. Artefacts such as pottery and bones can last longer and allow gathering of
important information about people who lived in the past.
Disadvantages of using material remains
o Some of the artefacts used by people in the past no longer exist because they rot
and there is no evidence about them. Eg. Metal, wooden utensils,
 Material evidence does not show how people felt and how they thought.
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2. Oral traditions
These are stories about the past that are passed from one generation to the next by word
of mouth. Researchers usually get this information by interviewing old people. It enables
the researcher to get first hand information from eye witnesses. The researcher is able to
make follow up questions to get more information.
Disadvantages of using Oral traditions
 It is not possible for the interviewee to remember everything that happened in the
past.
 Information about dates, names and events sometimes gets mixed up or not
remembered correctly.
 People can be biased and give only information that favours them.
 Information can be distorted
3. Documentary sources
These include written information, photographs and films about events that took place in
the past. This enables researchers to have easy access and the documents can remain
available for a long time. Documented information remain unchanged.
Disadvantages of using documentary sources

 Writers can state their opinions as facts
 Not everything can be recorded or written.
 Some records may be destroyed.
HUMAN ORIGINS ACCORDING TO CREATION STORIES
a) Christianity
In the beginning God created human beings. God took some soil from the ground and formed
a man. He breathed life-giving breath into him and the man began to live and was named
Adam. God then planted the Garden of Eden and put man in charge of caring for it. He then
created different kinds of animals. Finally he created a woman out of a rib he took from the
man and named her Eve. Then he instructed them to multiply.
b) Basarwa
The Basarwa believe that a supernatural being called Huwe created all living things including
people. Huwe lived in the sky with the souls of dead people.
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c) Bakalanga
They say that Ngwale was their creator. Ngwale was the child of God who lived in a cave.
Their ancestors and animals are believed to have come out of that cave.
d) Batswana
They believe their first ancestor was a man called Matsieng. He lived underground under the
control of a god called Tintibane. Lowe, a one-sided spirit helped him escape from
underground to the world above through a hole. He brought his property and people with
him.
The theory of evolution
Evolution means a process of change that happens very slowly. The theory of evolution is
the idea that all living things have developed over millions of years from earlier forms of life.
Evolution was caused by natural selection. Natural selection means only plants and animals
that are the strongest, healthiest and best adapted to their environment survive. The selection
of which animal or plant species survived and which one became extinct was the result of a
process called Survival of the fittest. Fitness included features like being better than others in
getting food. Those that failed to adapt to the changes in the environment became extinct/
disappeared/died out/perished.
STAGES OF HUMAN EVOLUTION
Australopithecine
These are the first ancestors of modern human beings. They were discovered in olduvai
Gorge, lake Turkana and Taung in South Africa.
Characteristics
 They walked on two legs but with a forward stoop (bend) to see predators from afar.
 Had small brains similar to apes they did simple tasks
 Had strong teeth to grind meat
 Had big toe-like thumb that enabled them to climb trees
 Had thick fur to protect them from harsh weather
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Homo Habilis (Handy man)
They lived about 2.5 million years ago. The remains of the Homo habilis were first
discovered in Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania
Characteristics
 They walked on two legs with a stoop to see predators from afar, and to use upper
limbs for other tasks.
 They had a larger skull and brain than Australopithecine that enabled them to:
 make tools known as oldowan tools and manipulate objects with precision.
 Climb trees to protect themselves from predators.
 communicate using language
 feed on vegetables and fruits
HOMO ERECTUS (UPRIGHT MAN)
Their remains were found at Java in Indonesia. They lived around 1.8 million years ago.
Characteristics of Homo Erectus
 They had a larger brain which enabled them
1. To live in the caves and near rivers.
2. To make and use fire to cook food and keep warm.
3. Make tools with precision (tools for a specific purpose) called Acheulian tools
4. To use language to communicate
 They walked upright which enabled them to see afar
Homo sapiens
Also called wise-man. Lived about 50 000-300 000 years ago. They looked like the people of
today. Skeleton remains were found around Klasies River in South Africa.
Characteristics of Homo sapiens
 They walked upright to see afar and to walk faster
 Had a larger brain than Homo erectus which enabled them to:
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1. live in caves and communicated with each other.
2. use fire to cook and keep warm.
3. Eat a variety of foods including meat
4. Make beads from ostrich egg shells and made clothes from animal skins
5. paint rocks
6. Bury their dead
7. Make complex stone tools called microliths
THE TECHNOLOGICAL STAGES
The Early Stone Age
This was the time when hominids used and made stone tools. The stone tools used during this
time were called Oldowan tools and Acheulian tools.
Oldowan stone tools were made by Homo-Habilis and were first found at Olduvai Gorge in
Tanzania. Examples of these tools are choppers and cleavers. These tools were made by
trimming (hitting a smaller piece with a large one to get flakes).
Acheulian stone tools were made by the Homo Erectus and were found at St Acheul in
France. Examples are the hand axe and cleavers. The hand axe was used as a knife and
scrapper.
The tools were blunt, heavy and simple. The tools were used for slicing, scrapping digging
and chopping.
Diagrams of early Stone Age tools
The Middle Stone Age
The tools made during the middle stone age were called flake and blade tools, these were
made by Homo sapiens. The tools were made from stone flakes. The method used to make
the tools was chipping (by knocking off large flakes from a core stone using a bone or a piece
of wood as a hammer).
They were thinner, smaller and lighter than the oldowan and Acheulian tools.
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The tools were made for different tasks. They made blade tools that they used for cutting,
chopping, digging and scrapping. The tools were cut to a required shape and size. The tools
were made by fixing handles on small stone blades and flakes.
Diagrams of early middle Age tools
The Late Stone Age
The tools made during the late stone-age were known as microliths. They were made by
Homo sapiens. The method used was Chipping (the tools were made from small stone flakes)
These tools were made by gluing several small flakes together and attaching them to a
wooden handle using gum from trees. Examples of such tools were spears, knives, arrow
heads, scrappers, choppers, etc. Arrows were smeared with poison made from plants and
insects. They also dug holes on stones and fixed them to a stick to make the tool heavier,
such tools were used for digging.
The tools were lighter, sharp, and tiny in size as compared to middle stone-age tools.
Diagrams of late Age tools
The Iron Age Technology
This was the period when people mined and used iron or metal to make tools. The Bantu
speaking people are believed to be the ones who introduced this technology in Southern
Africa. The Iron Age technology was divided into two stages being early Iron Age and late
Iron Age.
Early Iron Age - During the Early Iron Age period pottery was made. The pottery made was
thick, and not well fired hence not hardened. E.g. Gokomore, Broadhurst, Tloutswemogala.
Late Iron age- the pottery made was thinner than that of early Iron Age and well fired and
hardened. The pattern around the mouth of the pot was neat. The pots were painted or
polished in red or black. E.g. Great Zimbabwe.
The method used is called smelting. The iron ore is crushed and mixed with charcoal. The
mixture is heated in a clay furnace (heater). This is done until a chunk of iron is produced.
The heated piece of iron is hammered into the type of tool desired. Examples of tools made
are hoe heads, spears, blades that were used for cultivating the land, axes, knives, spears etc.
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EARLY CIVILIZATION IN MESOPOTAMIA
Locating Mesopotamia
Source: Diamond S / studies book 1
Mesopotamia is a low lying area between Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Mesopotamia is located
between 30-40 ON and 40-50oE. Mesopotamia is located North-west of the Persian Gulf and on
the East is the Zagros Mountain.
Discuss the Social Way of life of people of Mesopotamia
 They belonged to different social classes. There were those of the upper class (king, queen
and nobles), middle class (government officials), lower class (labourers and fishermen) and
slaves. People could not move between classes.
 Religion – They believed in many gods. Their gods lived in the ziggurat (means mountain of
god and is very large pyramid shape platform with a temple at the top). People went to the
Ziggurat to pray and took gifts with them. They talked to their gods through the priest or
priestesses. Only priest or priestesses were allowed to enter the temple. People were had to
obey their gods.
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 Marriage – The father was the head of the family. A married woman9s job was to take care
of her children. Man could marry more than one wife
 Social rights and responsibilities – They owned property. Slaves could be bought and sold.
The duty of the people to obey the law. Men had a duty to participate in the army. Men had
more right than women, E.g. men were allowed to be unfaithful whereas women could be
killed for being unfaithful.
 Settlement – They lived along the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. They lived in
cities and towns. Farms were located outside the cities and towns.
 Education- they had some formal education where people were taught how to read and
write. This education was not as formal as today. The form of writing is called cuneiform.
Discuss the economic Ways of Life
 Practiced farming –They were mixed farmers. The Tigris and Euphrates rivers deposited
fertile soils that enabled them to grow crops. The crops could be traded or used as a source of
food. During flooding crops could be destroyed by water. Some of the harvest was given to
the priest or priestesses for the gods and to feed the poor.
 Fishing- they caught fish in the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
 Traded with other groups – They bartered with their neighbours for timber and minerals.
 Land ownership – the land belonged to the city9s god. Farmers rented land from the priest
and priestesses.
Discuss the political ways of life
 Establishment of Laws/ government – the king made all the laws with the help of his
advisors. The laws were called code of Hammurabi/ code of laws. All the people obeyed
these laws as they were used to govern them. Those who broke the law were punished
through death or fines. The laws kept order in their societies.
 City states- people were citizens of city states, each city had its own laws.
 United into Empires– people of Mesopotamia were united into one empire by King
Hammurabi.
Discuss the Technological Development
 Writing – Their form of writing was known as cuneiform. They used pictures to represent
different words. They wrote on wet clay tablets. This enabled them to keep permanent
records. It was difficult to draw pictures on wet clay tablets therefore the writing was
simplified to use wedge shaped lines.
 The wheel – The wheel was made from wood. They used it to transport heavy goods.
Sometimes donkeys were used to pull it.
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 Seeder plough – It enabled farmers to plough and plant at the same time. This enabled
farmers to save time and to plough larger fields producing more food.
 Irrigation – Farmers dug ditches or canals from rivers across their fields to water their crops.
These rivers sometimes flooded so they built dykes or weirs (barriers) to avoid this problem.
Compare and contrast early Mesopotamian technology, settlement and government with
those of modern times
NB: Compare is used to show similarities and differences
Contrast is used to show differences only
Settlements
Similarities
 People in Mesopotamia lived in cities just like people in the modern world.
 People in Mesopotamia lived near rivers just like people in the modern world.
Differences
 In Ancient Mesopotamia cities were surrounded by wall and moat while modern cities are
not walled.
 In Ancient Mesopotamia people lived in cities while people in the modern world people live
in cities, towns and villages.
 In Ancient Mesopotamia cities were smaller while cities in the modern world are bigger.
 In Ancient Mesopotamia people lived in city-states while in the modern world people live in
countries or nation states.
Government
Similarities
 In ancient Mesopotamia people were ruled by kings just like people in the modern world
 In ancient Mesopotamia they had written laws just like people in the modern world
 In ancient Mesopotamia people were governed by written laws and those who break the law
were punished just like people in the modern world
 In ancient Mesopotamia people had rights to own property just like people in the modern
world
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Differences
 In Ancient Mesopotamia city states were ruled by kings who were believed to be gods while
modern world leaders are elected and are not believed to be gods.
 In Ancient Mesopotamia there were independent state with each having its own laws while
modern world the county9s laws are used by all people.
Technology
Similarities
 In Ancient Mesopotamia were able to read and write just like people of the modern world
 In Ancient Mesopotamia people irrigated their crops used just like people of the modern
world
 In Ancient Mesopotamia used the plough just like people of the modern world
 In Ancient Mesopotamia used the wheel just like people of the modern world
Differences
 In Ancient Mesopotamia they used weirs and dykes for irrigation while in the modern world
they use sprinklers and drip feed.
 In Ancient Mesopotamia they used the wooden plough while in the modern world they use
iron disc plough.
 In Ancient Mesopotamia they used form of writing called cuneiform while in the modern
world they use letters of the alphabet.
 In Ancient Mesopotamia they used wooden wheel while in the modern world they use metal
and rubber wheel.
 In Ancient Mesopotamia they used mud and clay as building material while in the modern
world they use steel and cement.
 In Ancient Mesopotamia they wrote on clay tablets using stylus while in the modern world
they write on paper using ink pens.
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EARLY CIVILIZATION IN EGYPT
Source: Diamond S / studies bk 1
Location of Egypt
Egypt is located between latitude 22oN and 310N and longitudes 25oE and 34oE. It is on the
North eastern part of Africa.
Discuss the social ways of life of people of ancient Egypt
 They belonged to different social classes. The classes were upper class (king, queen and
nobles), middle class (soldiers, scribes, and traders), lower class (peasant farmers, servants)
and slaves. People were able to move from one class to another.
 They were religious people– They believed in many gods. A statue of the god or goddess
was kept in the temple and was cared for by the priest and priestesses. They believed in life
after death hence they mummified bodies of the dead.
 They married. People married within their social classes. The husband was the head of the
family.
 Education – Only boys and a few girls from the upper class attended school. People who
could write were called scribes and were highly respected. Other classes were denied the
opportunity to go to school.
 They settled along the river – Most settlements were located along the Nile River. The river
provided them with fertile soils and water. This enabled them to produce large quantities of
grain crops.
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Economic Ways of Life
 Land ownership – The land was owned by the Pharaoh and farmers were only allowed to
use the land as tenants. They grew crops such as barley, wheat and fruits such as palm dates
and figs. They were made to pay tax to the pharaoh for using the land.
 Farming – Farming took place along the banks of the Nile River as it deposited fertile soils
that enabled them to grow crops.
 Trading – They bartered with their neighbours for iron and silver. This enabled them to
acquire goods not available locally. Later, they began to use silver pieces to pay for goods.
 Hunting and gathering – They hunted and gathered to supplement their food. They hunted
birds and caught fish in the Nile river.
 Payment of tax – All farmers paid tax in the form of grain to the Pharaoh.
 Craft production- Artisans built boats and building such as pyramid. Crafts people made
furniture and woven linen cloth from flax. Boats were used for transporting goods.
Political ways of life/ governance
 Leadership- the ancient Egyptians were led by a Pharaoh who was a divine ruler. Leadership
was hereditary. The Pharaoh had absolute powers. He controlled the military, administration
and religion.
 Making of laws – the Pharaoh made all the laws with the help of his advisors. All the people
obeyed these laws. Those that broke the law were punished through death or fines.
 Empires – Initially Egypt was divided into two kingdoms, Upper and Lower Egypt. Later a
single kingdom was created.
Structure of the government
Pharaoh
Military Administrative Religious
The Military
The Upper and Lower Egypt each had its own army corp. Each army corp was headed by a chief
deputy.
The Administration
The senior officials of the administration were the viziers or chief ministers. Their duty was to
supervise district governors, ensure that canals were dug and settle disputes.
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The Religious branch
Their duties were to clean the temple and statue, receive and prepare gifts perform and religious
rituals.
Technological Development
 Writing –Their form of writing was known as hieroglyphics. This type of writing used
pictures to represent objects, ideas or sounds. Writing enabled them to keep permanent
records.
 Paper making - They wrote on sheets of paper using papyrus reeds that grew along the
banks of the Nile river. They wrote by dipping the stylus on ink made from special plants.
 The Plough – They ploughed using a light wooden plough which was pulled by oxen. This
saved them time and could plough large fields.
 The shaduf – this was used to draw water from the river when the water level was down.
Water was then poured it into a canal next to the river at the edge of the field. The crops were
irrigated this way.
 Irrigation – Egyptians depended on the Nile River as a source of water. Farmers dug small
canals to carry water from the Nile River to small ponds into their fields.
 Mummification –Egyptians preserved dead bodies by drying them. The body was preserved
in order to keep it in good condition as they believed in life after death. They removed all
internal organs including the brain. The body was dried using a special substance called
natron. They packed mud and sand under the skin, the empty stomach was filled with linen
cloth. The body was then rubbed with oil and resins. It was then wrapped with linen clothes
and put in wooden coffins.
 Pyramid – it was built using heavy blocks of stones which were cut from quarries. Levers
were used to put each stone in the right place. The mummified bodies were kept in the
pyramids.
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Compare and contrast early Egyptian technology, settlement and government with
those of modern times.
NB: Compare is used to show similarities and differences
Contrast is used to show differences only
Comparisons of Egypt with the modern world
Settlements
Similarities
 People in Egypt lived in villages and cities just like people in the modern world.
 People in Egypt lived near rivers just like people in the modern world.
Differences
 In Ancient Egypt most people lived in villages and few people lived in cities while modern
world most people live in cities and towns and few in villages.
Government
Similarities
 In ancient Egypt people were ruled by a king just like people in the modern world
 In ancient Egypt people were governed by written and those who break the law were
punished just like people in the modern world
 In ancient Egypt there was formalised structure of government just like people in the modern
world
 In ancient Egypt senior government officials were appointed by the leader just like in the
modern world.
Differences
 In Ancient Egypt they believed the Pharaoh to be a god while modern world leaders are not
believed to be gods.
 In Ancient Egypt leadership was hereditary while in the modern world most leaders are
elected.
 In Ancient Egypt the position of senior government officials was inherited by their sons
while in the modern world senior government officials are appointed based on their
qualification.
 In Ancient Egypt legal disputes were settled by the viziers while in the modern world they
are settled by courts of laws.
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 In Ancient Egypt laws were made by Pharaohs while in the modern world laws are made
through the parliament.
 In Ancient Egypt the Pharaoh had absolute power while in the modern world a system of
checks and balance is used.
Technology
Similarities
 In Ancient Egypt were able to read and write just like people of the modern world
 In Ancient Egypt people irrigated their crops used just like people of the modern world
 In Ancient Egypt people wrote on paper just like people of the modern world
 In Ancient Egypt used ox-drawn ploughs just like people of the modern world
Differences
 In Ancient Egypt they used shaduf to draw water for irrigation while in the modern
world they use sprinklers and drip feed.
 In Ancient Egypt wooden plough while in the modern world they use iron disc plough.
 In Ancient Egypt they used form of writing called Hieroglyphics while in the modern
world they use letters of the alphabet.
 In ancient Egypt they used simple technology while in the modern world they use
complex technology.
 In Ancient Egypt they used mud and stone as building material while in the modern
world they use steel and cement.
 In ancient Egypt they mummified the dead bodies while in the modern world they freeze
the dead body in mortuaries.
 In ancient Egypt they used stylus to write while in the modern world they use pens to
write.
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THE ORIGINS OF THE NATION
Settlement of people in Southern Africa around 1800
Insert map
COMPARE AND CONTRAST THE LIFESTYLE OF THE SAN AND THE KHOE
AROUND 1800
SIMILARITIES
1. They both believed in the supreme being
2. They were both nomadic
3. They both lived in temporary shelter
4. They were both hunter gathers
5. They both wore animal skin to protect themselves from harsh weather
6. They both married women from different camps
7. They both did rock paintings
Differences between the ways of life of the San and the Khoe
1. The Khoe lived in larger groups while the San lived in small bands.
2. The Khoe kept livestock while the San kept a hunting dog.
3. The Khoe had large material possessions while the San had little/ few possessions.
4. Khoe supplemented their food with hunting and gathering while the San depended
entirely on hunting and gathering their main source of food.
5. The Khoe only moved when pastures and water for their animals were not available while
the San moved constantly following movement of wild animals.
6. The Khoe built their houses using poles and woven mats while the San used grass and
tree branches found in the environment.
7. The Khoe used clay pots to store water while the San used ostrich egg shells.
8. The Khoe had chiefs while the San leader was chosen based on a certain skill E.g making
fire, water rights.
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The migration of the Bantu speaking people into Sothern Africa.
Source: Diamond S / studies bk 1
Bantu are a group of people who when referring to a person use the common word stem 8ntu9.
For example for the Ndebele say 8umuntu9, Tswana – motho, Kalanga – nthu etc.
The Bantu origins
They are believed to have originated in Cameroon. From there they moved southwards and
eastwards into central, east and southern Africa.
Migration of the Bantu speaking people
Insert map
The Bantu speaking people gradually migrated towards the south. There were two streams.
The western stream went southwards and eastwards from the Congo basin along the open plains
of the Okavango and Zambezi rivers.
The eastern stream who lived around great lakes in east Africa took two different routes, the first
group went along the Indian Ocean coast and the second group travelled inwards on the high
ground to avoid tsetse fly.
Causes of migration of the Bantu:
 The Bantu speaking people moved due to pests and disease. The Bantu depended mainly
on agriculture therefore they moved to protect their livestock from tsetse fly which
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caused sleeping sickness (nagana) for both people and livestock. This enabled them to
have a large herd of cattle as the new environment was conducive.
 Expansion of iron smelting: The Bantu mined and smelted iron so they wanted to expand
the knowledge. The knowledge of iron smelting led to making of bows, arrows and
spears for defence and protection.
 Increase in population: the increase forced people to move in search of new land to settle
and sources of food.
 Expansion of kingdoms: rulers wanted to gain more power and control so they attacked
other groups. It enabled people to share their agricultural practices with other kingdoms.
 Strong attacks from other groups: They were also having conflicts over succession issues
 Drought and famine: Climatic conditions of Bantu people area of the Sahel region forced
them to move as it was not conducive for their agrarian life (agricultural life).
Discuss Interaction between the Bantu and the Khoisan
 Traded with each other – exchanged iron objects for (and get) animal skins and
ostrich egg shell beads. As a result the culture of both groups was enriched. However
there was conflict over hunting grounds that led to migration of the Khoisan into the
dry Kalahari.
 Linguistic influence - Cultural exchanges resulted in both groups borrowing words
from each other. However the Bantu language became dominant over the Khoisan
language.
 Intermarriages – Bantu speaking men married Khoisan women. As a result new
societies were created e.g. Sotho-Tswana. Most of these marriages were forced and
those who refused fled into the drier areas of the Kalahari Desert.
 The Khoisan adopted permanent settlements/ Change in lifestyle – Khoisan
adopted a new way of life by living in permanent settlements (working on farms).
Instead of nomadic hunting and gathering. As a result people abandoned their own
culture
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The ways of life of the Sotho Tswana around 1800
The main Bantu speaking people living in Southern Africa include the Sotho-Tswana, the Nguni,
and the Shona.
Economic Ways of life
1. They practiced mixed farming – They grew crops such as beans and sorghum and
kept livestock like cattle and goats.
2. The practiced hunting and gathering – They hunted animals like hares for their
families; bigger animals were hunted with the permission from the chief.
3. They mined and smelted iron – They used iron to make tools E.g. spears and knives.
4. Traded with neighbouring groups – They practiced barter trading (exchanging goods
for others).
Social Ways of life
5. They were religious people – they believed in their ancestors. They gave their
ancestors gifts such as food and beer as a sign of respect.
6. They inter-married – They practiced polygamy. The groom9s family paid bride price
in the form of cattle. The head of the family was the father.
7. Made clothes – They made clothes out of animal skins. The husband made clothes for
the family.
8. They built shelter – They lived in circular huts made from clay and cow dung. The
roofs were thatched with grass. The floors of the huts were smeared with cow dung.
9. Practiced initiation ceremonies – Boys and girls who had reached puberty were sent
for Bogwera and Bojale. They were taught about adult life at these schools. When
they completed they were given some tasks to perform in the village.
10. They had settlement patterns – They lived in settlement patterns known as the three
site system that is they moved from the fields to the village then the cattle post.
Political ways of Life
11. They had political leaders-they were led by chiefs and headmen and the position of
chieftainship was hereditary
12. The chief was responsible for the welfare of the people, making laws, settling major
disputes and for defending them.
13. They ruled with the assistance of the headman and they consulted them before
making important decisions.
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The movement of different Batswana groups into modern Botswana
Bakgalagadi
They broke away from Barolong and moved to the Kgalagadi area between 1500 and 1600. The
first groups to leave were Bakgwatlheng. They settled in Molepolole. Later they split up and
Baphaleng moved away and settled near Shoshong. The other group, Bangologa settled along the
Molopo River.
Bakwena, Bangwaketse and Bangwato
They lived at Dithejwane near Molepolole they were led by Kgabo-Kwena. Kwena quarrelled
with his younger brother Ngwato. Ngwato and his people moved to Shoshong and were known
as Bangwato. Later Bangwaketse broke away from the Bakwena and settled at Kanye.
Bakgatla
Bakgatla ba-ga-Kgafela used to live in an area known as Transvaal. They were forced out of this
area by the Boers. They moved to Mochudi and settled on the land given to them by the
Bakwena. Bakgatla-ba-ga Mmanaana broke away and went to live in Thamaga and Moshupa.
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GOVERNANCE IN BOTSWANA
Botswana has three main branches of government; these are the Legislature, Executive and the
Judiciary.
LEGISLATURE
Composition of the Legislature
 National assembly; president, vice president, elected members of parliament, specially

elected members of parliament, attorney general (legal advisor), speaker of the national
assembly and deputy speaker of the national assembly.
 Ntlo ya dikgosi
Duties of the Legislature
 Pass new laws, change existing laws and make new laws.
 Approve the government National Development Plans.
 Approve the annual budget.
 Give the government permission to borrow money from other countries
 Discuss government policies.
 Ensures that the country9s customary and cultural heritage is preserved through
representation by Ntlo ya dikgosi.
 Ensures that public funds are used for the intended purpose.
EXECUTIVE
Composition of the executive
 President
 Vice-president
 Ministers
 Assistant ministers
 Public service ( government employees who work in different ministries)
Duties of the Executive
 Make government policies and implement them.

 Propose new laws, amendments of old laws or changes to the constitution.
 Maintain peace and order in the country.
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 Make the annual financial budget.

 Establish and manage relationships with other countries.
 Plan and manage the development of the country
THE JUDICIARY
Composition of the Judiciary
 Court of appeal
 High court
 Magistrate courts
 Industrial courts
 Juvenile courts
 Customary courts
 Land tribunals
Duties of the Judiciary
 They hear criminal cases.

 Interpret the Constitution.
 Interpret the laws passed by parliament.
 Settle civil cases E.g. adoption and divorce.
The system of checks and balance in Botswana9s Constitution
This is a system where each branch of government has different powers over other branches. It
ensures that no branch is too powerful, this prevents abuse of power by leaders in Botswana. It
also enables the different branches to make decisions independently of the other branches.
How the 3 branches check and balance each other

Checks and balances on the executive
a. By legislature
1. Can pass a vote of no confidence in the president
2. Approve the annual budget
3. Approves the National development plan
4. Approves the President9s salary and allowances
5. Checks the conduct, effectiveness and efficiency of cabinet
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6. If president refuses to sign a bill, the national assembly can send the bill back to
the, and if president does not sign within 21 days president may be forced to
dissolve parliament and call elections
7. Parliament may regulate the powers of the president as commander in chief of the
armies.
b. By judiciary
1. Ensures the constitution is followed when removing judges
Checks and balances on the Legislature

By the executive
1. A bill can only become a law after the president signs it
2. President gives permission for introducing or amending bills meant for dealing with
tax
3. Any minister is allowed to attend meetings in Ntlo ya dikgosi when a bill he/she
proposes is discussed.
By the judiciary
1. The High Court and Court of Appeal have the power to declare laws passed by the
National Assembly unconstitutional.
2. Parliament cannot reduce the salaries and allowances of judges
Checks and balances on the judiciary

By the legislature
1. If judiciary declares a law unconstitutional, Parliament can change the
constitution instead of changing laws so that the constitution is not violated.
2. Parliament can make laws that control the judiciary
By the executive
1. The president has the power to appoint the chief judge and judges
2. The president has the power to reduce or suspend or punish, forgive or free
anyone convicted by a court of law. This is known as the Prerogative of Mercy.
THE PURPOSE OF LAW
1. Promotes justice and prevents injustice- the use of police, courts of law and prison
system are used to enforce law.
2. Maintain peace and order – this is done by stating what is acceptable and not
acceptable. Those who break the laws are punished.
3. Protect the rights of all people equally- ensures that protection of peoples right
outlined in the constitution are upheld.
4. Enable disputes to be settled according to known rules- legal contract can be settled
in courts.
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5. Protect the interests of individuals, groups of people and the state. E.g. the
government uses the law to make people pay taxes.
THE STRUCTURE AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF GOVERNMENT AT NATIONAL

LEVEL
DRAW
DUTIES OF GOVERNMENT AT LOCAL LEVEL
1.Provide social services such as roads, primary health care and primary education.
2.Collect refuse and dispose it properly.
3. Coordinating community development through village development committees
4. Preparing district development plans in relation to national development plans.
5. Collect and care for stray livestock.
6. They allocate tribal land through land boards.
7. The make by-laws.
8. They control and licence trading activities.
9. They provide social welfare services and benefits to orphans and destitute people.
10. They establish, maintain and control parks, cemeteries and other public places.
STRUCTURE OF CENTRAL OR NATIONAL GOVERNMENT
This one is made up of elected representatives such as ministers and members of parliament. It is
divided into ministries headed ministers. Each ministry has specific responsibilities to perform in
order to reach the national development goals. Central government is responsible for the overall
functions of government in Botswana. It is headed by the President
DUTIES OF GOVERNMENT AT NATIONAL LEVEL
1. Maintain security and public order

2. Prepares the National budget and National Development Plans.
3. Building major infrastructure such as roads, airports and dams.
4. Providing public services such as water, medical and electricity.
5. Protecting the rights of individuals.
6. Defending and protecting the country from enemies.
7. Making and enforcing the law.
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COMPARE THE MAJOR RESPONSIBILITIES OF GOVERNMENT AT NATIONAL

AND LOCAL LEVEL
SIMILARITIES
1. They are both responsible for provision of education
2. They are both responsible for construction and maintenance of roads
3. They both prepare and implement development plans
4. They both make and enforce laws
DIFFERENCES
1. The government at national level make laws while the government at local level make
by-laws
2. The government at national level make development plans at national level while the
government at local level make developments plans at local level
3. The government at national level construct and maintain major roads while the
government at local level construct and maintain minor roads.
DISCUSS THE IMPORTANCE OF BOTSWANA9S NATIONAL PRINCIPLES
Democracy
 It promotes the respect for human rights and freedom. People will be allowed to enjoy their
rights. The right are listed in the constitution and have to be protected. The law enforcers
charge people who violate people9s rights.
 It allows people to choose the political leaders of their choice. Most democratic countries
are peaceful as people are allowed to air their views.
 It allows people to have different political views and still live together in peace. This
allows for new ideas/views in the running of the country.
 Leaders are answerable to their people. Elected members are expected to act and deliver on
their promises. A national referendum is held where need. If political leaders do not fulfil
their promises they can be removed.
 There is a system of checks and balance. It prevents abuse of power as leaders know that
there are other bodies that monitor them. This promotes good governance.
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 There is the rule of law. There is no one who is above the law, all decisions made do not
violate the constitution.
Unity
 It encourages citizens to place the interests of their country ahead of their own. People
have to forfeit their rights for the larger good of the nation. The country then remains
peaceful as people who that the nation benefits.
 It enables people to be tolerant on one another. People respect other people9s views and
opinions.
 It promotes cooperation. Where there is unity people are willing to help each other and
work together for the common good. This brings peace within the nation and to improve
other.
Development
 It enables people9s living standards to be improved. This enables people to have better
living standards.
 Since people have access to better health they live healthier. The mortality rate in the
country has gone down since health care has improved. People in rural areas also have
access to good health as government has made development across the country.
 It enables the country to be competitive. The GDP goes up and the country can produce
goods and sell to other countries.
Self reliance
 Government spends less money supporting citizens. Citizens are independent and
assist the government by starting companies and employing fellow citizens. This
enhances development in the country. It allows the government to concentrate on
developing the country. People are able to take care of themselves so the government
does not have to spend money on them.
 Government is free to make its own decisions without interference from other
countries. Since she is independent, she is able to make decisions that suits her
needs.
 It enables people to control their future. This ensures that they take decisions that are
best for themselves and their communities.
 It reduces dependence on imports. Therefore the country can become self sufficient
in the production of goods and services.
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Botho
 It promotes social harmony. People are treated with respect and dignity. People feel
that they are valued and respected. This encourages peace, tolerance and
cooperation in the country.
CHARACTERISTICS / FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
Democracy
 Citizens elect the leaders that they want and elections are fair and free.
 Government makes decision in an open and transparent way.
 There is no abuse of power as there is a system of checks and balances.
 The government consults the people through a referendum.
 Human rights are respected so people are treated fairly and justly
 There is rule of law.
Dictatorship
 Citizens do not elect the leaders that they want and elections are not fair and free.
 Government does not make decision in an open and transparent way.
 There is abuse of power as there is no system of checks and balances.
 The government does not consult the people when making decisions.
 Human rights are not respected so people are not treated fairly.
Monarchy
Types of monarchies
a) Absolute monarchy – The king or queen has total control over the government or
his or her people.
b) Constitutional monarchy – The king or queen shares power with political leaders
elected by the people. The monarch is the Head of state while the elected members
run the government.
Characteristics of Monarchy
 A king or queen is leads the government.
 The position of king or queen is hereditary.
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COMPARING DEMOCRACY WITH DICTATOSHIP

Similarities
 They are both headed by a leader
Differences
 In a Democracy there is practice of multi party political system while in
dictatorship there are no political parties and no opposition allowed.
 In a Democracy there are regular elections while dictatorship elections are no
elections.
 In Democracy the rule of law is observed while dictatorship it lacks rule of law
and people are ruled by decree
 In Democracy there are checks and balances in the power of government while in
dictatorship the dictator does not account to the people.
 In a Democracy the country is led by an elected president while in dictatorship the
country is led by a dictator.
 In Democracy allows the respect of human rights while in a dictatorship there is
violation of human rights.
COMPARE AND CONTRAST DEMOCRACY AND CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY

Similarities
 They both have rule of law
 They both have regular elections
 They both respect human rights
 They both have political parties
 They both have elected political leaders
Difference
 In a democracy there is one head of state being the president while in a
constitutional Monarchy there are two heads of state being a king/ Queen
(Monarch) and prime minister.
 In a democracy leaders are elected while in a constitutional Monarchy the position
of the monarch is hereditary.
COMPARE AND CONTRAST DEMOCRACY AND ABSOLUTE MONARCHY
SIMILARITIES
 They both have consultation with people
Differences
 In a democracy there are regular elections while in an absolute monarchy there are no
elections
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 In a democracy major decisions are made by elected representatives while in an absolute

monarchy decisions are made by the royal family
 In a democracy is headed by a president while in an absolute monarchy they are headed
by a monarch (king/ queen)
 In a democracy there is a system of checks and balances while in an absolute monarchy
power is centralised as the monarch makes all important decisions
 In a democracy human rights are respected while in an absolute monarchy human rights
are compromised.
 In a democracy leaders are accountable to people while in an absolute monarchy the
leader/ monarch is accountable to the royal family only.
 In a democracy there is consultation of people in decision making while in an absolute
monarchy the monarch consult only with the royal family.
 in a democracy there is respect for the rule of law while in an absolute monarchy the
monarch can over rule the law
KAGISANO
Kagisano means social harmony and peace. This means people living peacefully together in the
country even though they have differences in gender, educational background or religious
background. Kagisano is important because it makes people to cooperate and tolerate one
another.
Suggest ways of promoting Kagisano in a community
 Encouraging people to respect one another. This involves people treating each other with
dignity and courtesy.
 Respecting rights of people. For example, allowing freedom of speech and the right to
participate in community meetings and discussions.
 Solving conflicts peacefully. This is done through negotiations and dialogue.
 Sharing natural resources fairly in the community. e.g. arable land and water
 Encouraging tolerance among people. Accepting each others weaknesses and differences
E.g. religion
Recognise the significance of National Identity over Ethnic Identity
Ethnic Identity
This is a sense of belonging to a particular ethnic group, sharing the common culture of the
group and feeling proud of that group. For example being proud that you are a Mokgatla.
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Symbols of ethnic identity are language, totems, clothing and food e.t.c.
National Identity
This is about being proud of your country. Symbols of National identity are an identity card
(Omang) and national passport, coat of arms, national anthem, language, currency.
Recognise the importance of national identity over ethnic identity
 It promotes patriotism by encouraging a sense of belonging and loyalty to one9s country.

 It encourages the upholding the national symbols by all.
 It encourages citizens to put the country9s needs ahead of their own.
 It unites people from different ethnic groups hence it helps avoid tribal wars.
 It encourages tolerance among all by accepting diversity of culture.
Suggest Ways of nurturing and protecting Botswana9s image as a peaceful country
 By preventing wars by solving conflicts peacefully.

 Maintaining good relations with other countries.
 Respecting human rights
 Controlling crime such that people are safe.
 Treating everyone with respect and dignity.
 Being friendly and welcoming to visitors.
Botswana9s Economic development
Economic development is the process of using resources to create wealth for the country in order
to improve people9s standard of living.
The resources that a country can use to create wealth are water, land, wildlife, minerals, fish etc.
These natural resources have to be used sustainably.
Sectors of production
a) Primary Sector – This sector of production involves removing/ extract raw materials
from natural resources in our environment. For example fishing, mining, quarrying,
farming etc.
b) Secondary Sector – This involves processing raw materials into semi-finished and
finished goods. For example, construction, milling, breweries, textile production, wine
making. Etc.
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c) Tertiary Sector – It provides activities that provide services to individuals or businesses.

For example education, training, banking, entertainment, transportation, water, insurance
.etc.
d) Quaternary Sector –this involves intellectual activities that provide information and
knowledge. Examples are libraries, information technology, archives, consultancy, etc.
DISCUSS THE BENEFITS AND DISADVANTAGES OF BOTSWANA8S MIXED

ECONOMIC SYSTEM / MODEL
ADVANTAGES OF A MIXED ECONOMIC SYSTEM
 Customers enjoy reasonable prices. This is caused by the need to attract more
customers which encourages businesses to charge reasonable prices. Customers have
access to a variety of goods and services.
 Infrastructural development. Both government and private sector construct
infrastructure such as hospitals, roads, hotels, schools etc. This improves the economy of
the country.
 Setting minimum wage limits - the government sets minimum wage limits to protect
low paid workers. For example maids should not be paid less than P450.00. It prevents
abuse of employees by employers.
 Access to a variety of services. People have the opportunity to choose between the
services provided by government and private sector. E.g. health services, education,
entertainment. This helps people to enjoy good quality services.
 Availability of goods and services. Government makes sure that goods and services are
available in all parts of the country. This ensures that all citizens are taken care of.
 Increase in employment opportunities. Both government and private sector increases
jobs in the country. This creates income opportunities for everyone.
 Increase in investment and business opportunities. Individuals and companies have
the opportunity to invest or opening up their own businesses. Those businesses create
employment and provide income.
 Gaining of revenue by government. Investors are required to pay tax. Revenue earned
through tax enables the government to carry out development.
DISCUSS THE DISADVANTAGES OF A MIXED ECONOMY
 Government monopolises provision of essential services. Essential services such as

water, electricity are provided by government only. The government cannot meet the
demands of the people resulting in poor service provision. There is limited choice for
such services.
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 Poor service provision by government. Government is not good at providing services

mainly due to shortage of skilled personnel and funding. People do not get the quality of
services they need.
 Limited profit making by the private sector. Private businesses will not be able to
make more profit because they are competing with government funded businesses that
are given soft loans (loans with low interest rates).
 It widens the income disparity between the rich and the poor. Most private businesses
are owned by the rich and exploit the poor (customers and employees) to make maximum
profits. This results in a wide gap between the rich and the poor.
ANALYSE THE EFFECTS OF HIV AND AIDS ON BOTSWANA9S ECONOMY.
 Loss of skilled personnel – workers die due to AIDS. The loss of workers means that
there are fewer people doing the work and that some of the work is not done. This results
in government spending more money to train new workers instead of developing the
country.
 Lowers food production – when farmers and their labourers die, there is no one to grow
crops for the country.
 Lower productivity – People taking care of the sick have to absent themselves from
work occasionally so their jobs suffer because there is no one to do them.
 Lower savings – People spend most of their money taking care of the sick so they don9t
have money to save.
 Increased government spending – The government spends the money that it could be
using to develop the country on buying medicine for the sick.
EVALUATE THE IMPACT OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT ON THE LIVES OF

BATSWANA
 Increase in access to education – Most Batswana are now educated as many people are
able to attend schools to learn. This has led to increase in literacy rate, skills and
knowledge. The education system in Botswana does not equip its products with enough
skills that allows to compete internationally. The government should intensify the
teaching and learning of vocational skills and come up with programs that address the
skills needed in the job market.
 Increase in income levels. This is possible because of improvement in the economic
development. Business investment and employment opportunities are available for
people to earn more money. This has enabled them to improve their standard of living.
However there are still some people who are not employed.
 Availability of health services – There are many clinics and hospitals that have been
built as a result of economic development. This has improved the health standard and
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lowered mortality rate. However there are still some areas in the country where access to
medical services is a challenge.
 Access to clean water supply –There are many dams that have been built that supply
water to Batswana.
 Improved Transport and communication networks– Batswana can travel and
communicate easily as a result of the communication systems that have been
constructed. This has enhanced investment opportunities in Botswana.
 Availability of electricity in most parts of the country. Most places in Botswana are
connected to reliable electricity.
 Increase in Rural-Urban migration –Batswana have moved from rural areas to urban
areas because most business activities, better services and employment opportunities are
in urban areas. Villages are left with fewer young people to carry out agricultural
production.
DISCUSS THE DANGERS OF CORRUPTION AND ECONOMIC CRIME TO

BOTSWANA9S ECONOMY AND SOLUTIONS THEREOF
 The government losses money – money is lost through bribery, tax evasion, etc. the
money that was supposed to accumulate to government is not paid to government. In the
end, the government is unable to carry out the planned development projects.
 It leads to unequal developments in the country. Developmental projects may not be
distributed fairly within the country where officials responsible for such services are
corrupt. This frustrates government efforts to develop the country.
 It leads to low productivity. Where people who are not qualified for particular jobs may
be employed instead of the qualified ones, it leads to poor quality work.
 It increases the cost of doing business in a country. Investors who are made to pay
bribery end up spending more money in running their businesses. Goods and Services
become more expensive because the money paid as bribe is added to the cost of
production.
 It can scare away investors. Countries that are infested with corruption are not
conducive for doing business. Investors would normally avoid investing in such places
because it is costly and risky.
 It undermines the rule of law. If law enforcement officers are unable to enforce the law
because of their involvement in corrupt practices, the effectiveness of the law is
compromised. That is criminals are free to carry out corrupt activities damaging the
image of the country.
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WAYS OF DEALING WITH CORRUPTION AND ECONOMIC CRIME
 Provision of public education/ awareness – People must be taught about the dangers of
corruption and economic crime. The use of mass media, addressing kgotla meetings and
workshops in the work-place to teach people about corruption.
 Enforce criminal charges-The government must intensify charges against criminals &
the charges must range according to the weight of the case.
 Reporting corrupt practices – All sectors must be sensitized on corruption activities &
prevention techniques e.g. people must be giving toll free numbers that they can always
dial and report corruption.
 Formation of Crime prevention groups – locals must be encouraged to form crime
prevention groups responsible for fighting corruption& crime in their areas.
 Use of Information technology – The security forces should be trained on the use of
computers & installation of CCTV cameras so that they are able to see & monitor corrupt
people
 Investigate and prosecute offenders- the country has independent departments that can
investigate corrupt issues and therefore investigations on corruption and economic crime
should be intensified. Eg. DCEC. People found guilty should be punished severely.
AGRICULTURE IN BOTSWANA
The Importance of agriculture in Botswana9s economy
 Source of employment – Many people work as farmers or are employed by farmers

to provide livestock with food and water.
 Source of food – Farmers produce maize and beans that people need in order to live.
 Source of raw materials for other industries –Industries that processes and sell
meat, sell furniture and beer would not exist without Agriculture.
 Source of income – Meat that is sold to other countries provides Botswana with
foreign exchange.
 Provides investment opportunities – People can invest money in growing crops,
rearing livestock and fish farming.
Problems facing the Agriculture Sector in Botswana
 Low rainfall – Crops require about 500mm to grow. Most parts of Botswana receive
less than this.
 Frequent drought – This creates shortage of water and pastures for grazing.
 Poor soils – Botswana is mostly covered by poor sandy soils.
 Pests and diseases – Livestock and crops are affected by diseases such as foot and
mouth and corn crickets.
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 Poor farming methods – Farming methods like mono cropping result in poor yields.
 Shortage of labour – Many young people are not interested in farming and are
leaving rural areas to cities
Solutions to the above problems
 Plant crop varieties and rear livestock that will still do well with little rainfall.
 Create and insurance fund for farmers so that they are paid compensation when there is a
drought.
 Encourage crop production in areas that have fertile soils.
 Farmers should rear livestock and grow crops that are resistant to common diseases.
 Sufficient Agriculture demonstrators should be employed to teach farmers good farming
methods.
 Create better opportunities for young people so that they are interested in training for
agriculture.
DIVERSIFYING AGRICULTURE IN BOTSWANA
The following activities must be done in order to diversify Agriculture in Botswana:
 Horticulture – Local farmers should produce enough vegetables and fruits in order to
meet the national demand.
 Oil Seed crops – Subsistence farmers must be encouraged to grow crops such as
sunflower and groundnuts.
 Dairy farming – Farmers must be encouraged to use the right farming methods and
technologies so that milk yields are high.
 Harvesting and processing veldt products – Veldt products like sengaparile, morula
fruits and mophane worms must be collected and sold.
 Game farming – Farmers must be encouraged to rear game animals like ostriches and
kudus.
 Bee keeping – Farmers must be encouraged to produce honey and bees wax to sell.
GOVERNMENT POLICIES FOR PROMOTING AGRICULTURE IN BOTSWANA
 Farmers are given seeds, fertilizer and draught power for ploughing and planting, this is
done through Integrated Support Programme for Arable Agriculture
Development(ISPAAD).
 The National Master Plan for Arable Agriculture and Dairy Development
(NAMPAADD) has been set up to promote commercial arable farming and dairy
farming.
 Increase employment opportunities for Batswana.
 Conserve scarce Agricultural and land resources for future generations.
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 The government employs agricultural demonstrators to assist and teach farmers better
farming methods.
AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES THAT HAVE A NEGATIVE IMPACT ON THE

ENVIRONMENT.
 Overstocking – Keeping more animals for the size of the land damages the
environment.
 Mono cropping – Growing the same crop on the same land for many years reduces the
fertility of the land.
 Burning the bush – Fires destroy the vegetation and leave the land bare. This leads to
soil erosion.
 Deforestation – This increases the risk of soil erosion and destroys the homes of
animals.
 Over use of fertilizers – This pollutes water in rivers as chemicals are washed into
rivers when it rains.
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN AGRICULTURE (BEST PRACTICES FOR

ECOLOGICALLY SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN AGRICULTURE)
Sustainable development in Agriculture means that we should use agricultural resources wisely
to meet the needs of the present without destroying the ability of future generations to meet their
needs.
This can be done through the following ways:
 Crop rotation – This helps to reduce weeds and loss of soil fertility. For example ploughing
groundnuts in one season and sorghum the next season refills nitrogen in the soil.
 Maintaining the correct stocking rate – This helps prevent overgrazing and damage to the
soil.
 Allow land to lie fallow – This allows the soil to recover and ensures that the soil remains
fertile.
 Water conservation – Farmers must use mulching to reduce water loss from plants.
Irrigation must also be practiced.
 Cultivating the soil to control weeds – Weeds must be controlled by cultivating the soil.
 Grow crops and rear animal breeds that are suitable to the environment.
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MINING IN BOTSWANA
MINING AREAS IN BOTSWANA
Source diamond book 1
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STAGES OF MINING DIAMONDS IN BOTSWANA
 Extraction – Diamonds are mined using a method called open pit or open cast. This method
allows miners to extract minerals that are near the surface of the earth. The vegetation and
top soil (overburden) are removed, and then the rock containing the diamonds is blasted and
loaded into trucks for processing.
Open cast
Advantages of Open Cast Mining
 It is cheap compared to shaft mining

 It is fairly safe because people work on the surface of the earth so there few accidents
occur.
 Minerals are extracted quickly.
Disadvantages of Open Cast Mining
 When it rains, water can collect in or flood the pit & interfere with extraction.
 The pit has to be abandoned once the mineral is too deep.
 Open pit scars the land.
 Dust from the open pit pollutes the air.
 A large area of land around the open pit is left unused.
 Processing – This stage involves the following:

# Crushing – The mineral ore is crushed into small pieces.
# Concentrating – The crushed ore is mixed with water and chemicals in large drums
(Cyclones). This makes the lighter waste material to float at the top
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and the diamonds or heavy waste material to sink.
# Drying – The concentrated material is taken to a machine where it is dried.
# Separating - The dried material is passed through and X-ray machine. This shines the
diamonds and triggers and air gun. The air gun blows air which separates
the diamonds from the waste material.
# Hand sorting – The remaining waste material is removed by hand.
# Sorting, grading & valuation – Diamonds are then sorted according to size, shape,
purity and weight.
# Cutting and Polishing – Diamonds are cut to a certain shape and polished so that they
sparkle.
NB Quality diamonds are known as gemstones while low quality ones are called industrial
diamonds. Diamond Trading Company Botswana (DTCB) is responsible for sorting, valuing and
selling diamonds mined in Botswana.
 Marketing – Botswana9s diamonds are exported to European and Asian countries.
STAGES OF MINING COAL IN BOTSWANA
 Extraction – A method of mining known as box – cut is used. Coal is extracted using a big
machine known as the continuous miner.
 Processing – The processing stages of coal are

# Cleaning – This is where coal is taken to the conveyor belt to a machine for cleaning.
This removes waste.
# Screening – Coal pieces that are about 30mm in size are transported to a stock
pile while the bigger pieces are taken to the crusher.
# Crusher – Bigger pieces are crushed so that they are 30mm in size.
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 Marketing of coal – Most of the coal that is extracted in Botswana is used locally while some
is sold to Zimbabwe and Zambia. BCL mine uses it to heat copper nickel smelters
STAGES OF MINING COPPER NICKEL
 Extraction - This mineral is mined used the shaft method of mining. Explosives are placed in
holes drilled into the mineral ore and blasted. The mineral ore is loaded into a skip which is
pulled to the surface and the ore is taken to a processing plant.
Shaft Method
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Advantages of Shaft Mining
 The deepest mineral ores can be extracted.

 The land above the mine can be put to other uses such as building the processing plant.
Disadvantages of Shaft Mining
 Shaft mining is very expensive because transport, lighting and cool fresh air have to be
provided to miners working underground.
 It is dangerous working underground where accidents such as collapsing tunnels & gas
explosions may occur.
 It is difficult to rescue workers when accidents happen deep underground.
 Shafts & tunnels of abandoned mines are not filled up, these become dangerous when
settlements are built above them as they may collapse.
 Processing – This involves the following stages:
# Crushing – The mineral ore is crushed into small pieces.
# Grinding – The mineral ore is grounded into powder.
# Concentrating – The crushed ore is mixed with water and chemicals in large tanks.
(concentrators). Copper nickel floats and waste material sinks.
# Drying – The concentrated material is taken to a machine where it is dried.
# Smelting - The dry concentrate is heated using coal. Copper nickel turns into a thick
hot liquid and sinks to the bottom while waste floats.
# Cooling – The concentrate is removed from the smelter and put in water where it cools
and forms matte.
# Separating and refining – Copper is separated from nickel and impurities removed.
 Marketing – Taken to Zimbabwe and Norway.
STAGES OF MINING SODA ASH
 Extraction – the salty water is pumped to the surface and water is put in large ponds.
 Processing - The solid material is then separated from the water by evaporation. The material
is dried and processed into salt and soda ash.
 Marketing – Exported to South Africa, Zimbabwe, Zambia and Central Africa. It is used to
make glass, detergents and fertilizers.
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Uses of Minerals
Mineral Use Destination

Diamonds Making jewellery USA, UK, India, Belgium,
Used for strengthening the tips & edges of drilling & Holland & Switzerland
cutting tools & machinery
Copper For making copper wire, coins, electrical appliances, Zimbabwe, South Africa,
nickel electrical transmission lines, galvanizing other Norway, USA
metals.
Coal Generating thermal electricity Not exported
Domestic purposes like cooking
Soda Ash Glass making Zimbabwe, South Africa,
Making detergents and common salt Zambia
THE EFFECTS OF MINING ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF BOTSWANA
 Improves infrastructure – The money earned from mining is used to develop the country
e.g. built schools and roads.
 Creates jobs – People are employed to do different jobs e.g. managers, engineers etc.
 Improves local skilled labour – People acquire skills in engineering, medicine etc.
 Creates opportunities for other businesses - Mining companies depend on other
businesses to supply them with services e.g. petrol stations, banks.
 Development of mining towns – Places that are villages develop into mining towns e.g.
Orapa, Phikwe, Jwaneng.
OPPORTUNITIES IN THE MINING INDUSTRY

 It offers employment opportunities.
 Other people can start businesses to supply others with goods and services.
 People can invest in mining and share the profits that the company makes.
 Multiplier effect - Mining leads to the development of other industries because they
supply each other with goods & services.
CHALLENGES IN THE MINING INDUSTRY
 It is difficult to find ways of controlling negative impacts like pollution.

 Minerals are non-renewable and there is fear that one day they will run out.
 Mining companies have very little control over the prices of minerals and can go
bankrupt.
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 There is shortage of skilled labour. Mining companies hire skilled people from other
countries.
 The soda ash mine faces stiff competition for a market with the United States which also
exports soda ash products.
THE IMPACT OF MINING ON THE ENVIRONMENT
 Pollution – Mining pollutes the air land and water. This damages plants and people9s
health.
 Damages landscape – Where open pit mining is used, plants as well as places where
animal live are destroyed.
 Noise from the mines – Loud noise is produced when drilling through the rocks & when
the rocks are blasted.
 Vibration from the mines – blasting of the rocks underneath causes the earth to vibrate.
This causes the houses to crack, shake & break.
Solutions of Mining
 Train citizens in the skills required by the mining sector.

 Mount HIV / AIDS awareness campaigns for the workers.
 Adopt environmental protection and management measures to ensure environmental
damage is limited.
 Reduce costs of production so that minerals can be sold at competitive prices.
 Add value to minerals before exporting them, so that the country can earn more money.
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WORLD PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Landforms refers to natural relief features that have formed on the earth9s surface such as
mountains, lakes, craters, deltas etc. Some of these features were formed millions of years ago
and are slowly being changed by erosion, weathering and human activities.
It is believed that all the continents once fitted together and there was one big Super continent
surrounded by an ocean. The big continent began to break up into small pieces and the pieces
slowly drifted (moved apart). These pieces are called plates.
Plates
source: diamond bk 3
Plates float on top of the magma and move very slowly. Some move away from each other while
others move towards each other. As plates move, they make the continents to slowly move away
from each other or to move towards each other. This is known as Continental drift.
The place where two plates meet is known as a plate boundary. When two plates are pushed
towards each other or when they are pulled away from each other the earth9s crust or surface is
put under great pressure and can either bend or crack. If the earth9s crust bends the process is
called folding and if it cracks the process is called faulting.
Earth Movements
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The earth is made up of the crust, the mantle and the core. The crust is the outer most layer of the
earth and is made up of solid rock and the land that we live on.
The mantle is found below the crust. The upper part of the mantle is solid while the lower part is
made up of molten rock known as magma.
Geomorphological features and how they were formed
a) Volcanic Mountains
A volcanic mountain is a cone shaped mountain.
Formation Process
Volcanic mountains are formed through force of tension acting on the crust as tectonic plates
drift away from each other. When this happens, the earth9s crust cracks and a liquid known as
magma forcefully rises up through the crack (pipe) into the earth9s surface.
When magma reaches the earth9s surface it changes to a gas which is called lava. Once lava
remains in the atmosphere for some time, it solidifies and builds up to form a volcanic mountain.
Examples of such mountains are Mount Kenya, Mount Cameroon, Mount Elgon, Mount
Pinatubo, Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Elgon.
Volcanic eruption
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Source :Social Studies for

Today
Formation process of a Block Mountain
Formed where there are two faults in the earth9s crust. Plates move away from each other
causing the block on either side of the fault to fall. The middle block remains higher than the
surrounding land.
Examples of such mountains are Khara in Namibia, Harz mountains in Germany and Ruwenzori
in east Africa.
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source: diamond bk 3
Or
source: Social studies is fun

bk2
Formation process of Fold Mountains
They are formed when plates move towards each other this forces the earth9s crust to be pushed
upwards.
Examples are mount Chimanimani, Atlas Mountain, Table Mountain, Cape mountains and the
Drankensburg Mountain.
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bk2
Human Uses of Mountains / Importance
14. People who live near volcanic mountains practice arable farming. Mountains can also
be used for grazing livestock.
15. They are a tourist attraction.
16. People hide on them during wars.
17. People also live near them for their mildier climate.
18. People practice mining.
19. Mountains influence climate and weather patterns. e.g. the windward sides of
mountains receive more rainfall than the leeward side.
Although mountains are important to humanity, they can also pose danger to people. For
example;
 Volcanic mountains that are dormant may erupt again and destroy people9s lives and
property.
 Mountains cause low rainfall on the leeward side which makes life difficult for
people living in the area.
Formation process of a valley
A valley is a low lying area between two high lands.
When plates move away from each other, they cause the land above to crack. This causes the
land between the two faults to crack and sink.
Examples of rift valleys are the Great Rift Valley, Baikal Rift Valley (Europe) and The Rhine
Rift Valley (Europe)
Diagram of a Valley
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Source :Social Studies for

Today
Human Uses of Valleys / Importance
20. Their banks have fertile soils so people practice arable farming.
21. Their gentle slopes enable people to construct roads.
23. They are a source of water
24. People fish in them.
Formation Process of Coastal Deltas (Near the Sea)
Deltas are formed when a river flows into a sea, ocean or another river. As the river flows from
high land to low land, it carries along with it soil, stones, bones and plant materials. When a river
reaches a sea or a low land it slows down, the flow of water slows down and it starts to deposit
the material that it is carrying. The deposited material slowly build up into a low- lying swampy
plain (delta).
Examples of deltas are Nile delta and Zambezi delta.
Formation Process of an Inland Deltas (Example of an Inland delta is the Okavango Delta -
(Far away from the Sea)
About 2 million years ago, the Okavango river flowed south east and joined the Limpopo river.
The earth9s crust folded upward and formed the eastern hills cutting off the Okavango river from
the Limpopo river. A big lake, Makgadikgadi was formed behind the hills. Later faulting cut off
the Okavango river from Lake Makgadikgadi and an inland delta was formed. Lake
Makgadikgadi slowly dried up and today what is left are the Makgakgadi pans.
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Uses of deltas / Importance
25. People fish in them

26. People use water in them for irrigation.
27. They are a tourist attraction
28. Fertile alluvial soils found in them are good for arable farming.
29. Use water in them to generate electricity.
30. They are a source of raw materials for basket weaving.
Formation process of Lakes
i. Through force of tension: When plates move away from each other and force two parallel
faults to occur of the crust. The middle block between two parallel faults moves
downwards, it creates a depression on the land surface. Once the depression fills with
water it becomes a lake. For example Lake Malawi & Lake Tanganyika.
ii. Through Force of compression: A lake may be formed when a barrier is formed across
drainage like such as a river. This may be caused by land being raised by a folding
process on the crust due to force of compression. Water will be blocked and forced to
collect behind this barrier creating a lake.
Human uses of Lakes / Importance
31. They are a source of water.

32. People catch fish in them
34. Lakes are habitats for many aquatic plants & animals.
35. Help keep temperatures mild for surrounding areas.
Formation process of Craters
1. A Volcanic crater:
A volcanic crater is a circular depression on a volcanic mountain. It is formed when the magma
coming out of the pipe during volcanic eruption is finished and dried up. The magma sinks or
collapses into the pipe and leaves a large depression on top of a volcano (mountain). NB A
Caldera is a very large crater which is formed when a large volume of magma drains away
through eruptions under a volcanic mountain. For example Tengger (Indonesia)
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Examples are Nyos in Cameroon, Ngorongoro in Tanzania and Oregon (USA). NB A Caldera is
a very large crater which is formed when a large volume of magma drains away through
eruptions under a volcanic mountain. For example Tengger (Indonesia)
2. A meteorite Crater:
A meteorite crater is formed through the fall of a meteorite. A meteorite is a piece of rock from
space which hits the surface of the earth at very high speed creating a depression on the earth9s
surface. Examples of meteorite creator include lake Chad in Chad (North Africa).
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A meteorite crater Source :Diamondbk 2
source: Social studies is fun bk2
Human uses of craters / Importance
36. They are a tourist attraction which creates employment and provide market for local
businesses..
37. They are sources of water that is used for both domestic and agricultural purposes for
income generation.
38. Some areas around craters have mineral, oil and gas deposits that people mine & sell.
Factors that Influence Climate
a) Latitude – The sun shines directly over the main latitude line of Equator for most of the
time during the year. The places that are closer to the equator are therefore hotter
because the sun is closer to the Equator. Those places that are far away from the equator
are cooler because they are far from the sun
When the sun shines directly over head of a place, the rays travel a shorter distance to
reach the earth9s surface and as a result, the amount of heat reaching the ground is greater
than when it is shining at an angle. For example the Tundra regions are far from the
equator so they are cold.
Places near the equator also receive more rainfall than those that are far because of high
humidity.
b) Altitude – Places with high altitude are cooler than those at lower altitude. Places with a
high altitude receive higher rainfall than low altitude ones. Air becomes cooler as the
altitude increases. At high altitude, air becomes thinner and less able to absorb and retain
heat then it becomes cold causing water at this level to solidify(freeze)
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c) Ocean currents – Oceans are the largest water bodies that surround the continents. In the
ocean, water flows as streams or rivers known as ocean currents. Warm ocean currents
bring hot temperatures on the land nearby while cold currents lower the temperatures due
to winds blowing over them on to the coastal areas. This causes the coastal areas to be
either cold or warm.
Water in the ocean does not warm up and cool down as quickly as air on land. Because of
this, in winter when the land cools, the ocean is still warm because of the warm ocean
currents. When warm air blows from the ocean towards land in winter, the coastal areas
experience higher winter temperatures than places further inland.
d) Position of continents – Inland areas have cooler summers and milder winters, are wetter
because when the warm air from the land meets cool moist air from the ocean, frontal
rainfall occurs.
e) Aspect – Aspect is the horizontal direction in which a slope faces. A slope facing the sun
is warmer than a slope facing away from the sun.
f) Mountain barriers also known as aspect - When one side (wind-ward side) is
experiencing high rainfall the other side (the leeward or rain shadow) will experience low
rainfall because the mountain acts as a barrier. Therefore, the leeward or rain shadow side
of the mountain receives little or no rainfall.
g) When one side is experiencing high temperatures the other side experiences low
temperatures.
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THE WORLD9S ENVIRONMENTAL REGIONS
Source: Social Studies form 2
Equatorial Region
a) Location – 5°N to 5° S of the equator.

b) Climate: The Equatorial region has no seasons.
c) Rainfall: Rain falls throughout the year. It is of a convectional type. It ranges between
1500 and 2000mm a year.
d) Temperature – It is hot throughout the year. The temperatures of this region ranges
between 26°C and 28 °C. The temperature range is 2°C.
e) Vegetation – The vegetation is known as tropical rainforest. It is made up of tall trees,
trees grow close together and in layers forming a canopy, trees have broad leaves. They
are evergreen. Trees have large buttress roots to support their height, there is little
undergrowth due to little sunrays reaching the groundExamples of trees found here are:
sapele, ebony and mahogany.
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f) Soil – Areas closer to the equator have infertile soils as the area is water logged but as
you move further the equator soils are fertile.
g) Humidity – because it is hot & wet throughout the year humidity is always high.
39. How the Equatorial Environment influence the people9s Lifestyle.

40. People in this area practice pastoral farming because there is a lot of grass.
41. Shifting cultivation – They also practice arable farming when the soil is no longer fertile,
people move to another area. This allows the soil to regain its fertility.
42. Fishing – The area has rivers that have water throughout the year so people catch fish.
43. hunting and gathering – There are a variety of plants and animals that people eat.
44. Useful vegetation – trees like mahogany are a source of wood timber that people use to
make furniture.
Tropical Savanna

b) Rainfall – Rain falls in summer and winters are dry. Rain is of convectional type. It
ranges between 500 and 1500mm a year
c) Temperature – The seasons of this region are summer, autumn, winter and spring. It is
very hot in summer with average temperatures of up to 30°C and cold in winter with
temperatures falling below 10 °C
d) Vegetation – is made up of tall trees and grass. Trees lose their leaves in winter and grow
in summer. Due to arid conditions in other parts of this region, vegetation is scattered and
short and frequent droughts in this zone makes trees to develop long tap roots to reach
water far underground. Examples of trees found here are: acacia, baobab etc.
e) Soils – Some of the areas in this region have fertile soils so people grow crops.
f) Humidity – because it is hot & wet in summer humidity is high in summer and low in
winter.
45. How the Tropical Savanna Environment influence the people9s Lifestyle.
46. The area is suitable for grass growth so people in the Savanna rear livestock.
47. There is abundant wildlife people practice tourism and game viewing.
48. Rains and favorable temperatures enable people to grow crops.
49. They built shelter using mud, cow dung, grass and logs found in their environment.
50. Seasonal hunger – because rains only fall in summer, people do not have enough to eat as
there is only one rainy season.
51. Wild bush fires – lightening sometimes causes dry grass to catch fire.
Hot Desert and Semi Desert
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a) Location – 15°N to 30 °S of the equator.

b) Rainfall – Rain falls in summer but is very little. It I s 250mm or less in the desert and
between 250 and 350 mm in the semi desert.
c) Temperature – The temperatures are very high in summer with averages of between 30
and 40 °C. It winter it is very cold and temperatures sometimes fall to the negatives while
summer temperatures are very high. Desert areas experience extreme temperature
differences because of lack of cloud cover.
d) Vegetation – The vegetation in this area is short and scattered. It has long tapped roots
that enable it to reach water under the ground. The vegetation is drought resistant.
Examples of trees found here are: shrubs and acacia.
e) Soil – Soils at the desert are sandy and therefore infertile.
f) Humidity – humidity is low because of low rainfall & surface water.
How Climate affects the people

*Population distribution – very few people live in the desert because of the harsh climate
conditions.
* Men hunted wild animals while women and girls gathered fruits.
* They live a nomadic way of life as they have to follow the movement of wild
animals.* Those living near oases and Egypt fish at the Nile River and practice arable
farming.
* Pastoralists – The Tuaregs& the Bedouin are nomadic herders. They keep camels, goats
and sheep that have adapted to dry conditions.
* crop farming – date palms are grown around oases in the Sahara desert & near the Nile,
Tigris & Euphrates rivers.
* Mining - Crude oil & diamonds have been found in deserts in Algeria, Libya, Iraq &
Iran.
* Transport – used camels to carry people & goods from one place to another.
NBcamels have adapted to desert conditions because they can go for several days
without eating or drinking water. During sand storms, they are able to close their
nostrils to prevent sand getting into their lungs. They have flat hooves & are able to
walk on sand easily.
Mediterranean Region

b) Rainfall – Rain falls in winter and summers are dry. It receives cyclonic type of rainfall.
It ranges between 500 and 750mm a year
c) Temperature – summers are warm and winters are cool. Most of the rain falls in winter
because moist winds blow from the sea towards the land. The main winds that bring
rainfall are called Westerlies. Average temperatures in summer are about 21°Cand 10
°C in winter.
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d) Vegetation – is made up of tall trees and grass. Some parts have scattered vegetation. The
vegetation in other areas is green. Examples of trees found here are citrus fruits.
e) Soil - some areas have good soils that enable production of fruit crops.
f) Humidity – humidity is low because it is hot and dry in summer and in winter the
temperatures are low even though it rains.

52. arable farming – Cereal crops such as wheat, millet & oats are grown here.
53. Fishing – Abundant water enables people to catch fish.
54. hunting and gathering – people hunt and gather fruits.
55. fruit production & Wine production – they grow citrus fruits like grapefruit and
lemons.This region is a big producer of wine.
56. Dry winds cause a lot of crop damage e.g. Santa Ana wind of California
57. Because of hot and dry summers, bush fires and droughts are common
58. Tourist attraction
The Tundra Region (Wet Desert)
The word Tundra means treeless. People who live here are the Inuits of Canada & Greenland, the
Nganasan and Nenets of Russia.
a) Location – between 60°N and the Article circle

b) Rainfall – It receives very low rainfall often less than 250mm a year. Rain falls in
summer and in winter it snows.
c) Temperature – It experiences long cold winters and warm summers. Average winter
temperatures are sometimes -10°Cwhiles summers are 10°C
d) Vegetation – Composed of mosses, lichens, blueberries and bearberries. Plants have
shallow spreading roots due to permafrost. Some parts have no trees.
e) Soil – This area has poor soils as the land is mostly covered by snow and ice.
f) Humidity is low because very low temperatures reduce the amount of moisture in the air.
g) Strong cold winds known as blizzards can blow between 48 and 97 km per hour.

59. People in this area practice fishing, and nomadic hunting and gathering of wild fruits.
Hunted animals like seals, caribou & whales
60. Nomadic herding – The Nganasan, Sami & the Nenets herded reindeer.
61. They made very warm clothes in winter as it is very cold. Made boots, trousers and
jackets using caribou skins and reindeer skins and furs.
62. Transport - they made sleds pulled by dogs in winter and canoes from seal skins in
summer.
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63. Traditional shelter – built shelter with ice – blocks (igloos) in winter while in summer
they lived in tents made from animal skins.
Monsoon
The word Monsoon means seasonal change in wind direction. For example in summer winds
blow from the ocean towards land and in winter winds blow from land towards the ocean.
a) Location – between 10° and 30°N and south of the equator .

b) Rainfall – It receives summer rainfall of over 2000mm. This area sometimes experiences
floods.
c) Temperature – Temperatures are high in summer with averages of 30°C and winter is cool
with averages of 24°C.
d) Vegetation – Thick tropical forests can be found in the wetter parts, the drier parts experience
desert like vegetation. Most of the trees lose their leaves in winter.
e) Soils – Some people practice arable farming while others do not because of too much rainfall
and flooding.
f) Seasons – from November to February, it is a warm to cool dry season, March to May it is a
hot dry season and from June to October it is a hot wet season.

64. They made their shelter from bamboo reeds that are found in abundance where there is
plenty rainfall.
65. During the hot season they wore special hats(straw) to protect themselves from the heat
of the sun.
66. Because of abundant rainfall they grew rice. In drier parts they grew wheat, maize, millet
& cotton.
67. They used the elephant and buffalo as means of transport.
68. Heavy rains sometimes destroy crops, property & kill people.
.
CLIMATE CHANGE
Climate change is a long term change in the global temperatures.
Global warming is the long term trend of increases in the Earth9s average temperature.
Greenhouse gases are gases like water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide &
chlorofluorocarbons that are contained in the atmosphere.
Greenhouse effect is the trapping of heat that makes the earth warmer.
ozone layer – is a layer that absorbs the dangerous ultra-violet rays and stops them from
reaching the earth.
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Evidence of climate change
69. General rise in temperature throughout the world.

70. Changes in precipitation – the amount, type and frequency of rainfall has changed.
71. Melting glaciers & polar ice sheets at a faster rate – A glacier is a very large sheet of ice
that moves very slowly. Polar ice caps are large sheets of ice covering the Polar Regions.
72. Prolonged severe droughts
73. Summers being longer than winters or vice versa.
74. Dying of vegetation.
Natural Causes of Climate change
Solar variations – small changes in the sun9s energy over a long period of time can lead to
climate changes. For example an increase in the output of solar energy can lead to an average
increase in global temperatures.
Volcanic eruptions – the ashes & gases produced by volcanic eruptions can result in a drop in
average global temperatures.
Ocean Currents – Ocean currents carry warm water and heat from the tropics towards the north
& south poles and cool water the poles to the tropics, changes in the circulation patterns of ocean
currents can cause El Ninos& El Nina
Human Causes of Climate change
a) Burning of fossil fuels - Human beings burn wood, waste, coal and gas oil for heat
energy. When these fuels are burned they produce carbon dioxide into the atmosphere
leading to global warming.
b) Deforestation – Forests are called the lungs of the world because they absorb carbon
dioxide & release oxygen. When trees are cut few trees are left to absorb carbon dioxide
& gas goes into the atmosphere thereby contributing to global warming.
c) Agriculture – Cow dung gives out a gas called methane. Methane helps in destroying the
ozone layer. Destroying the Ozone layer results in ultra-violet rays burning human beings
& causing skin cancer.
d) Fumes from industries – Pollutants released into the atmosphere affect the vegetation
badly and this may lead to reduced rainfall amounts in areas of the world where air
pollution poses a very serious problem.
Effects of Climate Change
75. Changes rainfall patterns

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76. Reduces crop yields

77. Increases temperatures
78. Causes less moisture in the atmosphere
79. Accelerates erosion
80. Leads to flooding.
81. Leads to shortage of food & water.
82. Leads to loss of plant species.
Ways of Meeting the Challenges of Climate Change
83. Environmental Education – People must be informed of how climate change will affect
the environment within which they live.
84. Reduce, recycle & reuse waste – this will save on raw materials & energy.
85. Governments must formulate climate change policies e.g. people must be taxed so as to
encourage the use of clean and safe technologies.
86. Carpooling( travel together in one car) must be encouraged to reduce exhaust fumes.
87. People must be encouraged to cycle to work where distances are shorter.
CULTURAL DIVERSITY IN BOTSWANA
Culture is the way of life of a group of people. It is learned through a process of socialization
from older family members, community members, teachers etc.
Culture consists of material & non- material elements. Material elements are the physical objects
we can see & touch e.g. buildings, clothing & food. Non – material elements are those we cannot
touch e.g. language drama, poetry etc.
Location of cultural sites in Botswana
Cultural sites are historical places in society, where some significant events may have occurred
about a particular ethnic group
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bk2
Identifying some of Botswana9s cultural heritage
Cultural heritage are the elements of culture that are considered important and valuable to
preserve and pass on to future generations. Cultural heritage is important because it is a link
between life in the past and the present.
Material Cultural heritage
88. Traditional food e.g. bogobe, logala, seswaa, Morogo wa dinawa.

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89. Traditional dress – clothes made from animal skins are usually worn during traditional
dance performances
90. Traditional buildings & structures of historical importance e.g. old Palapye church ruins.
91. Tools & equipment e.g. traditional chairs, seteropo, selei/sledge
92. Remains of old settlements e.g. stone age& iron age sites.
Non – Material Cultural heritage
93. Music, poetry, dance & songs are all part of Botswana9s non material cultural heritage.
94. Customs & traditions such as rainmaking, marriage ceremonies
95. Cultural beliefs
96. Language
97. Traditional knowledge & skills e.g. traditional medicine, leather processing.
Elements of culture and how they bring about individual and national identity
Individual identity is personal identity. It is the way in which a person defines himself /
herself in terms of their individuality and difference from others. It includes social
characteristics such as family, religious groups, ethnic group etc.
People identify themselves with the following :

98. Art – Art differs from one ethnic group to the other in Botswana. In the northern part,
women in the villages of Etsha make unique baskets and tend to identify the people who
make them.
99. Language - The language that one speaks identifies him or her with his family, ethnic
group and with his nation or country. Setswana with Sengwato dialects makes people to
associate the speaker with Bangwato and Batswana. People use languages to express their
emotions, intensions, values and practices.
100. Music & Dance – Songs and dance differ from one culture to the other. Batswana
groups have different dancing styles and appreciate their songs and dances.
101. Food - People in Botswana differ in the kind of food they eat. For example, the
Kalanga are known for eating delele vegetable, Batawana are associated with water lilies
(tswii) and Bakgatla with sour porridge (tiing). Porridge is a stable food for Batswana.
102. Dress- dresses traditionally differed from culture to culture. For example
Baherero9s kind of dress identifies them because it is unique to them. The Zulus and
Venda of South Africa have their unique dress that identifies them as individuals and as
members of their nations.
103. Buildings / shelter – the way Batswana build their huts differs from one ethnic
group to another.
104. Religious beliefs – Some people believe in gods while others believe in God.
Some religious attires also serve as identity for individuals.
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The Economic Potential of Culture
Culture can be used to create wealth by individuals and government in a number of ways.
For example;
105. Sale of cultural product: Members of different cultural groups can produce
cultural goods such as handcrafts and paintings and sell them in order to make money.
They can also sell Music and dance music groups record and produce music albums for
sale and groups are sometimes invited to special events to perform and they are paid for
it.
Cultural tourism: Culture promotes tourism and creates employment opportunities for
Batswana.
106. Source of employment: People work in cultural centres and cultural sites like
Matsieng foot print centre in Kgatleng and earn income.
107. Many Cultures can stimulate the development of new businesses and industries
which would help diversify the economy e.g. selling bogobe& staging cultural festivals &
creative businesses.
Harmful Cultural practices to the environment
108. Overstocking – Some farmers still leave the land barren and unproductive by
overgrazing it.
109. There is still over harvesting of medical plants, this in the long run will make such
plants extinct.
110. Fir wood is over collected and sometimes live trees are cut from the environment
dried and made into firewood for sale.
111. Grass Cutting – Communities still thatch their huts with grass, because the grass
is over cut the soil becomes loose and is washed away by water.
112. Monoculture – Growing of the same crop on the same piece of land removes
many nutrients from the soil and causes future harvests to be very low.
Protective Cultural Practices on the environment
113. Controlled hunting of wild animals - the wildlife department has created hunting
seasons which helps avoid hunting and killing animals during their breeding seasons.
114. Taboos(meila) are used to protect the environment from abuse and over usages
e.g. felling of a morula tree is forbidden as doing so leads to stormy weather during rainy
seasons.
115. Controlled gathering of wild foods – Only ripe fruits should be collect.
116. Careful allocation of grazing areas – The land board is the one tasked with giving
people grazing areas, people don9t graze livestock as they want.
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117. Every year Batswana are given trees free of charge as a way of encouraging them
to replace the cut ones.
The importance of Culture
118. Culture gives communities identities of their own.

119. Culture brings people of a community together e.g. the kind of clothing people
wear, the food they eat and the rituals they perform bind people together.
120. Cultural values for every society form the founding principles of one9s life.
121. Culture influence one9s way of living and directly impacts on social life.
122. Culture is a source of tourist attraction, through it people9s standard of living can
improve.
SETTLEMENTS IN BOTSWANA
Settlements are places where people live.
Factors that influence settlements in Botswana
123. Relief or physical appearance of land – People choose to settle on flat land and
gently sloping land as it is easy to buildings.
124. Availability of water - Water is needed for human consumption and for economic
activities like flour milling and meat processing.
125. Insect and disease free areas – People want to settle in areas that have no diseases
and pests.
126. Availability of Fertile soils – Fertile soils encourage settlement as they enable
people to practice different types of farming.
127. Defence – People choose locations where they can be defended easily e.g. around
hills.
128. Availability of minerals – Areas where minerals have been discovered attract
settlements e.g. Orapa and Jwaneng.
129.
Difference between Rural and Urban Settlements
Rural Settlements Urban Settlements

Most of the land is used for growing crops and Most of the land is used for building industries
grazing and shopping centers.
There are few or no tarred roads & traffic Heavy traffic, tarred and improved roads.
A lot of traditional houses Tall buildings
No or few recreational facilities More recreational facilities
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Economic activities are mainly farming with People survive by working in the industries,
people keeping livestock and growing crops. government institutions, banks and other
People work as herdsmen or farm workers. formal places and as home workers.
Smaller population as people migrate to towns Highly populated.
Opportunities and Challenges of Urban life
Challenges Opportunities
High crime rates. Because of high rate of Better education and health facilities. There are
unemployment, high standard of living people a lot of schools and colleges in towns in which
resort to criminal activities to try to meet their people can further their education
desires.
Increased traffic congestion which causes Fast and efficient transport. This makes
delays and increases the rate of accidents. travelling and transportation of goods and
services fast.
High cost of living e.g. Living in an urban More improved recreational and sporting
settlement is expensive. Food, clothing, activities. This gives urban dwellers the
transport, and all other services are expensive. opportunity to develop their talents
- Accommodation is also very expensive. This
makes life to be generally expensive in towns.
Increased pollution because large population More business opportunities and markets.
generates a lot of waste that end up polluting Because of good infrastructure and availability
the environment. of utilities such as water, electricity and
telecommunication services, it is easy to set up
a business. A large urban population also
creates market opportunities. More people are
available to buy goods.
Lack of accommodation leads to development Better housing facilities with utilities.
of squatter settlements. People put up shelters
on the land not allocated to them.
Opportunities and Challenges of Rural life
Opportunities Challenges
Availability of agriculture land Low production yields as the young migrate to
urban areas leaving only old people.
Opportunity to live in a clean & healthier Lack of business opportunities and markets.
environment. Rural areas have fewer people Lack of developments such as roads, electricity
and less waste is generated. There are no and other services makes rural areas less
industries that release fumes and very few attractive to investors. Small population also
vehicles so the environment is generally clean. means there are fewer people who can buy the
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goods. So, business opportunities are not there.

Cheaper accommodation: Houses in rural areas Slow infrastructure
are cheap to rent because there are very few
people to rent to.
Production of arts & crafts for sale Lack of social entertainment centers.
It is easy to secure residential plots Unemployment and low paying jobs.
The link between rural and urban settlements
130. Cities and towns provide services to nearby smaller rural settlements e.g.
Gaborone provides services to Oodi, Tlokweng, Gabane.
131. People from rural areas go to towns for employment, banking and shopping.
132. Livestock farmers sell their livestock to abattoirs in towns.
133. Livestock farmers buy feeds in towns.
134. Relatives in towns and those in villages visit each other.
Factors that have led to an increase in Urbanisation in Botswana
Urbanisation is the rapid and massive growth of towns and cities due to migration of people
in large numbers from rural to urban areas as well as development of industries and services.
135. The unpredictable nature of rainfall – this makes agriculture difficult for people to
depend on so moving to towns to seek economic opportunities is the only solution.
136. Increased service activities – Towns have entertainment, banking and catering
that are better than those in rural areas so these attract people.
137. Lack of employment opportunities and low wages in rural areas – Young people
go to urban areas to seek for employment.
138. The desire for new or modern lifestyle. Young people prefer towns and cities
because of their desire to lead a modern lifestyle.
139. Transport improvements – Better communication lines encourage the growth of
towns and cities. People move in large numbers to towns so that they can communicate
and move easily.
140. Poor medical facilities in rural areas – People move to towns because hospitals
there have specialists doctors in different human ailments. Rural areas sometimes run out
of medicine.
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MFECANE WARS
Introduction
Mfecane describes a period of wide spreading wars, a period of turbulence, danger and
disturbance in southern Africa between 1820 and 1850. Mfecane began among the northern
Nguni and spread to other parts of southern Africa. The main chiefdoms among the northern
Nguni were the Ndwandwe of Zwide, the Mthethwa of Dingiswayo and the Ngwane of
Sobhuza.
Wars were started by the Ndwandwe and the Ngwane fighting each other, the Ngwane lost so
the Ndwandwe then attacked the Mthethwa and killed Dingiswayo. This enabled Shaka to be
the leader of the Mthethwa. Shaka then began to build the Zulu by re-organizing them and
his army. The Ndwandwe attacked the Zulu of Shaka and lost.
Causes of Mfecane
a) The need for power/ The desire to create large kingdoms - Nguni groups gained power by
capturing cattle and grazing lands that of smaller groups. In order for them to build strong
armies, they captured young men from other groups.
b) Population growth & the need for farm land – Increase in population and livestock led to
demand for more land. Because they had no way to expand to, stronger groups attacked
weaker ones and took their land.
c) The desire to control trade – Strong Nguni groups wanted to take over trade by
controlling hunting areas so they raided and chased other groups from their lands in order
to hunt elephants for ivory without interference.
d) Drought & famine – Because of the drought from 1790 – 1802, there was a decline in
pastures for grazing, this led to overgrazing and soil erosion. People became frustrated
and land grabbing became the only way to get land. So smaller groups were raided for
their little wealth and land.
e) The need to control cattle – Major groups raided smaller ones and took their livestock.
Livestock was important for prestigious reasons ( wealth was measured by how many
cattle a person had), milk and for paying bride – price.
The basis for the rise of the Zulu nation under Shaka (what factors led to the growth of the
Zulu kingdom ? or what did Shaka do to make the Zulu chiefdom the biggest & most
powerful state)
Shaka used the following factors :
a) Military superiority
- He created a strong standing & permanent army. His soldiers were always ready to
fight. When they were not fighting, soldiers spent time training.
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- The army was made up of different regiments and each regiment had a commander
appointed by Shaka.
- He banished the long stabbing spear as he said it left soldiers unarmed after throwing
it and introduced a short stabbing spear.
- He banished a short shield and introduced a big shield which covered the soldier9s
whole body
- He used spies who told him about the strength & weaknesses of the enemy.
- His soldiers had to obey orders without question, any soldier who showed fear or lost
a spear during a battle was killed.
- His soldiers were trained without shoes because he believed that shoes slowed them
down.
- Regular raiding campaigns
- Introduction of the Cow Horn Formation
This method of fighting was shaped like the horns of a cow. Soldiers were arranged in
three main sections:
141. the chest which consisted of regiments that faced the enemy & attacked from the
front.
142. The horns who surrounded the enemy on both sides making it difficult for the
enemy to escape.
143. The lions who were reserves & were used when more or fresh soldiers were
needed.
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or
-
b) Centralization of power & authority
- He total or absolute control over all military, political, economic & social matters.
- Shaka made all the decisions & did not consult anyone.
- His forced his people to pay tribute in the form of cattle.
- Men & women were not allowed to marry before the age of 40.
c)
d) The policy of assimilation
- Shaka captured people from different kingdoms and forced them to join his kingdom.
- Young men were absorbed into his army where they received thorough training.
- Captured women were involved in the production of food. Some became Zulu wives.
- All the people were forced to speak Zulu.
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THE SPREAD OF MFECANE IN SOUTHERN AFRICA
Mfecane spread because refugees from attacks in turn attacked other chiefdoms they came across
as they fled. This created a cycle of people being attacked fleeing attacking
others, spreading conflicts from Nguniland as far as lake Tanganyika in Tanzania.
Batswana were drawn into the Mfecane wars by the Bakololo and the Ndebele as the fighting
spread. Bakololo were formed by Baphuting under Ratsebe, Bahlakoana under Nkgaraganyane
and Bafokeng ruled by Mangwane. These three groups combined during mfecane and fled the
Boers and other Nguni attacks from their lands and travelled through Botswana raiding all
groups they met.
They started by attacking Bakwena at Molepolole and took their cattle. Bakwena fled and those
that remained paid tribute to Bakololo.
He then attacked Bangwaketse of Makaba II at Kgwakgwe hills. Makaba was killed during this
war and Sebetwane was seriously injured.Bangwaketse asked for help from the Griqua and
Bakololo ran away.
They then attacked Bangwato of Kgari taking their cattle, crops and burning their structures.
Bangwato fled to the north where they attacked Bakalanga.
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Bakololo proceeded westwards where they attacked Batawana of Moremi I who owned long
horned cattle. Later they attacked the Khoesan and took their cattle. The Bakololo were defeated
by the Ovambandero of Namibia and many of their cattle died because of hunger. They crossed
into Zambia and attacked the Batonga. They finally settled at Lenyati.
The Ndebele of Mzilikazi
Mzilikazi broke away from the Zulu after failing to surrender all cattle that he had captured from
Basotho. He and his people fled north across the Drakensburg and settled in the Transvaal area
where they built a town called Mosega. Here they found and attacked the Phuting, Bapedi,
Bataung and the Griquas. He captured their cattle and absorbed women and children.
The Ndebele were forced out of Transvaal by the Boers. They then raided the Bakwena after
which they attacked the Bakgatla bag a Kgafela who were led by Pilane. Bakgatla surrendered
their cattle and agreed to pay tribute without fighting.
The Ndebele then raided the Bangwaketse and took their cattle. Bangwaketse killed Ndebele9s
tribute collectors and ran away to Dutlwe in Kgalagadi.Bangwato of Sekgoma avoided the
Ndebele9s attacks by keeping and looking after cattle that belonged to the Ndebele. Sekgoma
later attacked the Ndebele unaware and took their cattle and hid at Makgadikgadi Pans.
The Ndebele then raided the Bakalanga. Later the two groups allowed inter – marriages. The
Ndebele then crossed into Zimbabwe and settled at Bulawayo.
Mfecane wars also spread into Swaziland, Lesotho, Tanzania and Mozambique
Effects OfMfecane in Southern Africa
144. Reduction in food production – Groups could not be in one place during wars to
grow crops as they ran away.
145. Women and Children were captured –those captured were made to attend the
needs and served as servants to the leaders of the enemies.
146. Loss of land – Weaker groups were forced out of their lands and their property
was taken away.
147. Loss of culture and traditions – Unrests in the region made it impossible to form
mephato, practice letsema and mafisa.
148. People were displaced – People left their original locations to find security e.g. in
hills and mountains.
149. Population decrease – People were killed in the wars while others died because of
hunger.
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Interaction between Traders / Hunters and Batswana
Before the arrival of Europeans Batswana used to trade among themselves e.g. Bakwena with
Bakgatla or Bangwato with Bakalanga. This was known as local trade. They exchanged goods
for other good which is called Barter trade.
The Activities of the Early European traders/Hunters among Batswana:
Their activities were mainly trading goods with Batswana. They sold European goods such as
clothes and implements including guns. They set up trading stations in several major villages in
Botswana such as Molepolole, Shoshong, Palapye and Kanye. They were interested mainly in
animal trophies and ivory which they got from Batswana.
They were also hunters. They hunted game for trophies and for Ivory.
Effects of interaction between traders / hunters with Batswana
 Depletion of wildlife – Traders needed large quantities of animal trophies to take to

their industries in Europe. They also used guns to hunt and these allowed them to kill
animals in large numbers. This led to a decrease in the number of wildlife.
 Loss of power by dikgosi – As the numbers of traders increased chiefs found it
difficult to control trade. Some individuals became richer and started challenging the
authority of Dikgosi.
 Introduction of money – Traders introduced money that people used to buy goods.
Money made trade easier and allowed even those who did not have goods to
exchange to acquire goods.
However, introduction of money led to migrant labour problem. Many Batswana
men left to go and work in the Southern African mines for money. Some of these
men went for ever. At the same time, absence of young men in the communities
because of migration to the mines led to low productivity in Agriculture.
 Acquisition of guns – Batswana bought guns that they used to protect themselves.
But the guns were also used for hunting. Use of guns made people kill any animals
for commercial purposes and this led to a decline in the number of wildlife.
 Loss of skills: Batswana now preferred European goods over their own goods this
meant that Batswana no longer made their own products and no longer mined and
smelted iron to produced tools. This led to loss of skills.
 Development of trading centres – Villages like Shoshong & Molepolole were used by
traders to store their goods and people came to these areas to trade. This helped
develop these villages. However, this meant more acquisition of European goods, loss
of traditional culture and skills and Batswana became westernized.
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The Early Missionaries
Missionaries started arriving in Botswana around 1800. They came from the Paris Mission,
American Board, London Missionary Society (LMS), Lutheran Missionary Society, Roman
Catholic Church and The Dutch Reformed Church. Missionaries who interacted with Batswana
include, among others; William Edwards, Robert Moffat, David Livingstone of the London
Missionary Society (LMS), Heinrich Schulenberg and Schroeder of the German Lutheran
Missionaries, Dr Andrew Murray and Reverend P. Brink of the Dutch Reformed Church.
Activities of Early European Missionaries among Batswana
a) The London Missionary Society(Robert Moffat)
The main activity of the European missionaries among Batswana was to preach the gospel and
convert Batswana to Christianity. For example one of the LMS missionaries Robert Moffat
arrived in Africa in 1817 and started a mission station at Kudumane in 1821. He trained African
missionaries at Kudumane and also managed to convert Batswana to Christianity. They
discouraged Batswana to practice their traditional customs such as bogwera and bojale but to
follow the Christian religion.
European missionaries also helped to protect Batswana against their enemies. For instance, Dr.
David Livingstone helped Sechele to acquire guns which used to defend his people against the
Boers at the battle of Dimawe in 1852. They also assisted Batswana Dikgosi during the signing
of concessions and for translation purposes.
Dr. David Livingston came to Africa around 1845 and settled at Kolobeng. He was the first
medical doctor among Bakwena and he managed to convert Kgosi Sechele I of Bakwena to
Christianity. Other chiefs who got converted by Missionaries were Kgosi Linchwe I, Kgosi
Sekgoma I, Kgosi Khama and Kgamane of Bangwato. The Missionaries also introduced modern
medicine among Batswana and later on built hospitals such as Deborah Retief Memorial (DRM)
in Mochudi, Ba-malete Lutheran Hospital in Ramotswa
European Missionaries introduced modern education among Batswana and taught them how to
read and write. They later on built schools such as St Joseph9s College, Moeding College, Moeng
college abd Mater-Spei college.
Years later another missionary was sent to Botswana & he converted9s sons, Khama&Kgamane
into Christianity. He later started a mission station among Balete at Mmankgodi.
The Dutch Reformed Church

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Their first missionary to live among Botswana was Dr Andrew Murray who lived among
Bakgatla – ba – Kgafela in Transvaal. Later they sent Reverend P. Brink to Mochudi to start a
mission station. A new church was built & completed in 1890. KgosiLinchwe I was baptized
Effects of interaction between early missionaries and Batswana
 Missionaries taught Batswana how to read and write.

 Missionaries developed Setswana into a written language that people communicated
with.
 Missionaries introduced European medicine and built hospitals like Deborah Retief
and Bamalete Lutheran hospital.
 They tried to stop Batswana cultures such as bogadi and their belief in ancestral
spirits.
 They protected Batswana during wars e.g. they obtained guns from Europeans and
gave to Batswana to use them during fights.
 They encouraged Batswana to wear European style clothes especially on Sundays at
church.
 Taught Batswana new skills like needlework & home crafts.
 Acted as advisors to dikgosi e.g. Reverend Willoughby accompanied the 3 chiefs to
English to complain about the transfer to the British South Africa Company.
The Reasons / Causes of the Scramble for Africa
 New markets – Factories in Europe were producing larger quantities of goods than
they used to before. They therefore needed people who could buy their goods.
 Raw materials – They wanted raw materials such as cotton, diamonds &goldthat were
not available in Europe.
 Strategic reasons – They wanted to build the road to the north and to acquire cheap
labour. Missionaries thought that if their governments colonized areas they had
mission stations at it would be easier to spread Christianity.
 Power and wealth (Prestige) – Owning colonies became a source of political power
& national pride so the number of colonies a country had the more powerful and
richer others thought of it.
 Christianity – Many missionaries thought that scrambling for Africa would make
missionaries from other countries to compete with them in converting Batswana to
Christianity.
Results of the Scramble for Africa
 The Berlin Conference – Because of the scramble countries met in Berlin to agree on
rules for claiming colonies.
 The partition of Africa – Africa was divided into boundaries that exist today.
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 Loss of land – Africans9 land was taken from them and some people found
themselves occupying infertile lands.
 Exploitation – Africans9 minerals were taken and used for developing European
countries.
 Slavery – Africans were taken to provide cheap labour in Europe.
The terms of the Berlin Conference of 1884
The competition to claim land in Africa became so strong so much that in 1884 Otto Van
Bismarck called a meeting of European countries. This was an attempt to reach some kind of
peaceful international agreement to the dividing up and sharing of Africa. No African leaders or
representative was invited to the conference.
It was agreed :
 That the Congo River and Niger river basins would be neutral and open to trade for
all the European countries.
 People from Europe would be allowed to travel freely on the Congo & Niger rivers.
 Countries should inform each other after claiming a new African country.
 Laws abolishing slave trade must be stopped this should be done by arresting &
punishing people involved in buying & selling slaves.
 Any European claim to any part of Africa would only be recognized by other
European governments if it was effectively occupied.e.g. law & order should be
maintained, a national flag should be put up and a government must be set up.
Relations between Boers & Batswana
Boer Threats To The Lands Of Batswana
- After defeating the Ndebele, Boers claimed that the land that had been controlled by
Mzilikazi now belonged to them. Batswana rejected these claims.
- Boers wanted to rule Batswana but Batswana did not want this.
- Boers demanded that Batswana must work for them for free but Batswana refused.
- Boers did not want Batswana to own guns as it would be difficult to force Batswana
to accept Boer rule so they demanded that Batswana should surrender their guns. This
was rejected by Batswana.
- Boers arrested people passing through the Transvall to trade with Batswana.
- Having failed to force Batswana to accept their demands, the Boers decided to use
force against Batswana. Since they were afraid that the British would assist Batswana
the Boers signed an agreement (treaty) with the British which is called the Sand river
Convention.
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Terms of the Sand River Convention
It was agreed that :

 Boers would rule the Transvaal the way they wanted.
 Britain would control the sale of guns to the Africans
 Britain would not protect Africans against the Boers
The Battle of Dimawe and Kolobeng in 1852
Boers led by their commander Pieter Scholz attacked the Bangwaketse and Bakgatle-ba-ga-
Mmanaana.Bakgatla fled and sought protection of KgosiSechele of Bakwena at Dimawe. Boers
followed them and demanded that Sechele should hand over the Bakgatla chief (KgosiMosielele)
to them. Sechele refused. Boers demanded that Sechele should surrender his guns, supply free
labour& accept Boer rule. Sechele refused. The Boers fought the Bakwena of Sechele. Bakwena
defeated them. Boer soldiers went to Kolobeng where they robbed & burned down David
Livingstone9s house. The Boers followed Bangwaketse who had run away, this time the Boers
lost. Boer soldiers refused to fight and returned home.
The Results of the Battle of Dimawe.
 Batswana no longer trusted the Boers.

 Batswana managed to defend their independence
 Batswana groups combined and helped each other to fight against the Boers.
 Many people lost their lives.
 Women and children were captured.
 Batswana lost large herds of their cattle.
 Batswana were displaced.
 Chiefs lost their powers.
British declaration of a Protectorate over Bechuanaland
In 1885 the British announced that the area between Molopo river & tropic of Capricorn
a British protectorate & called it The Bechuanaland Protectorate.
The resident Commissioner Charles Warren was sent to inform Batswana about this.
KgosiKhama III accepted protection but KgosiSechele& other Batswana chiefs initially
did not accept protection as they said there was no need for protection since the Boers
were no longer fighting them. They later accepted protection
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Factors that Led to the British DeclarationOf A Protectorate Over Bechuanaland From
1885 To 1966
 The British wanted to protect the road to the north for trade as the British missionaries
and traders used it.
 They were afraid of competition from Europeans and the Boers that had increased.
 The Germans who had colonized Namibia were threatening to colonize Bechuanaland.
 Pressure from missionaries like John Mackenzie who felt that by protecting
Bechuanaland the British government would be able to protect missionaries from Boers
who were living in the country.
The Period of Colonial Rule
Attempts To TransferBechuanaland To British South Africa Company
Cecil John Rhodes wanted Bechuanaland to be transferred to his company because :
 He wanted to join Bechuanaland to South Africa so that he had more land to give to the
British people for growing crops and rearing of livestock.
 He wanted to use Bechuanaland as a base in order to attack the Boers at Transvaal.
 He wanted to build the railway line from Cape to Cairo (the road to the north).
 Wanted to take over control of gold mining at Tati.
The British government agreed to the transfer because they believed that Bechuanaland was a
poor country. Most of the land was not suitable for arable farming. Britain did not want to
spend money running, protecting and developing a poor country.
- This attempt to transfer Bechuanaland to the BSACo failed because the laws in
Britain did not give Britain the right to do so.
- Batswana chiefs had already given the rights to look after minerals & farm land to
other companies.
Reactions To The Transfer Of Bechuanaland To British South Africa Company
Batswana chiefs resisted the idea of transferring Bechuanaland to the company. Kgama III,
Sebele, Linchwe and Bathoen II protested against the transfer by sending a petition to Joseph
Chamberlain ( British Commissioner)
Khama, Bathoen and Sebele travelled to England and made protests. They organized anti-
alcohol groups, anti – slavery groups to intensify protests against the proposed hand over of
the Protectorate. Many people supported them in England & put pressure on the British
government not to transfer Bechuanaland to the BSACo.
Reasons why Batswana did not want to be transferred
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 The British had not consulted them when they agreed to the transfer
 They knew that the BSACo had taken the land of the Ndebele & the Shona so they did
not want the same thing to happen to them.
 The company was well known for mistreating Africans so they didn9t want to be ill
treated.
 They thought that the company would make Batswana to drink alcohol.
Attempts To Transfer Bechuanaland To The Union Of South Africa
Between 1899 & 1902, the British and the Boers fought a war which the British won. The
British then wanted to create a new state called the Union of South Africa which would be
made up of the Orange Free State, Transvaal, Natal, the Cape colony, the protectorate &
southern Rhodesia.
Britain wanted to transfer the protectorate because it was too costly to run so in 1908 Britain
started to prepare for the transfer.
Reactions To The Transfer Of Bechuanaland To The Union Of South Africa
 The South African government was happy with the transfer as it meant cheap labour for
them and they would take land from the blacks. .
 Batswana chiefs resisted and wrote petitions to remain outside the union. In 1909
Sebele&Bathoen went to London to tell the British government that Batswana were
against the incorporation.
Reactions of the Boers to the Dikgosi9s protests
 The Boers imposed economic sanctions on the Protectorate. e.g. Batswana were no
longer allowed to sell cattle that were below a certain weight.
 They threatened to stop migrant labour and to reduce imports from Bechuanaland .
Proclamations of 1934
Proclamations were laws made by the British administration that were used to govern Merafe in
Bechuanaland.
Reasons for the British To Form Proclamations
 They felt that Dikgosi were dictators.

 They wanted to strengthen the administration as they felt that the chiefs were unable to
develop Bechuanaland.
 They wanted to reduce the powers of the chiefs
 Indirect rule – the British wanted to rule Africans through their local leaders (dikgosi).
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Provisions OfThe Native Administration Proclamation of 1934
 The British government had to approve anyone who was to be a kgosi.

 They could suspend, expel or remove anyone from the position of chieftainship.
 The proclamation created Tribal Councils which ruled the people. Chiefs had to rule
with the approval of such a council.
 The chief needed to get permission from the Resident Commissioner in order for him to
collect tax.
Effects of the Native Administration proclamation
 Tribal councils did not exist in the traditional society. Traditionally the chief consulted
his advisors.
 It undermined Batswana as traditionally at kgotla meetings every male adult had the right
to express their opinion.
 It reduced the powers of the chiefs. Traditionally a kgosi was an independent ruler who
made all the decisions.
 The British had the power to expel or suspend a chief, this was against Setswana culture
as among Batswana chieftainship is hereditary.
Purposes OfThe Native Tribunal Proclamation of 1934
 To reform the way justice was carried out by the dikgosi.
Provisions OfThe Native Tribunal Proclamation
 Dikgosi no longer were chief judges, they were not allowed to try serious cases like
murder and rape.
 It created tribunals (law courts) that tried cases & settled disputes. Only members of the
tribunal were allowed to participate in the discussions at the kgotla.
Effects of the Of The Native Tribunal Proclamation
 The tribunal courts denied merafe their democratic rights to participate in trial of cases.
 Chiefs lost their powers as they were under the resident commissioner. Traditionally a
chief tried & settled all the cases.
Reactions of the Chiefs to the 1934 Proclamations
 Chiefs refused to be treated as subordinates to the whites in their own territories.

 Chiefs opposed the British government9s idea to fire, suspend and appoint chiefs as chiefs
were born and not appointed.
 Chiefs refused to practice proclamations at their lands.
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Chiefs opposed the proclamations & they were abandoned & the new ones were drafted that
stated that:
 Morafe would be consulted before their chief was appointed or removed by the High
commissioner.
 Chiefs would no longer consult the Tribal council but will consult at the kgotla.
The purpose, formation and composition of Advisory Councils
African Advisory Council
Formation Composition Purpose

1919 The Resident Commissioner, two  Africans used it to advice resident
representatives from each morafe commissioner on matters that
and dikgosi affected them e.g. allocation of
funds.
 To enable the resident
commissioner to get views on what
people thought about the running of
the government.
 To debate motions e.g. absence of
education and racial discrimination.
 For the resident Commissioner to
make announcements & give an
annual report about developments
in the protectorate.
European Advisory Council

1920 Resident Commissioner  It was formed to allow white settlers to
&representatives of white express their views on matters that affected
settlers them.
 To enable white settlers to have a say in the
administration of Bechuanaland. To
influence the transfer of the protectorate to
the Union of South Africa
Joint Advisory Council

1951 Resident Commissioner,  Give members a platform to debate issues that
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an equal number of concerned both Africans & Whites.

representatives from  To create a forum for Batswana to demand
Africans and Europeans running the affairs of the Protectorate.
 Allow whites and blacks to work together
The Legislative Council

1960 It was made up of 10  It was formed in order to make laws for the
Africans, 10 Europeans, whole country.
Protectorate Administration  Africans used it to demand for
officials and 1 Asian independence and to oppose plans to make
Bechuanaland part of South Africa.
 It criticized the administration for failure to
develop the Protectorate and suggested
improvements.
 Obtained opinions from Batswana like
where the capital city should be located.
Nationalism and the Road to Independence
Nationalism is the desire to achieve political independence by a country under foreign rule or by
a country ruled by people with a separate identity and culture.
Nationalism developed in Bechuanaland before the 1960s when tribal leaders showed signs of
nationalist feelings. e.g. dikgosi pressurized the colonial rule for the establishment of LEGCO.
Nationalism came about because Batswana were not happy with the way they were ruled by the
British, they felt that the British government was racist, Batswana were not promoted and the
country was not developed.
They felt that Bechuanaland had to be developed towards political and economic self –
sufficiency. Batswana who were working outside the country had learnt new ideas and new
forms of organizations in South Africa. When they arrived in Botswana they formed
organizations such as the sons of Bechuanaland and Bechuanaland Cultural Club.
Sporting clubs were also formed throughout the country and political issues were discussed. The
introduction of the Legislative council enabled Batswana to participate in the way they were
governed. Batswana saw this as a step to their independence. The Batswana who were voted into
the council were well educated men, connected to royal families and economically secure.
Some began to organize political movements e.g.
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Bechuanaland Federal Party
Was formed by L.D. Raditladi in 1959. This was the first political party in Botswana. It was
intended to unite Batswana. Raditladi wanted bogosi to be reformed. He opposed the
composition of the Legislative council, he challenged that members should be elected by the
people and that the numbers of Batswana should be increased. He wanted open elections by all
adult Batswana.
Bechuanaland People9s Party
Kgalemang Motsete, Phillip Matante & Motsamai Mpho formed the Bechuanaland People9s
Party Motsete wrote Botswana9s national anthem.
 They were against bogosi as they believed that leaders must be elected into power.
 They wanted Botswana to be independent.
 They opposed racism.
Seretse Khama & Ketumile Masire formed the Bechuanaland Democratic Party.
 They wanted independence for Botswana.

 They supported multi - racialism.
 They believed that dikgosi should play a part in acquiring independence for Botswana.
 They supported democracy.
There was competition among the political movements and a legislative assembly elected by
adults who had the right to vote in public elections was proposed and the principle of
independence was accepted by all parties and following the negotiations the parties began to
compete with each other for electoral support.
The BDP was supported by the Europeans and Asian minorities. Out of the 31 constituencies that
the parties competed for in 1965, the BDP won 28 while the BPP won only 3.
After the 1965 elections in an effort to unite opposition against the BDP, the BNF was formed.
The party was formed by Kenneth Koma. He believed that government should control the
economy. His party became the first opposition party in parliament.
The Effects of Nationalism in Botswana
 It led to the country9s independence.

 It united Batswana.
 It put to an end to plans to transfer Bechuanaland to the Union of South Africa.
 It led to emigration by some Europeans to neighbouring countries.
 It led the country to have a multiracial society.
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The rise of nationalism in Botswana was mild and did not bring popular mobilization for rapid
independence like in other African countries like South Africa and Zimbabwe. Thus the road to
independence was a smooth one as there were no serious conflicts leading to bloodshed. Britain
negotiated the transition to independence with a group of politicians who were supported in the
process by the majority of the population and this made the process indisputable and peaceful.
Preparations to give Bechuanaland independence began with a conference in Lobatse to discuss

the terms on which Bechaunaland would be given self – government.
Terms of the Lobatse Conference
It was agreed that:
 Separate representations for blacks, whites & Asians will be stopped.

 A new government will be formed consisting of a Cabinet, National Assembly & House
of Chiefs.
 The Cabinet would consist of a Prime Minister & 5 ministers.
 All adults will be allowed to vote.
 Britain will continue to be in charge of foreign relations
 Bechaunaland would become independent.
Citizenship in Botswana
Relationship between rights and responsibilities in a democratic society
Rights are natural things which all human beings are entitled to enjoy. Botswana has civil rights
which are for citizens in the country.
Civil rights are things that Botswana government entitles to the citizens to enjoy. They belong to
all citizens and are written in the constitution of a country and are protected by the government.
Civil rights and responsibilities help keep law and order and peace among people within a
country.
Civil rights & responsibilities may not be the same in different countries because societies have
different ideas of what rights & responsibilities citizens should have.
Rights and responsibilities begin with individuals at family levels in homes where parents
provide the basic needs such as shelter, clothes, food, education and entertainment to their
children. In return children are expected to take responsibilities by obeying parents.
Rights of citizens and responsibilities influence the public to take actions independently
following their natural response to situations without being told. e.g. citizens uphold the
constitution of the country by defending the country against its enemies and by contributing
towards economic, social and political developments.
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Both rights and responsibilities proved codes of conducts for citizens. e.g. they state what society
can or cannot do. Citizens are responsible to jointly engage in community development projects.
The society shows their love for their country by celebrating different national cultures,
Independence Day, displaying national flags etc.
The right to belong to one9s country. Elders take the responsibility to revive the teachings of
traditional behaviours which were in the past taught through taboos and poems.
Cultural activities give Batswana freedom of expression and identity. Both civil rights and
responsibilities taken by the society display human behavior (Botho) to uphold the right for
people to be protected from any form of inhuman treatment.
Rights and Responsibilities of Citizens
 Right to have food - People should not live without food no matter how poor they are.
The Government has various feeding schemes for the needy.
 Right to shelter – Citizens are entitled to have land for residence in any place within the
country.
 Right to life.
 Protection from slavery & forced labour.
 Right to communication – No citizen must be denied access to communication network.
The government provides services to the society so that they can make choices of what
form of communication to use.
Responsibility
 Citizens have a responsibility to register with Social workers in their locations so that
they receive food parcels and financial assistance from government.
 Citizens have the responsibility to uphold the Constitution of Botswana.
 Citizens have the responsibility to vote during general elections.
 Citizens have the responsibility to conserve water and pay their bills.
 The society has the responsibility to pay for their services such as licenses and to avoid
accidents.
The right and responsibilities of people living with HIV and AIDs
People living with HIV / AIDs include those who are infected with the virus and those who have
the disease. It includes people who care takers and are supporters of the infected.
Their rights are :
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 The right to privacy and confidentiality - People living with HIV / AIDs are not to be
forced to disclose their status to any person unless if they choose to.
 The right to health care facilities, services and treatment – Patients have the right to be
made aware of the side effects accompanying treatment procedures.
 Right to life - they must accept conditions of their health and think positively about their
status so that they realize that they are worth living.
 Right to employment - they have the right to secure employment without being given
conditions to test their status. Employers have no legal right to request for a person9s HIV
status.
 Right to education – Everyone who has a virus is entitled to receive formal education.
Their responsibilities are :
 To disclose their status to their families so that care takers do not fall in the risk of being
infected. This helps care takers cope with the illness. Medical care officers and care
takers at homes are responsible for keeping the status of HIV / AIDs patients
confidential.
 Have the responsibility to access institutions that provide care, treatment, support
services and referrals to care and support programmes.
 They have the responsibility to access treatment and to enrich their souls religiously
through prayers in order to heal emotionally, to accept their conditions and have hope for
life.
 They must look for employment.
 People living with the infection are responsible for reading about prevention, the
techniques and services that are available in their locality.
Consumer Protection in Botswana
Consumers are people who buy products & pay for services offered by businesses for their own
use / they are customers such as individual people, the government and the private sector who
use goods and services produced from various sectors of the economy.
Consumers have the following rights
 The right to freedom of choice – Consumers have the right to choose goods and services
from a variety of products availed by retailers.
 Right to price control – Consumers are entitled to reasonable and fair prices of goods
they need and want. It is illegal for suppliers to over price goods.
 The right to consumer education – Consumers have a right to receive correct information
about products and services they buy so that they make appropriate decision and right
choices. Information should be easy to understand about suitability of products for use
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and how the product should be stored so that goods remain in good quality for longer
periods.
 The right to Influence government policies – the rate at which consumers buy goods and
use them give feedback to government to make laws. e.g. the more demand in maize by
local consumers encourages the government to give financial support to assist the local
farmers to produce more goods.
 The right to fair trading or deals – Customers have a right to be compensated to make up
for loss of goods and to claim money or exchange products that failed to meet guarantee
period or those that are bought at expiry dates.
 The right to healthy products – Consumers have the right to be protected from products
and services that are a health hazard and life threatening.
 The right to equal treatment – All customers should be treated equally without any form
of discrimination.
 The right to protest or boycott – If consumers are not satisfied with goods and services
they may reject them or unite and boycott them.
Ways in Consumer rights can be protected
 Legislation – consumer rights are protected by passing laws that protect the interests of
consumers. e.g. Consumer protection Act No. 21 of 1998 protects the interests of
consumers by disallowing & controlling unfair business practices.
 Establishment of minimum standards – goods & services should meet a certain standard
in relation to quality & performance.
 Educating consumers – consumers must be educated about their rights & how to make
informed choices about goods & services.
 Promoting competition among businesses – this will help motivate businesses to respect
the rights of consumers as they know that if they violate consumer rights they will lose
business.
Rights and Responsibilities of consumers in an environmental context
Consumers have the responsibility to live in harmony with the environment as it provides them
with various products.
 Consumers have the right to live in an environment that is not harmful to their well –
being.
 Consumers have the right to have information about their environment & how best to
protect it.
 The right to be consulted about the developments that will impact their environment
negatively.
Environmental Responsibilities
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 Consumers have the responsibility to control toxic chemicals and gases that negatively
affect the living things. Each person has the responsibility to dispose litter properly.
 Consumers have the responsibility to take care of their health by being conscious of what
they eat. They must adhere to information given about products in order to make better
choice of them. e.g. they have to check expiry dates of goods so as to avoid consuming
products that may cause harm to their health.
 They have duties to raise awareness to the society about environmental issues and
solutions to problems through public talks, television etc.
 The responsibility to understand our environment and how it affects us so that we can
adopt measures that will help protect it.
The description and significance of National Symbols
1. The National flag – signifies independence from the British rule. It symbolizes national
freedom from the British colonizers. It gives Botswana a unique identity as a nation.
The three colours in the flag :
Blue represents the sky and rainwater which is a source of life.
White band represents the white minority people in the country.
The black band refers to the Batswana. The white and black bands also symbolize mixed racial
groups living together in harmony.
2. The National Anthem – Acknowledges that the land of Botswana was inherited from our
fore – fathers as a gift from God. It encourages citizens to be committed and to work
cooperatively together towards the country9s development and citizens to keep peace in
the country. It attaches Batswana to their country.
3. The National Identity card – Omang symbolizes one9s national identity to the country. It
proves one9s identity and nationality to the country. It proves one9s identity to access
bank services, health, immigration and land services.
The other symbol of identification is the Passport. This is the legal travelling document
issued in order for Batswana to travel to foreign countries.
4. The National currency – The Pula is the medium of exchange.

5. Coat of Arms
- The 3 co – wheels represent industries
- The 3 wavy blue lines represent water
- Pula represents rain
- 2 zebras & an elephant tusk represent tourism
- black & white stripes represent racial harmony
- bull head represent cattle farming
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- head of sorghum represents arable farming.
Importance of Botswana Public Holidays
Sir Seretse Khama day
Is celebrated on the 1st of July every year. It signifies the birth of the first president of the
country. It is a day when Batswana reflect on the way their president birth contributed to the
freedom of the country, what he went through in his entire life to give Batswana freedom and
peace. The day is meant to remember him and appreciate that he sacrificed his freedom to
fight discrimination in order to give Batswana peace.
The president Day
The first president of the country Sir Seretse Khama died on the 13th of July 1980 and was
buried on the 17th of July 1980. President day is fixed around the 3rd week of every July in
order to commemorate the president9s death. On this day Batswana reflect on his interest in
the well being of Batswana and his peaceful strategies when dealing with conflict.
Day of Independence
The holiday is celebrated every 30th of September. It symbolizes Botswana9s freedom. It

enables everyone to celebrate the achievement of independence. It also enables people to
reflect on how the country has developed politically, economically and socially since
independence.
TRADE AND INDUSTRY
Trade means the buying and selling of goods and services. An industry is an organized action
of making goods and services for sale.
Local trade is about buying & selling of goods & services within the country e.g. growing
maize in Botswana & selling it to people in Botswana.
International trade is about buying & selling goods to other countries. Countries buy & sell to
each other because no country can produce everything it needs. Some countries are able to
produce goods more cheaper than others.
Demand is when people want to buy goods and have the money to spend.
Supply is when goods and services are produced and sold to people.
Inflation is a continued rise in prices. It is measured by studying the prices of a collection of

different goods and services.
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WHY INFLATION HAPPENS
Inflation occurs when the demand for goods and services is more than the supply of goods
and services.
For example BMC sells its beef to local butcheries at P14 per kilogram. The butcheries then
sell the meat at P16 per kilogram. If more people demand for the beef, the butcheries will
buy more beef from the abattoir to meet the demand. If the abattoir cannot supply the
butcheries with enough beef and the butcheries really want that meat, the butcheries will be
prepared to pay more to the abattoir to get that supply of the meat. So, the price of the beef at
the abattoir will go up.
It can also be said that inflation is the decline in the value of money in relation to the goods
and services it will buy. For example, in January 2006 1kg of sugar cost P7. In January 2007
it cost P16. This means that in 2007, P7 could only buy less than half a kilogram of sugar.
Thus Inflation affects the value of money because as prices rise, the value of money goes
down. When prices of goods keep on rising, this may result in fewer people being able to
afford to buy certain goods & services. A business will end up having fewer customers &
make less profit.
TERMS OF TRADE
This is the relationship between the price at which a country imports goods and the price at
which it exports its goods. It can also be described as the ratio of the price a country receives
for its exports to the price it pays for its imports.
The formula for calculating terms of trade is price received from exports divided by price
paid for imports multiplied by 100.
e.g. exports P500 * 100 = 200 %

imports P 250
 Favourable balance of trade – If the prices for the country9s exports are higher than the
prices for imported goods, the country is spending less money buying for imported goods
from outside and getting more money for what it sells.
imports
Exports
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 Unfavourable balance of trade - If a country spends more money on imports and receives
very little money for its exports, the terms of trade are not good because the country is
spending more that it is earning.
Exports
Imports
 Balance of trade – is the difference in monetary value between a country9s imports & its
exports. If Botswana exports goods with a total value of P200 million and imports the
goods it needs for P800 million, the monetary gap or difference between Botswana9s
exports and imports is called the balance of trade. Given the situation above Botswana9s
balance of trade will be P600 million.
 Trade deficit – is when a country9s value of imports in monetary terms is greater than the
value of exports. For example Botswana imports about 80 % of its goods from South
Africa and exports very little to South Africa.
 Trade surplus – the monetary value of a country9s exports is greater than the monetary
value of a country9s imports.
 Exchange rate – This is the price at which one unit of currency of a country is exchanged
for one unit of currency of another country. It is how much one can get of another
currency using his / her own country9s currency.
If the exchange rate value of the local currency falls, export prices fall and the prices
of imports rises.
HOW EXCHANGE RATES AFFECT THE PRICES OF IMPORTS & EXPORTS
A rise in the value of local currency compared to other currencies leads to:
 Imports becoming cheaper – this is so because less of the local currency is needed to pay
for the same amount of goods.
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 Exports becoming expensive - this is so because other countries will buy fewer goods &
services from that country.
TYPES OF FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS IN BOTSWANA
Financial institutions are companies & organizations that provide financial services.
These are
 Commercial banks. These banks provide services like opening of bank accounts, lending
money to customers, buying & selling foreign currencies. e.g. Barclays, Standard
Chartered, Capital bank, Bank Gaborone.
 Statutory banks – These are banks that were created by an act of parliament to encourage
Batswana to open savings accounts, save money & to provide loans to people who want
to run businesses. Examples are Botswana Savings Bank, National Development bank &
Botswana Building Society.
 Offshore Banks – These offers international banking services. e.g. BancABC, Enterprise
Banking Group & Kingdom Bank.
 Central banks - This is Botswana9s main or biggest bank. It keeps government money
safe, lends money to commercial banks, organizes printing & supply of money.
Supervises the operation of other banks in the country.
NON BANKING FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS
 Metropolitan Botswana
 Botswana Insurance Company
 Botswana Stock Exchange
 Micro – lenders e.g. Letshego & Alexander Forbes
MAJOR MULTI-LATERAL TRADE AGREEMENTS BETWEEN BOTSWANA AND

OTHER COUNTRIES
Multi lateral trade is trade between Botswana and many countries. Botswana9s trade and
industry is dependent on other countries. Goods are exported to as well as from other
countries. The following are examples of countries that Botswana has signed multilateral
agreements with :
a) The Southern African Customs Union (SACU) South Africa, Lesotho, Namibia and
Swaziland.
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Objectives of SACU
- To promote free trade among the member states - this agreement enables Botswana to
enjoy duty free trade.
- To increase investment opportunities among the member states.
- Ensure that members share revenue fairly.
b) The Cotonou Agreement – This agreement was signed at the capital city of
Benin(Cotonou). It allows export of products from Africa, Carribean and Pacific
countries to European markets free of customs duties. Such products are beef, textiles and
clothing.
c) African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) – This agreement ensures that Botswana
enjoys duty free access to USA markets and that goods from Botswana are limited or
restricted to certain amounts.
d) Economic Partnership Agreement – This agreement is intended to phase out tariffs and
any non tariff barriers to any trade done between the European countries and the ACP
countries, standardize and certify trade and labour rights, protect the consumers from
being exploited and protect intellectual property rights.
e) Southern African Development Community (SADC) – it states that there would be no
tariffs on over 85 % of intra – SADC trade. The advantages of the removal of such tariffs
are increased opportunities for new investment, increased integration of regional trade,
removal of regional trade barriers and lowering of external tariffs to increase integration
of the region into the world economy.
ATTEMPTS MADE TO PROMOTE INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT
The Botswana government has developed policies, strategies and acts to guide industrial
development, citizen economic empowerment and economic diversification. These
strategies are as follows :
a) Industrial Development Policy It role is to:
 Encourage highly productive and efficient export industries that mainly use local natural
resources.
 Promote & expand manufacturers of products.
 Support rural entrepreneurs.
b) The Small, Medium and Micro Enterprises Policy (SMME)

Its aims are to:
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 Foster or encourage citizen entrepreneurship.

 Foster citizen empowerment.
 Promote the export of SMME products.
 Achieve economic diversification.
 Encourage the SMME products to be competitive.
ATTEMPTS MADE TO PROMOTE ECONOMIC DIVERSIFICATION IN

BOTSWANA.
Economic diversification involves a country earning income & creating employment

from a variety of economic activities & resources.
Botswana is promoting economic diversification in order to reduce dependence on

mining. This is done by doing the following:
 Promoting the tourism sector.

 Promoting the development of commercial agriculture.
 Adding value to rough gem diamonds by cutting & polishing them and using them to
make jewellery ( diamond beneficiation)
 Attracting Foreign Direct Investment through Botswana Development and Investment
Authority ( BEDIA).
BEDIA
 Encourages investors to open up businesses which aim at exporting goods to other

countries and attracting foreign currency.
 Attracts investors to come and invest in various trades and promote diversification.
 Campaigns for investors to use local available raw materials such as the use of leather to
produce shoes
ATTEMPTS MADE TO PROMOTE CITIZEN ECONOMIC

EMPOWERMENT IN BOTSWANA
Citizen economic empowerment is the idea that the government should have policies
& programmes that enable Batswana to meaningfully participate in & benefit from
every aspect of the country9s economy.
This is done through :
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 Local enterprises Authority (LEA) - Batswana are trained, supported and mentored on
how to run businesses.
 Citizen Entrepreneurial Development Agency (CEDA) – The government encourages
business competition among local businesses & provide low interest loans to individuals
who are interested in starting businesses.
 Localisation Policy – the government replaces expatriate workers with Batswana to
enable citizens to assume greater responsibility in the development & management of the
country.
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION
These are the key ways through which various economic, environmental and health sectors in
Botswana get linked to each other. The Ministry of Works and Transport is responsible for the
provision of primary and secondary roads while the Ministry of Local Government is responsible
for the provision of access to tertiary roads. The Ministry of Communication Science and
Technology is responsible for the Communications.
IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION IN BOTSWANA
 Transport links different sectors of the economy. It enables goods to be transported from
producers to consumers.
 It enables Botswana to create more jobs. People living in remote areas are able to get jobs
from tourism and wildlife companies.
 Transport ensures easy access to remote areas.
 Construction of roads promotes citizen empowerment e.g. citizen owned construction
companies are sub – contracted by big companies to work on road construction and
maintenance.
 Communication ensures that Botswana9s society is informed and knowledgeable. Where
there is good communication, people can compete as they will be well informed of what
is going on around the world.
 Promotes economic development.
 Communication saves a lot of money and time. Instead of using transport to deliver
information, one can use radio, television or email. When the means of communication
are poor, businesses that depend on communication can suffer.
DIFFERENT FORMS OF TRANSPORT IN BOTSWANA
These are Land transport, Air transport and Water transport.
a) Land transport is made up of road and rail transport.
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i) Road Transport – This includes cars, buses, vans, sledges, bicycles, donkey carts,
motor bikes, trucks etc.
CAUSES OF ROAD ACCIDENTS IN BOTSWANA.
 Careless driving such as over speeding and failure to observe road signs.
 Animals straying onto the roads.
 Poor weather conditions.
 Vehicle defects and un – licensed driving.
EFFECTS OF ROAD ACCIDENTS
 Loss of trained human resource.

 Loss of breadwinners by families.
 Physical defects – some people end up having permanent defects as some lose their
legs and arms.
 Loss of property - vehicles are destroyed. Sometimes vehicles involved in accidents
could be carrying refrigerators, utensils and television.
VARIOUS ROAD SAFETY MEASURES IN BOTSWANA.
 Ongoing road safety public education – Seminars are conducted in schools to make
children aware of the importance of road safety.
 Improved driver training – Before a person can get a driver9s license, he or she must
first pass a written test on road signs.
 Regular road inspection and monitoring – Traffic police are used to control traffic
during peak hours such as in the morning when people go to work and the afternoon.
 Use of media – Radio and television are used to give road safety tips.
 Fencing off of main roads – The main roads are fenced off to keep livestock from
crossing roads at any point and at any time.
THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF USING BICYCLES
 Bicycles can be used in the smallest paths which cannot be used by cars. People using
them can reach areas not accessible because of lack of big roads.
 Bicycles are cheap to use and can be afforded by most people even the poorest.
 They do not use fuel therefore those who cannot afford to buy petrol or diesel can still
afford to use them.
 Where there is traffic congestion, cyclists can easily find their way around and reach
their destinations faster.
 They do not require a lot of space for parking or storage.
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 They help save the country money through reduce oil & vehicle import costs as well
as work time lost due to traffic.
HEALTH BENEFITS OF USING BICYCLES
 There is no pollution that could pollute the atmosphere as there is no emission of

gases.
 It reduces the risk of suffering from chronic diseases such as high blood pressure,
stroke & heart diseases.
 Help reduce health care costs because fitter & healthier people do not need medical
care as often as unfit people.
ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS OF USING BICYCLES
 Cycling produces no gas emissions that are harmful to the environment & human
health.
 Cycling does not cause noise pollution.
 Less land is used for parking.
DISADVANTAGES OF USING BICYCLES
 They cannot carry a substantial amount of load. e.g. at most they can carry two
persons.
 They cannot cover long distances as the person cycling can easily get tired.
ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF USING MOTORBIKES
 They are cheaper to buy than cars & require less maintenance costs in operating them.
 They require less space for parking.
 They help reduce reliance on imported cars.
 Motor bike riders can easily find their way around congested road traffic and can be
faster in such circumstances.
ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS OF USING MOTORBIKES
 They emit fewer gases to the atmosphere as they use less fuel.
 They require less space for parking.
DISADVANTAGES OF USING MOTOR BIKES
 They do not have a large carrying capacity.

 They cannot be used to travel long distances as the rider could be affected by weather.
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ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF USING PUBLIC TRANSPORT
 It is cheaper and therefore can be afforded by the majority of people as compared to

owning your own vehicle
 It creates employment e.g. drivers & conductors.
 It is safer as it is controlled by its own rules which take into consideration that many
people will be transported at the same time in the same vehicle.
 Reduces the demand for more fuel – a bus carrying many people is more fuel efficient
than a private car carrying only one person.
ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS OF USING PUBLIC TRANSPORT
 Since many people use only one vehicle, emission into the atmosphere will be
reduced as emission will be from just one vehicle as compared to 60 people driving
60 vehicles.
 Public transport means there will be less waste produced when the vehicles can no
longer be used because fewer vehicles are used to transport large numbers of people.
HEALTH BENEFITS OF USING PUBLIC TRANSPORT
 Usually one walks to a bus to get on to a public transport. Walking is a good form of
exercise which can help improve the fitness levels of people who use public transport.
 By reducing the number of vehicles on the road, public transport helps reduce
pollution caused by private vehicles.
DISADVANTAGES OF USING PUBLIC TRANSPORT
 If there is an accident involving a bus carrying 30 people there could be more injuries
as compared to one vehicle carrying one person.
 Public transport delays as it has times during which it can be used.
ii) Rail Transport – this includes the use of the train, both the passenger and goods
train. The main railway line in Botswana is 641km long.
CHALLENGES FACING RAIL TRANSPORT.
 Competition from other railway routes such as the Beira Corridor.

 Poor market – Botswana doesn9t have enough customers.
 It is expensive to adequately maintain equipment.
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b) Air Transport – Air transport is quick or fast. It can cover large areas in a short period of
time. It can easily reach scattered settlements and is able to reach the most inaccessible
areas.
c) Air Botswana is the National Airline and the main provider of air transport within
Botswana. South African Airways and Kenyan Air ways also operate in Botswana. An air
strip is a small landing place for small planes and helicopters.
There are six main air ports in Botswana: Sir SeretseKhama, Maun, Kasane, Francistown,
SelibePhikwe and Gantsi air ports.
d) Water transport – is limited to boats and canoes because the country does not have large
water masses which can accommodate ships. A pantoon is used to ferry vehicles between
Botswana and Zambia at Kasane across the river Zambezi.
Boats are mainly used for fishing, tourism and local transport in areas where people need to
cross rivers. Some Batswana get employed as tourist guides, this improves their standard of
living.
DIFFERENT FORMS OF COMMUNICATION
Telecommunication means the transmission of messages, data, sounds, pictures & other
information electronically using either radio signals, telephone wires or optical fibres.
People use computers that are connected to the internet to send and receive information in
various ways. There is a significant development in the information Communications
Technology (ICT) sector in Botswana. ICT refers to the use of a variety of electronic, video,
emails, cellular phones, computers and fax machines. The following are forms of
communication in Botswana.
 Mobile cellular phones are used on a large scale in almost every part of the country.
 Fixed telephone facilities are used in both rural and urban arears.
 Radio & television – these are used throughout the country.
 Print media – Newspapers both public and private.
 Postal services – Botswana postal services are provided by the Botswana post.
 Internet – provides services such as email and websites.
 Social networking sites such as Face Book, My space, twitter, Instant gram etc.
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TOURISM
TOURIST ATTRACTIONS IN BOTSWANA
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THE IMPORTANCE OF TOURISM IN BOTSWANA
 Tourism brings income from both foreign and local tourists.

 It generates employment mainly in rural areas.
 It promotes rural development by attracting the provision of various services such as
accommodation and electricity.
 It improves the quality of national life by providing educational and recreational
opportunities.
 It advertizes Botswana to the outside world.
OPPORTUNITIES IN THE TOURISM SECTOR
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 Business opportunities –there are opportunities for investment in hotels, transport,

making & selling of arts & crafts.
 Encourages local supply of goods & services - since most of the goods in the tourism
industry are imported, there is an opportunity to reduce imports & increase supplies
obtained from local producers & suppliers.
 Development of new tourist attractions – there is an opportunity to develop & market
other tourist attractions e.g. historical sites, sports facilities & cultural heritages.
 Development of domestic tourism (citizens or residents visiting tourist attractions) –
there is an opportunity to develop the domestic tourism market by making tourist
attractions more affordable & accessible to the local population.
 Increasing the number of Batswana employed in tourism – there is an opportunity to
increase the number of Batswana employed in tourism at higher levels by training
them in the skills required.
CHALLENGES IN THE TOURISM SECTOR
 Shortage of skilled manpower.

 Seasonality of tourism – tourists only visit in May & August when the grass is short
& animals gather at water sources.
 HIV & AIDS - the death of workers especially skilled ones, means more money &
time have to be spent training new workers.
 Lack of direct flights from tourist centre to another such as Maun and Kasane.
 Inadequate tourism information considering the amount of tourist attractions in the
country e.g. there isn9t enough information on hotels, hospitals etc.
 Inaccessibility of some tourist attractions during rainy seasons.
 Regional political instability e.g. Zimbabwe.
WAYS IN WHICH TOURISM IS ENHANCED IN BOTSWANA
 Educating tourist guides on best practices / developing a trained local workforce.

 Promote domestic tourism – locals must be offered special prices.
 Improve the accessibility to Botswana & tourist attractions by providing direct flights
to Botswana.
 Declaring some animals as protected and prohibiting their hunting and killing.
 Developing facilities for the tourism industry such as lodges, camp sites and tour
operations.
 Market & promote Botswana as a tourist destination.
ECO – TOURISM IN BOTSWANA
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Ecotourism is tourism that is friendly to the environment and people. It is less damaging to
the environment compared to large – scale commercial tourism. It encourages local people to
appreciate the environment and to see the need to protect it.
Principles of Eco - tourism
It is based on the following :
 Minimizing negative social, cultural and environmental impact.

 Maximizing the revenues for re-investment in conservation.
 Educating both visitors and local people about the importance of conserving natural
and cultural resources.
 Delivering a quality experience for tourists.
 Investing in conserving the environment & tourist attractions.
 Ensuring fair distribution of resources.
ATTEMPTS MADE TO DEVELOP ECOTOURISM IN BOTSWANA
 Selective tourism policy – Botswana attracts few high spending tourists in order to
prevent over exploitation of & damage of wildlife& resources.
 Educating people about the importance of conserving natural & cultural resources –
this is done through environmental education & celebrating World Tourism Days.
 Promotion of Non – Consumptive tourism – Botswana promotes activities like
photographic Safaris & Cultural tourism as such activities are sustainable.
 Establishing Standards & guidelines for Eco – tourism projects – There are guidelines
to help entrepreneurs to design & operate more environmentally responsible tourism
businesses.
 Maximising money earned from tourism – Entrance fees to Game Reserves &
National Parks were increased in order to enable government to earn more money
from tourism. The money is used for conservation of wild life & the environment.
CONFLICTS BETWEEN HUMANS, LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE
 Human beings engage in agriculture in order to create wealth. This affects the
movement of wild animals as they now have to change their routes. Some animals are
displaced as their usual habitats are taken away from them.
 Farmers keep livestock for their own living. Predators who are tourist attractions kill
the livestock thus creating a conflict between wildlife and farmers.
 Human beings are given licenses to hunt animals. Others especially poachers kill
wildlife without permission thus creating conflict between the tourism industry and
these human beings.
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ATTEMPTS MADE TO PROMOTE TOURISM IN BOTSWANA
 The government of Botswana has imposed a ban on the killing of animals without
permission or license.
 The government compensates farmers for the loss of their crops / livestock if
destroyed by wild animals.
 Field officers involved in natural resources management meet every three months to
discuss wildlife management issues and map a way forward.
 Non-governmental organizations promote, develop and support conservation and
utilization of wildlife.
THE POSITIVE EFFECTS OF TOURISM ON THE ENVIRONMENT
 Generation of foreign exchange as tourists visit the country in large numbers.

 Use of game parks and game reserves contribute to environmental protection and
conservation.
 It leads to sustainable use of natural resources as some are set aside as world natural
heritage e.g. Tsodilo hills.
 Improves infrastructure as roads and buildings are constructed for tourism purposes.
 It improves the economy as a whole as tourism has become one of the three leading
generators of revenue for Botswana.
THE NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF TOURISM ON THE ENVIRONMENT
 Littering e.g. dropping of papers, bottles by tourists.

 Traffic congestion as more people visit tourist sites.
 Noise pollution from people may scare off animals.
 Construction of buildings in the middle of the beautiful natural sites may change the
natural beauty that have been real tourist attractions.
 Tourism may bring diseases that may harm the environmental eco-system.
World environmental issues
a) Global warming
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Global warming has to do with the earth9s average temperatures rising faster than ever
before. It is believed that people are the main cause of global warming. There are some
gases in the atmosphere such as carbon dioxide and methane that trap heat and help to
keep the earth warm.
Causes of Global warming
 Global warming is caused by an increased concentration of greenhouse gases in the

air. Greenhouse gases are gases that are generated from burning fossil fuels. When
fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas are burned, they produce carbon
dioxide, so the more fossil fuels we use, the more carbon dioxide is released into the
atmosphere leading to global warming.
 Deforestation also causes global warming because once trees have been cut there will
be fewer trees in the environment to absorb carbon dioxide and the excess gas will
remain in the atmosphere.
 Methane produced by cattle as part of their digestive and excretory processes also
leads to global warming. This therefore means that as the cattle population and arable
land used for growing rice increases, so is the amount of methane into the
atmosphere.
b) Pollution
Pollution means adding something to the environment that harms or damages it. Pollution
is an issue of concern because it has many negative effects on the environment and all
living things in it.
Causes of Pollution
 It is caused by improper disposal of waste such as human sewage and household and
industrial garbage.
 Accidental release of chemicals and substances into the environment that damage it
e.g. oil spills.
c) Deforestation
Forests support biodiversity and are homes to a large variety of plant and animal species.
They help protect the soil from erosion.They also help ensure rain water does not run off
but sinks into the ground.
Causes of Deforestation
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 People cut down forests in order to have land for settlements, for growing crops and
rearing livestock.
 Trees are a source of timber, firewood, making furniture and building materials.
 Forests are cleared in order to grow crops.
 They are also cleared to build roads.
d) Depletion of the Ozone layer
Ozone is a bluish gas which is found in the upper layer of the atmosphere (stratosphere).
Ozone absorbs the sun9s ultraviolet rays preventing them from reaching the surface of the
earth. It has been discovered that the ozone layer above Antarctica has a hole in it
because ozone gas was depleted. This has resulted in the sun9s ultraviolet rays reaching
the earth9s surface.
Causes of the depletion of the ozone layer
The ozone layer is destroyed by a chemical called chloroflurocarbons (CFCs). CFCs

contain chlorine which destroys ozone gas molecules. Nitrogen oxides which are
produced as a result of fuel burning, e.g. aircraft exhausts also destroy ozone.
e) Acid rain
Is caused by air-borne acidic pollutants, such as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides
released from industries as well as from volcanic activities. Acid rain causes destruction
of plants as the water is toxic.
f) Desertification
This is the process that transforms an area into a desert. It usually occurs in areas that
experience either dry or semi-dry climatic conditions. It is caused by overgrazing,
overstocking, overcutting of trees, over - cultivating of soils and over harvesting of fuel
wood and veldt products.
Consequences of mismanagement of the world environment
 Loss of land – the rise in sea levels will result in some low lying island states being
destroyed.
 Environmental problems, especially global warming may lead to changes in weather
patterns. e.g. the weather could become either extremely hot or extremely cold.
 Very hot and dry temperatures may lead to trees and animals dying from drought.
 Desert conditions developing in areas that are not normally deserts may lead to
extinction of some animal and plant species.
 Depletion of the ozone layer increases health risks to people and threatens the
survival of some plant and animals.
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 Scarcity of clean water due to pollution.

 Increased poverty and famine levels due to land degradation and desertification
caused by the use of poor farming methods and deforestation.
 Increased conflicts and wars over limited resources especially water sources.
Efforts being made to address mismanagement of world environments
 The National Conservation Strategy encourages and assists Botswana societies to

conserve the natural resources. It ensures that any use of natural resources is
ecologically sustainable.
 Many countries including Botswana have created forest reserves.
 Governments sign Multi – lateral Environmental Agreements such as the Kyoto
Protocol to reduce greenhouse gases.
 Countries and non – government organizations educate the public and children in
schools about the importance of conserving the world environment.
 SomarelangTikologo aims to promote sustainable environmental protection by
educating people, demonstrating and encouraging best practices in environmental
planning, resource conservation and waste management.
 Carbon trading schemes have been set up by the European Union and Australia.
Ways of Conserving the World environment
 Educate the public about environmental issues – People must be taught about what
they could do to help reduce emissions of greenhouse gases.
 Countries should sign and implement climate change agreements – To successfully
reduce emissions of greenhouse gases all countries need to work together to make the
necessary behavior and policy changes.
 Production of solar power use – Countries must turn to solar power, hydro-electric
power and geothermal power as these have less known environmental side effects as
compared to fossil fuels.
 Recycling – Recycling of paper on a large scale could help in reducing the cutting
down of forests for pulp ( soft tissue) and paper production.
 Use towel napkins instead of diapers – Towel napkins can be reused over and over
again and this could reduce environmental pollution as compared to diapers which are
used once and then dumped in large quantities.
 Replacement of waste generating commodities – With the advent of technology, it
would be advisable to depend on online news sources rather than hardcopy
newspapers.
 Laws that control the disposal of waste must be passed and those that break the law
must be punished.
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Natural disasters
A natural disaster is a catastrophic or disastrous situation caused by a natural event or hazard

rather than by human action and which results in people being severely injured or killed,
losing their livelihoods and homes as well as infrastructure and other buildings being
seriously damaged.
The Major Natural Disasters in the World
a) Drought
Drought is usually a period over more than one season, when there is very little or no
rainfall resulting in a shortage of water. Some parts of the world experience drought
frequently because these parts have a semi – arid or arid climate and normally receive
very low and unreliable rainfall.
Distribution of Droughts
Occur in Australia, north of China, Botswana, Ethiopia, Malawi and Namibia.
Impact of drought
 Hunger and famine – Drought causes crop failure and kills livestock leading to
hunger and famine.
 Land degradation – Drought kills off the natural vegetation which dies from lack of
water. Livestock and wild animals overgraze any remaining vegetation, leaving the
land bare.
 Increase in migration –People move to other areas in search of water, food and
pasture for their livestock.
 Increased conflicts – drought can lead to conflicts among people as they fight over the
limited resources available for survival such as water and food.
 Spread of infectious diseases – Shortage of water leads to people obtaining water for
drinking and personal hygiene from unsafe sources.
Drought or Famine preparedness
 Famine centers where donations can be collected and distributed to those affected
should be established.
 People must be provided with information on weather predictions so that they can
prepare themselves accordingly.
 Governments must ensure that affected people have sufficient basic needs.
 Farmers and Governments must address key issues on crop pests and diseases in time.
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b) Floods
A flood is the temporary overflowing of a large amount of water onto an area that is
normally dry. The most common cause of floods is heavy rainfall.
Distribution of Floods
Floods usually occur in Mozambique, Ghana, Nigeria, Liberia, Angola, China,
Bangladesh and Vietnam.
Impact of floods
 Leads to loss of life, people are swept away by fast moving water.
 Damage and destroy people9s property such as houses and vehicles.
 Damage infrastructure such as roads, telephone and electricity lines.
 Leads to shortage of food and hunger.
 Lead to the spread of water borne infectious diseases such as cholera, typhoid and
diarrhea.
Flood disaster preparedness
 Study weather in order to forecast the next rains and their intensity.
 Enough medical experts should be trained on how to attend to those who may be
subjected to flooding.
 People must be educated on flooding, its causes and how to prepare for them.
 Emergency services such as helicopters to evacuate those affected should always be
ready.
c) Hurricanes / Tornados
A hurricane is a severe tropical storm that develops over warm tropical waters. For a
tropical storm to be called a hurricane it should generate winds that blow in excess of
118km per hour. A hurricane or a typhoon may cover long distances and last for several
days.
A tornado is a violent, rapidly rotating wind storm over land. It is usually smaller than a
typhoon or hurricane with a shorter lifespan.
Distribution of Hurricanes
Hurricanes occur between latitudes 5° and 30° north and south during the summer
season. They usually occur over the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean and in Australia, Gulf
Coast of Mexico and Indian Ocean.
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Impact of Hurricanes
 Cause extensive damage to and destruction of property such as boats, houses and
buildings.
 Damage and destroy infrastructure such as telephone and power lines resulting in loss
of services such as electricity and telecommunication.
 Lead to loss of life.
 Disrupt people9s daily lives as they may be asked to vacate their places to safer areas.
Typhoon, tornado and hurricane preparedness
 Establish disaster recovery committees to collect and distribute donations to those

affected.
 Research to establish when hurricanes are likely to occur.
 People must be provided with accurate and timely information on when hurricanes
are likely to occur.
 People must always be ready to be evacuated.
d) Earthquakes
This is the vibration and shaking of the ground caused by a movement of blocks of the
earth9s crust that are stuck together and suddenly slide against each other or move apart.
The point where the sudden movement takes place is called the focus. The point directly
above the focus above the ground is called the epicenter.
Distribution of Earthquakes
Occur at places like Haiti, China, Iran, India, Turkey and the Philippines.
Impact of Earthquakes
 Fires - As the earth shakes from an earthquake, both electric and gas power lines may
be damaged and cause fire. This leads to loss of life and damage to property and
power lines.
 Loss of life – People inside buildings die.
 Physical injuries – People are injured and some end up with permanent disabilities.
 They cause tsunamis which kill people.
 They can trigger landslides
Earthquake preparedness
 Seismologists must study rocks to determine the extent of the force they are subjected
to so that they inform people to get ready for earthquakes.
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 Build very strong reinforced dam walls and bridges as well as buildings so that in
case of an earth tremor (vibration), they remain standing with minimal damage.
 Enough medical experts should be trained on how to attend to those who may be
subjected to earthquakes.
 People should stay away from earthquake prone areas.
e) Tsunami
A tsunami is a huge volume of water that moves very fast across the ocean until it hits a
coast. The most common cause of a tsunami is an earthquake under the ocean that causes
a sudden change in the height of the ocean floor. A tsunami can travel at speeds of 800
km / hr. As the Tsunami approaches the coast, the height of the wave becomes higher and
higher.
Distribution of Tsunamis
All coastal areas can be affected by a tsunami however, large destructive tsunamis occur
most often in the Pacific Ocean. They also occur in Japan and Indonesia.
Impact of Tsunamis
 Loss of life and physical injuries.
 Damage and destruction of property and infrastructure.
 People become homeless.
 Losses of revenue as tourists avoid visiting places that have been damaged by a
tsunami.
Tsunami preparedness
 People must learn the facts about tsunamis e.g. all coastal areas can be struck by
tsunamis. They can move faster than a person can run.
 People must be aware of the signs that a tsunami may be coming towards the coast.
 People must follow safety advice given by authorities about what to do.
f) Volcanic Eruptions
Deep inside the earth is hot molten rock called magma. A volcanic eruption happens
when molten magma rises up from the mantle and flows out through faults in the earth9s
crust or along plate boundaries and reaches the surface of the earth. Volcanic eruptions
occur along tectonic plate boundaries and at places where there are hot spots under the
crust.
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Distribution of Volcanic Eruptions

They occur at the Philippines, Mexico, Italy and in Japan
NegativeImpacts of Volcanic Eruptions
 Loss of life
 Destruction of settlements.
 Destroy the ozone layer
 Lava damages woodland and agricultural land.
Positive Impacts of Volcanic Eruptions

 Tourist attraction – this creates employment and brings income.
 Lava and ash contain minerals that have fertile soils so people practice arable
farming.
 The heat of magma provides opportunities for generating geothermal energy.
 Mining of diamonds is common where volcanic eruptions occur.
Volcanic preparedness
 People must settle away from areas that are prone to volcanic eruptions.
 Stock pile enough food, water and medical supplies to last as long as a volcanic
eruption.
 Everyone should be provided with timely and accurate information on when eruptions
are likely to happen.
g) Epidemics and pandemics
The term epidemic is used to refer to a widespread outbreak of an infectious disease

among a community or a region during a given period while a pandemic is a global
disease. The infectious diseases spread from one individual to the next. They occur where
many individuals do not have immunity to the disease or infection, where there is poor
sanitation and hygiene.
Distribution of Epidemics
Most of the epidemics occur worldwide e.g. influenza, malaria, tuberculosis and HIV and
AIDS.
Impact of Epidemics
 Loss of life.
 Increased absenteeism from work as workers are sick.
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 Stimulate medical developments e.g. vaccines and treatment for HIV and malaria.
Epidemic and pandemic preparedness
 Stock essential supplies which could be used in case there is an outbreak.

 Educate the community about the pandemic or epidemic.
 Have well informed disaster preparedness teams and centres in all communities so
that if there is an outbreak it can be arrested as soon as possible.
 People must be made aware about their blood groups well in advance so that they
help during blood transfusion.
 People must always cover their mouths when they sneeze.
Population dynamics in Botswana
The term population means the total number of people living in a specific area.
Population growth is an increase in the size of the population over time.
Factors that influence population growth
 Birth rate - this is the number of live babies born per thousand people per year. The
reasons for high birth rate are:
- Lack of access to family planning services and education about contraceptives as well
as the decision an individual makes not to use contraceptives. This results in many
babies being born.
- Traditional cultures – some ethnic groups still practice polygamy. This results in
many children born by many wives to one man.
- The uncertainty of not knowing how many children will survive – Families have large
numbers of children to ensure the survival of at least some children and thus ensure
the continuity of the family.
- Religious beliefs – Some churches forbid their members to use any form of modern or
traditional birth control measures and techniques.
- Early marriage – some cultures arrange marriages in which female children are
married at the tender age of between 12 and 16. The high fertility and birth rate of
these couples increase the population.
 Death rate – is the number of people who die per thousand people per year. Factors
that can contribute to the reduction of the population are:
- People marry when they are quite old, this reduces the number of childbearing years
that the mother has.
- Use of contraceptives.
- Education – Educated people do not want to have many children because they believe
that children can jeopardize their careers.
- Diseases e.g. HIV and AIDS and bird flu can reduce a population.
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- Lack of availability or access to good sanitation, health care and medical facilities
resulting in many babies dying before the age of 5.
 Migration - the relocation of people from one area to another. This can lead to
population growth if more people move to a particular area than leave the area or
population decrease if more people leave an area and move elsewhere than come to
settle in the area.
Population Distribution in Botswana
The distribution of population is the spread of population in any place. Population may be
described as densely concentrated or thinly or sparsely spread. A dense population means
that there is a large number of people in a small area. A population that is scattered or
sparsely spread has few people in an area.
The population of Botswana is unevenly or unequally distributed. The area in the south –
eastern region has the most population. People are attracted especially to the south east
region by the railway line and the major roads running from the south to north of the
country. The region has fertile soils and good pastures. Employment is available with
business opportunities also there. Availability of services such as transport, schools,
medical facilities, shops, banks and recreation facilities.
The North – western region is the second most populated region. The area covers Chobe,
Ngamiland and Okavango. It attracts many people because it has perennial rivers and
offers fishing, canoeing or boating, forestry, wildlife as well as tourism. Towns in the
area, such as Kasane and Maun offer formal employment and self – employment
opportunities. There is also the Botswana Defence Force training camp, agricultural
development at Pandamatenga and hotels and camping sites.
The western part of the country which covers Ghantsi and Kgalagadi districts is thinly or
scarcely populated. This is because of alkaline and sandy soils and its insufficient and
salty underground and surface water supply. The area is good for rearing of livestock as it
has palatable vegetation. Nowadays the area has good roads that link Botswana with
Namibia and South Africa. The tourism in the region is developing, attracting other
developments like growth of private and government infrastructure.
The main population problems in Botswana
 Waste disposal – An increase in population causes blocking of sewerage in urban

areas. This leads to air pollution causing health problems and air borne diseases.
 Expenses on utilities – population increase results in an increase in the demand for
utilities e.g. water, electricity. This puts a financial burden on the government which
ends up failing to provide essential services.
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 Inequality in access of services – Increased population growth can cause the

government to fail to provide certain services e.g. education. This results in the rich
paying for their own education and being more educated than the poor.
 Moral decay – The movement of the youth from rural areas to urban areas contributes
to abandoning of traditional activities and the formation of illegal settlements. Once
the youth are far from their parents, they are likely to participate in criminal activities.
 Depletion of resources - demand for agricultural land, food and wood becomes very
high. Economic and social developments fail as sources of raw materials are scarce.
Relationship between population and development
 Botswana uses land for habitation as people put up residential structures.

 Because of its small population size and adequate natural and financial resources,
Botswana can provide services and pay for development projects that improve the
people9s standard of living and quality of life.
 Overpopulation puts pressure on the limited financial resources available and strains
the government9s ability to achieve development.
 Overpopulation leads to crowding in hospitals and schools and a decline in the quality
of service that these facilities can offer.
 Overpopulation creates shortage of land.
Relationship between population and environment
 People live in the environment and their survival depends on it. e.g. they mine, grow
crops, manufacture and use the natural resources that are in their environment.
 A growing population increases the demand for natural resources.
 The unavailability and high cost of environmental friendly technologies e.g.
electricity forces people in rural areas to depend on wood fuel, this leads to
deforestation.
 Most people live in the eastern part because of reliable rainfall.
Strategies used to manage Population growth
 Public Education – The government uses public education to provide knowledge on

ways to control population growth and the advantages of controlling population. The
knowledge that people gain helps them to decide when to have children and the
number to have.
 Laws – The government9s education policy of making ten years of basic education
compulsory is an intervention that can delay learners from having children during
adolescence.
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 Policy on maternity leave – This is meant to motivate employees to have fewer

children. e.g. maternity leave policy pays a full salary to women during the first 5
maternity leave confinements.
 Forced child support policy - is aimed at men who have children and do not intend to
marry mothers of such children. Child support is paid until the child reaches 18 years.
This policy encourages men to use contraceptives.
 Uses of contraceptives – Contraceptives reduce the rate of fertility and pregnancy.
The causes and consequences of Internal and International migration
Internal migration is the movement of people from one town, village or district to
another.
International migration is the movement of people from their home country to a foreign
host country.
Emigration is when someone leaves a country to live and work elsewhere.
Immigration is when someone enters another country to live and work there.
The reasons for people leaving their homes are called push factors while the reasons that
attract them to go to a particular place are called pull factors.
Push factors Pull factors

Lack of employment Availability of employment
Lack of business opportunities Many business opportunities
Low standard of living High standard of living
High crime rate Low crime rate
Lack of personal safety and security High levels of personal safety and security
Wars Peace and security
High levels of corruption Low levels of corruption
Violation of human rights Respect of human rights
High risk of disasters Low risk of disasters
Lack of water supply Adequate and reliable water supply
Harsh climate Good climate
Lack of democracy Democratic society and respect for rule of law
Consequences of internal and international migration
 Discrimination –immigrants face different kinds of discrimination when looking for

jobs. Sometimes their qualifications are not recognized.
 Loss of skilled manpower – Countries where immigrants come from lose human
resources who have skills and knowledge.
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 Influence on culture –They influence the values and culture of society by increasing
crime, violence and corruption.
 Influence in salary difference – international immigrants are willing to work for lower
wages than locals. This increases the unemployment rate among the locals.
 Reduction of revenue in home countries –The countries they come from lose revenue
from the skilled labour as labour that migrates is the one that pays government tax.
 Improvement in standards of living - Immigrants find better jobs that pay them good
salaries.
 Technology and skills – Local people gain skills from immigrants as they exchange
ideas.
Youth Empowerment in Botswana
Empowerment means helping people gain control of their lives by giving them the power,
knowledge, skills and resources that they need to make informed decisions and to realize
their full potential as individuals or as a group.
The word youth describes the state of being young. It is the stage of human development
that comes after childhood. The youth in Botswana comprises of people who are in the
age category of 12 to 29 years.
Youth empowerment involves creating conditions that enable young people to make
informed decisions, gain control of their lives and realize their full potential as
individuals or as a group.
Behavioural problems exhibited by the youth
 Substance abuse – The youth drink alcohol, smoke cigarettes, use illegal drugs and
abuse glue.
 Juvenile delinquency – Young people are involved in different criminal activities
such as shoplifting, vandalism and violence.
 Early Sexual behavior – Young girls drop out of school as a result of teenage
pregnancy. Young people are involved in unprotected sex and are at risk of becoming
infected with HIV.
Factors that contribute to the development of unacceptable behavior among the youth
 Adolescence– Some of the changes in teenagers9 bodiesas they become older result in
behavior that they never displayedbeforee.g. rebelliousness against parents and
teachers.
 Poor parenting – Some parents allow their children to do as they please as a result
their children do not understand acceptable ways of behaving.
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 Domestic violence – when there is violence in the family, children are socialized to
accept violence as an acceptable way of solving conflicts between people.
 Academic factors – some students who are struggling to cope with their studies may
begin to dodge lessons and eventually drop out of school.
 Globalization – Technologies such as television and the internet mean young people
are aware of how others in other countries behave. What they see may influence them
to behave in the same way.
The role of different stakeholders in the welfare of the youth
Parents
- Provide good parental care e.g. meeting the basic needs of their children.
- Teach their children good morals and promote positive and acceptable behavior.
- Protect their children from exploitation and other forms of abuse.
- To be role models so that they children copy the proper values, attitudes and behavior
from them.
Community
- Protect the youth from exploitation, discrimination and all forms of abuse.
- Create and support services which cater for the needs of youth.
- Support youth business initiatives.
- Allow the youth to participate in community affairs and decision making processes.
- To be role models.
Non – governmental organizations (NGOs)
- Educate the youth about their human rights.

- Protect the youth9s rights.
- Create and support training opportunities for youth in various skills.
- Influence the government to include youth issues when making decisions.
- Educate the youth on issues of sexual and reproductive health.
Civil Society ( trade unions, Red cross, churches)
- Protect the youth from exploitation and discrimination.

- Support the youth financially, emotionally, morally and mentally.
- Encourage young people to participate and contribute to the economic, social and
political life in the society.
The government
- Make laws and policies that protect the youth.
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- Provide the youth with education and training.

- Provide facilities for sports and leisure.
- Provide the youth with the knowledge and skills they need to earn a living and
function well in the society.
Private Sector
- Provide training opportunities.

- Create employment
- Encourage youth entrepreneurship.
The major challenges facing the youth in Botswana
a) Unemployment
This leads to problems such as poverty, poor health and involvement in criminal
activities.
b) Education and Training
Young people who drop out of school or are not trained in any particular skill are likely
to get low paying jobs. The current challenge is to ensure that the youth complete their
secondary education and receive training.
c) HIV and AIDS
A major challenge facing young people is to ensure they remain free from HIV and AIDS
through behavioural change and the use of condoms.
d) Teenage pregnancy
There is a large number of teenagers who drop out of school due to pregnancy.
e) Sexual, physical and emotional abuse
Young people are the main victims of sexual, physical and emotional abuse by older
people.
f) Crime
Rape, vandalism of property and theft is mostly committed by young people.
Economic projects that could be run by the youth
 Young people can run agriculture business projects e.g. bee keeping and chicken
farming.
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 They can run businesses that provide services to the public and other businesses e.g.
selling food, run car washes and sell agriculture produce.
 Young people can run manufacturing projects like making arts and crafts and sell to
the public.
 They can run information technology centres and provide access to the internet,
printing and photocopying services.
Assessing efforts being made to empower the youth
 All political parties in Botswana have youth wings.

 The youth are provided with equal access to basic education.
 Guidance and Counselling has been included within the education system so that
young people have important life skills
 Children9s rights are promoted and protected.
 The government has established the CEDA Young Farmers Fund to provide loans and
training in entrepreneurial skills in order to encourage young people to start and run
agricultural businesses.
 The government established the Youth Development Grant to cater for the welfare
and income generating activities for out of school unemployed and disadvantaged
youth.
 The government introduced the graduate internship programme so that young
graduates can work and obtain some work experience.
The post Colonial era
Major domestic challenges leaders of the new republic of Botswana faced after
independence
 Drought – A severe drought that started in 1961 and lasted after independence killed
crops and large herds of cattle.
 Lack of money - the income the country earned from beef was not enough to pay for
all the developments required in the country.
 Limited industrial and commercial businesses – The new government faced the
challenge of promoting and supporting the establishment of different kinds of
businesses by Batswana.
 Poverty – most people in the country were poor and were mainly subsistence farmers.
Many people had to seek work in South Africa in order to earn money to support their
families.
 Inadequate and poor education services – Poor and limited education facilities meant
that most people were illiterate. They could not read or write. The new government
had to employ expatriate civil servants (foreigners).
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 Limited health facilities – Very few people had access to sanitation facilities and
clean water. The new government had to spend money building health facilities and
improving access to sanitation facilities and clean water.
Botswana9s major socio – economic and political achievements since independence
 Rise in income levels – Botswana is no longer one of the poorest countries and has
moved from being a least developed country to a middle income country.
 Education – Literacy levels and the number of highly educated and skilled Batswana
have risen. There are now tertiary institutions and technical colleges in the country.
 Health – Currently over 90 % of the population has access to health care services
available through facilities such as mobile health posts, clinics and hospitals.
 Access to safe drinking water – Most of the villages and towns now have access to
clean piped or tapped water.
 Reduction of poverty – The government has come up with programmes that help
vulnerable groups of people in order to reduce the impact of poverty e.g. she provides
basic food items to destitute people and pay the old a pension monthly.
 Improvement in infrastructure – transport and communication has improved a lot.
Botswana now has tarred roads and most of the villages have been electrified.
 Rule of law – the government does not make laws that violate the Constitution or
people9s rights.
Botswana9s long term vision
The long term vision also known as Vision 2016 describes what kind of nation Botswana
should be in 2016. It includes the following pillars or goals:
1. An educated and informed nation.

2. A prosperous, productive and innovative nation.
3. A compassionate, just and caring nation.
4. A safe and secure nation.
5. An open, democratic and accountable nation.
6. A moral and tolerant nation.
7. A united and proud nation.
The significance (Importance) of the Long Term Vision for Botswana
 It describes the hopes of Batswana regarding the kind of nation they would like their
country to be by 2016.
 Ensures that Botswana continues to make the right choices in terms of social,
economic and political values and decisions.
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 It provides Botswana with clear and measurable goals. Batswana can therefore always
check progress and see how far the country has gone in achieving the goals of 2016.
 It creates common and shared national goals which help promote national unity while
recognizing and respecting the diversity in cultures and languages in the country.
 It guides citizens in their interactions with fellow citizens as well as outsiders by
describing expected standards of behavior and values.
 It makes Batswana aware that while they must adapt to the challenges of
globalization and changing values, they should still retain the positive aspects of their
cultural values that distinguish them from other nations.
Foreign relations / International relations
Foreign relations is the interaction between countries. It is also defined as the strategies
that a country chooses or employs to deal with other countries.
How nations interact with one another

 Trade – Countries buy goods from one another e.g. Botswana exports goods to other
countries and buy or import goods from other countries.
 Labour exchange –Botswana gets experts from other countries to come and work in
Botswana while Batswana also go and seek jobs in other countries.
 Tourism – Foreign visitors come to Botswana and Batswana visit other countries for
business, study and leisure.
 Elections – Botswana allows other countries to observe its elections while it also
participates in observing elections of other countries.
 Celebrations – Botswana attends independence celebrations of other countries to
show recognition and support for their political systems.
 Peace keeping – Botswana sends soldiers through the United Nations peacekeeping
forces to countries that are not politically stable to keep peace e.g. Somalia, Sudan
etc.
 Education –Batswana exchanges students with other countries e.g. teachers and
doctors.
Factors that determine Botswana9s Foreign policy
 Botswana9 small population – Because of her small population, Botswana needs

external markets to sell its goods in order for its economy to grow.
 Realism or pragmatism –this involves being aware of her own political, economic and
political strengths and weaknesses also being honest in assessing her own power,
influence and abilities to protect, defend and promote her national interest.
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 Geographical location –As a landlocked country, Botswana9 foreign policy has to

ensure the country remains on good terms with the countries that surround her.
 The common good - this refers to that her actions and ways of behaving must be for
the benefit and in the interest of the majority and not the individual. e.g. it is for the
common good that countries should resolve disputes peacefully and maintain peace
and security in the world.
 Membership with different organizations – Botswana9s foreign policy is determined
by the agreements she has signed with organizations such as SADC, AU etc.
The major principles that guide Botswana9s foreign Policy
 Botswana9s national interest – Botswana9s foreign policy does not support

agreements, decisions or policies that would damage her principles of botho,
democracy etc.
 Peaceful co – existence and good neighbourliness – Botswana has demonstrated her
belief for peace by participating in the United Nations peacekeeping missions and
shown good neighbourliness by expressing concern for suffering caused by natural
disasters in other countries.
 Respect for international law – Botswana respects rules and regulations that govern
the conduct, rights and responsibilities of nations and governments. e.g. laws on
treatment of prisoners, caring for the environment etc.
 Respect for human rights –Botswana recognizes and accepts the importance of
respecting human rights and condemns violations of these rights.
 Non – interference in the internal affairs of other countries – Botswana believes that
every independent country has a right to manage its own affairs without interference
for other countries.
 Respect for the territorial integrity of other states – Botswana will not claim land
belonging to another country or encourage groups within other countries to
breakaway and establish new countries.
 Non – alignment – Botswana remains neutral in civil wars or conflicts between other
countries and will not take sides in situations where there is conflict.
Major Foreign Policy Challenges from 1966 to the Present
 The South African liberation struggle – Botswana had to accept refugees from South
Africa but at the same time could not afford strained relations with South Africa for
trade reasons.
 Military invasions from Rhodesia –Rhodesia used to invade Botswana under the
pretext of following the refugees who fled into Botswana. This threatened Botswana9s
political stability
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 The current political and economic stability in Zimbabwe – Because a lot of

Zimbabweans come into Botswana illegally, this costs Botswana a lot of money when
they have to return the illegal immigrants
 Relocation of Basarwa from the CKGR –This attracted the attention of non –
governmental organizations which criticized the relocation as a violation of the land
and cultural rights of Basarwa. This challenge threatened to damage Botswana9s
diamond exports and her international image as a country that respects human rights.
 The 2008 global recession – This slowed down economic growth as prices of goods
went up and diamonds were not bought.
 Small population – Botswana depends on external markets and imported goods, the
high cost of imports and exports make manufacturing difficult and so it is not easy for
the economy to diversify, grow and achieve sustainable development.
Major foreign Policy Successes from 1966 to the present
 Botswana is a member of the United Nations. This is good because the organization
aims at promoting peace and providing humanitarian aid to the whole world.
 Batswana has managed to maintain cordial relationships with her neighbors. This has
encouraged peaceful trade between Botswana and her neighbours.
 She has been able to attract large amounts of foreign investments.
 Through her membership of the Frontline States Botswana managed to liberate
Mozambique, Angola, Zimbabwe, Namibia and South Africa.
 Managed to peaceful settle the Sedudu Island dispute with Namibia through the
international court of justice.
 Has protected human rights by granting refuge to people running away from
Zimbabwe and Namibia.
Botswana9s involvement in Peacekeeping Missions
Peacekeeping involves putting intermediaries (mediators) between fighting factions to

physically keep them apart and stop them from attacking each other and innocent
civilians. e.g. soldiers from nations that are not part of the conflict.
 Somalia, Mogadishu – In 1992 Botswana sent some soldiers to Somalia as part of a

peacekeeping mission.
 Mozambique – Between 1993 and 1994 700 BDF soldiers were sent to Mozambique
to keep RENAMO and FRELIMO from fighting.
 Rwanda – A team of BDF officers participated in a UN peacekeeping mission in
Rwanda as observers, this was after the Hutu killed the Tutsi.
 Sudan, Darfur – In 2004 Botswana sent 10 BDF soldiers to take part in an AU
peacekeeping mission in Sudan.
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 Lesotho – in 1998 380 BDF soldiers arrived in Lesotho to stop riots and establish and
maintain order.
Botswana9s involvement in peacemaking initiatives
Peacemaking is the process of negotiating an agreement by fighting factions or sides to

end a dispute or fighting in order to have peace.
 Democratic Republic of Congo – The former president of Botswana, Sir

KetumileMasire, was involved as a conflict mediator in the Democratic Republic of
Congo in 1999.
Ways in which foreign relations affect the lives of Citizens
 Travel – foreign relations can affect the ease with which people can travel from one
country to another e.g. before they are allowed into a country, visitors must have a
valid passport and a visa.
 Foreign aid – good and friendly relations can result in citizens benefiting from aid
given by one country to the other e.g. Cuba has provided Botswana with doctors and
nurses who have been working in government hospitals. This helps the government to
deliver health services to all who need it.
 Trade – Citizens are able to start and operate businesses that import goods from or
export goods to other countries.
 Creation of business and employment opportunities – friendly relations enable
creation of employment which help people earn salaries and pay for their children9s
education.
 Development of education – the foreign exchange earned through exports has been
used in the development of education.
 Shared natural resources - Countries share water and wildlife that migrates across
borders. The Okavango river is shared by Angola and Botswana, this benefits citizens
of both countries.
The Formation of Southern African Customs Union (SACU)
SACU was formed on 29 June 1910 by South Africa, Lesotho, Botswana, Swaziland and
Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe left in 1923. The headquarters of SACU is Windhoek. It was
formed to:
 allow free trade among members.
 Charge a common external tariff on all goods imported into the Customs Union form
non member countries.
NB a tariff or customs duty is a tax charged on imported or exported goods
 Create a common pool of revenue for customs duties that would be collected and to
share the revenue among members.
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 Allow free movement of goods between member states.
Organisation of SACU
Council of Minister -------------------------- Tribunalw
Customs union commission Tariff Board --------- National Bodies
Secretariat Technical Liaison Committees
 Agriculture
 Transport
 Customs
 Finance
 Trade and Industry
Responsibilities
 The SACU Council of Ministers is the main decision making body made up of one
minister from each of the SACU member states.
 The SACU Tribunal is a body responsible for setting tariffs. It ensures that there is no
dumping of environmentally unfriendly toxins in the SACU member states.
 The Customs Union Commission supervises and oversees the work of the SACU
secretariat.
 Tariff Board is responsible for making recommendations to the Council of Ministers
on the level and changes of duties on goods imported from outside the Customs Area
and other revenue matters.
 Secretariat is responsible for the daily running of SACU.
Responsibilities of the Technical Liaison Committees
 Agriculture committee provides technical advice on matters affecting production,

consumption and trade in agricultural products.
 Trade and industry Committee advices the Customs Union Commission.
 Customs Committee assists in the development and implementation of common and
simplified Customs policies, instruments and procedures.
 Transport Committee facilitates the movement of goods and passengers with a view
to reducing transportation costs and transit times.
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 Finance Committee facilitates the collection and analysis of economic, trade and
revenue data that is used to decide how much money each member gets from the
Common Revenue pool.
Formation of the Southern African Development Community (SADC)
Leaders of a group called the Frontline States felt that they needed to work together to
promote economic and social development in the region, and to reduce economic dependence
on other countries.
A regional conference was held in Lusaka, Zambia in April 1980. As a result of the
conference, an organization called the Southern African Development Coordination
Conference (SADCC) was established with Sir SeretseKhama as its first chairperson.
In 1989 at a meeting in Harare members agreed to transform the organization from

coordination conference to a development community. In 1992 SADCC changed to SADC.
Currently it has 15 members.
Its objectives are :
 To promote sustainable economic and social development through regional

entegration.
 To develop common political values, systems and institutions.
 To promote and defend peace and security.
 To co ordinate national and regional strategies and programmes.
 To strengthen historical, social and cultural links among the people of the region.
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The Organization of SADC
Summit of Heads of State and Government ----------- Troika
Council of Ministers ----- Troika Tribunal Organ on Politics, ---- Troika

Defence& Security co operation
StandngCommittee ------ Troika
Of Senior Officials
Integrated Committee of Ministers
SADC Secretariat
Executive Secretary
Support Services Dept of Strategic Planning Dept for Politics,

DefenceandSecurity
 Admistration Gender & Policy harmonization
 Finance
 Legal Affairs
 Internal Audit
 Knowledge & Directorate 5
Directorate 6
Information Politics & diplomacy Defence&
security
Directorate 1 Directorate 2 Directorate 3 directorate 4

Trade, Industry Food, Agric and Infrastructure & Social &
Human Development &
Finance, mining Natural resources Services Special
Programmes
& investment
National Committees
SADC uses a Troika leadership system meaning a group consisting of three. These are
the current Chair, incoming Chair and the outgoing Chair. The Troika system operates at
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the level of the Summit, the organ on Politics, Defence and Security, Council of
Ministers and Standing Committee of Senior Officials. This system enables SADC to
take quick decisions in between regular meetings of these organs.
Responsibilities
 The Summit of Heads of State and Government is responsible for the overall policy
direction and control of functions of the Community. It elects the chairperson and
deputy chairperson of SADC.
 The Council of Ministers oversees the functioning and development of SADC and
ensuring that policies are properly implemented.
 Integrated Committee of Ministers oversees the work of the Secretariat. It reports
directly to the Council of Ministers.
 Standing Committee of Senior Officials prepares the agenda for council of Ministers
meetings.
 Organ on Politics, Defence& Security is responsible for promoting peace and security
in the region.
 Tribunal is responsible for settling disputes referred to it concerning the adherence to
and interpretation of the SADC Treaty and agreements.
 SADC Secretariat is responsible for strategic planning and management of SADC
programmes, implementation of decisions of SADC policy organs and institutions
such as the Summit and Council.
 SADC National Committees provide inputs at the national level in the formulation of
regional policies, strategies, the SADC Programme of Action as well as coordinate
and oversee the implementation of these programmes.
The formation of the African Union

The Organization African Unity was formed in 1963. Its headquarters are in Addis Ababa
in Ethiopia. Members met in 1999 and agreed that instead of being only a political
organization, OAU should also concentrate on economic issues. It was at a meeting in
Durban South Africa 2002 that the organization officially launched African Union. Its
aims were :
 To accelerate the political and socio – economic integration of the continent.

 To promote and defend common positions on issues of interest to Africa.
 To promote and protect human rights.
 To work towards the eradication of preventable diseases and the promotion of good
health.
 To promote sustainable development at the economic, social and cultural levels.
The organization of the African Union

Assembly of Heads of State and Government
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Pan – African Court of The Executive Economic, Social Peace

Parliament Justice Council of ministers & cultural council Security
Council
The Commission Specialised Technical Permanent Financial

Committees Representative Council
Institution
Responsibilities
 The Assembly is the supreme decision making organ. They elect a chairperson of the
AU who holds office for 12 months.
 The Executive Council advises the Assembly.
 The Permanent Representatives9 Committee prepares the work of the Executive
Council.
 Peace and Security Council prevents, manages and resolves conflicts.
 Pan- African Parliament ensures the full participation of African people in
governance, development and economic integration.
 The Economic, Social and Cultural Council advises the organization.
 The Court of Justice settles disputes concerning the interpretation of the Constitutive
Act of the Union and matters related to the work of the Union.
Formation of the United Nations
The UN was formed in 1945 after the second World War. Its headquarters are in New
York, USA. Its main objectives are:
 To bring all nations of the world together to work for world peace.
 To promote friendship and international co – operation among all nations of the
world.
 Encourage nations to work together to stop environmental destruction.
 To encourage respect for each other9s rights and freedom.
 To promote development so that the standard of living and quality of life of all people
is improved.
The organization of the United Nations
The United Nations Organization
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General Economic & Security Secretariat International

Trusteeship
Assembly Social Council Court of Council
Council Justice
*Subsidiary * Commissions *Subsidiary Departments Registry

Bodies * Specialised Bodies & Offices
*Progremmes Agencies * Committees
* Funds * Committees
* Research & * Forums
Training
Institutes.
Responsibilities
 The General Assembly is the only organ in which all members are allowed to
participate in discussions and make recommendations on any issue of global concern.
 The Security Council maintains peace in the world. It condemns actions that threaten
world peace, authorize UN peacekeeping and peacemaking missions. Call for
sanctions or authorize countries to use military action in order to deal with threats to
world peace.
 The Economic and Social Council coordinates the economic and social work of the
UN specialized agencies. It initiates research on international economic and social
issues. Identifies solutions to international economic, social and health problems. It
facilitates international cultural and educational cooperation.
 The international court of justice settles legal disputes brought to it by member states
according to international law. It also gives legal advice to other UN organs.
 The Secretariat carries out the administrative work of the UN.
 The Trusteeship Council no longer exists but used to administer colonial territories
that had been put under UN care and control.
Botswana9s Electoral System
An electoral system or voting system is a set of rules that are used to determine how a
candidate or political party wins an election and, how parliament or council seats are
allocated to winning candidates or political parties.
NB constituency means dividing Botswana into electoral districts.
Comparing Botswana 8s Electoral System with other types of Electoral Systems
a) First Past The Post (FPTP)
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This is the electoral system Botswana uses during general elections to elect members of
parliament and councilors.
- Each constituency or ward has one seat and is represented by a single elected
member.
- The candidate who receives the most votes wins and becomes the elected
representative, that is, member of Parliament or Councillor.
- The political party that has most representatives elected and therefore has the majority
of seats in parliament also wins the right to rule the country.
For a example in a constituency, 100 people vote for 3 candidates. Candidate A gets 40
votes, candidate B gets 35 votes and candidate C gets 25 votes. Candidate A wins even
though the majority of voters ( 60) did not vote for him or her.
b) Block Vote (BV)

- Each constituency has several seats. The constituency elects as many representatives
as the number of seats available in the constituency or ward.
- Each voter has as many votes as there are seats to be filled in a constituency e.g. if a
constituency has 3 seats, each voter gets 3 votes.
- Voters can vote for any 3 candidates. They can vote for candidates from 3 different
parties. The candidates are ranked according to the number of votes each one
receives.
- The top 3 candidates with the highest number of votes win.
For example a constituency has 3 seats, 100 people vote. Candidate A gets 30 votes,
candidate B 25 votes, candidate C 20 votes, candidate D 15 votes and candidate E 10
votes. Candidate A, B and C win.
c) The Two – Round Vote (TRV)

- If a candidate receives more than 50 % of the vote in the first round, he or she wins
the election.
- If no candidate gets more than 50 % of the vote in the first round, a second round of
voting is held usually within few weeks of the first ballot. In some countries only the
top two candidates in the first round move to the second round while in other
countries, all candidates with a certain minimum percentage of votes move to the
second round.
Forexample 100 people vote in a constituency, if candidate A gets 51 votes, candidate B

29 votes and candidate C 20 votes, candidate A wins the election.
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If in the first round candidate A gets 49 votes, candidate B 31 votes and candidate C 20
votes. A second round of voting is conducted involving only candidates A and B. The
winner will be the one who gets more than 50 % votes.
d) The alternative Vote (AV)

- Voters rank candidates in order of (preference) choice on the ballot paper, marking
<1= for their first choice and <2= for their second choice.
- To win a candidate must get more than 50 % of the votes as first – choice votes.
- If no candidate wins more than 50 % the first choice votes, the last placed candidate
is removed.
- The voting process is repeated until one candidate has more than 50 % of the votes as
first choice.
For example if candidate A gets 40 votes, candidate B 30 votes, candidate C 20 votes and
candidate D 10 votes. Candidate D is removed and voting is repeated for the remaining
candidates until one of them gets more than 50 % of first choice votes.
e) Party List Proportional Representation

- Each political party presents a list of its candidates who will represent it.
- The list should be equal to the total number of seats.
- Voters vote for a party rather than a candidate.
- The candidates are ranked / votes are added up and a percentage calculated.
e.g. if a party receives 55 % of the national vote, it would receive 55 % of the seats in
parliament.
- Elected representatives are taken from the party list in order of their ranking on the
list. For instance if a party has won 20 seats, the first 20 candidates on the list are
taken.
For example there are 100 seats in parliament. If party A wins 40 % of the votes, it gets
40 seats. The top 40 candidates on its party list get the seats. If party B wins 30 % of the
votes, it gets 30 seats and the top 30 candidates on its party list get the seats. If party C
wins 20 % of the vote, it gets 20 seats.
f) Single Transferable Vote

- Voters vote for individuals not parties.
- Voters indicate an order of preference on the ballot paper for several candidates by
ranking them 1st, 2nd and so on.
- A formula is used to determine the minimum number of votes (quota) that an
individual candidate must get in order to be awarded a seat.
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- If the first choice candidate gets the required minimum number of votes, he or she
wins a seat and any additional votes for this candidate are transferred to the second
choice candidate.
- If the second choice candidate reaches the required minimum number of votes, he or
she also wins a seat and any additional votes for the second candidate are transferred
to the third choice. This process continues until the seats in the constituency are filled.
- If no single candidate gets the minimum number of votes required, the candidate with
the lowest number of first choice votes is eliminated. The votes he or she got are
transferred to the candidate with highest number of first choice votes.
For example a constituency has three seats and 5 candidates. A voter ranks the
candidates from 1(first choice) to 5(last choice). If the quota is calculated to be 300.
The process of determining the winner is as explained above.
g) Mixed member proportional system. ( New Zealand)

- The legislature consists of a block of seats that are elected by plurality or majority for
single member districts and another block of seats that are elected in multi – member
districts under a proportional system.
- The proportional seats are awarded in such a way as to compensate for
disproportional effects in the single member district outcomes.
- In some countries, voters get two choices, one vote for a party and the other for a
candidate; in others, voters may make only one choice, and vote for a candidate. The
total number of seats a party gets are derived from the total votes cast for the
individual district candidates.
For example, if one party wins 10 % of the vote nationally but no district seats, it will be
awarded enough seats from the proportional representation list to bring its representation
up to 10 % of seats in the legislature.
h) Single Non – Transferable Vote (SNTV)

- Each constituency has several seats.
- Each voter can vote once only.
- The candidate with the highest number of votes wins the seats available.
- Votes cannot be transferred from one candidate to another.
For example, a constituency has 4 seats and 7 candidates. Each voter votes for on
candidate. The top 4 candidates with the most votes are elected.
i) Parallel Systems
- The legislature consists of a block of seats that are elected by plurality or majority
from single – member districts and another block of seats that are elected in multi –
member districts under a proportional representation system. The proportional seats
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are awarded independently of the outcomes in single member districts. The

proportional representation component of a parallel system does not compensate for
any disproportionality within the plurality / majority districts.
For example Russia has 450 seats, 225 seats are filled using proportional representation
system, while the other 225 are filled using First Past the Post System.
Canada has 125 seats, 25 seats are filled using proportional representation system, while
100 are filled using Two Round System.
The Establishment of the Independent Electoral Commission in Botswana (IEC)
It was established in 1997 by an act of parliament to oversee the running of elections. It

ensures that elections in Botswana are transparent and conducted in accordance with
internationally accepted principles and standards of democratic elections. Its functions
are to :
 Conduct and supervise elections

 Encourage citizens to register to vote.
 Ensure elections are conducted fair and freely.
 Ensure the secretary of the commission performs his / her duties according to the
constitution and electoral law.
 Educate people about voting throughout the country.
 Arrange and conduct the national referenda.
 Register all political parties wishing to participate in any general election.
 Register citizens who qualify to vote and prepare the voters roll.
Processes and procedures regarding delimitation of Constituency Boundaries and

Polling districts / towns
Before the actual voting process can take place, constituency boundaries are established
throughout the country. This is called delimitation of constituency
boundaries.Botswana is divided into voting or electoral districts called constituencies for
electing members of parliament.
When setting constituency boundaries the following processes are followed :
The judiciary service commission appoints a Delimitation Commission as provided in

section 64 of the constitution of Botswana. This happens after every population and
housing census. The commission draws the constituency boundaries on the basis of the
census population. The IEC divides delimitated constituencies into polling districts and
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establish polling stations within each district. Outside Botswana, polling stations may be
the Embassies or other places identified by IEC. They then avail the resources.
At the last delimitation of boundaries in 2001, Botswana was divided into 57

constituencies, 2 28 internal polling stations and 25 external polling stations.
Identifying of and demarcation of Polling stations
Demarcation and identification of polling district boundaries is carried out by a

committee made up of representation from different stakeholders. e.g. secretary of
Independent Electoral Commission, traditional leaders and political representation.
Basic Elements of the voting process
 Voters go to the polling station in the area where they have registered to vote.
 They show their registration cards and omang to the polling officer.
 Polling officer checks the name of the voter on the voter9s roll to confirm personal
details.
 Polling officer then gives the voter a ballot paper and marks against it to prove the
ballot paper was given out.
 The voter then goes to a polling booth and secretly marks his / her paper, folds it up
and puts it in a ballot box and leaves the polling station.
 When voting ends, the ballot boxes are sealed and sent to one place where votes are
counted in the presence of representatives from all competing parties.
 The candidate who wins the most votes in a constituency becomes the Member of
Parliament for that constituency.
The Importance of voting
 Promote democracy - Voters have a say in the way

 It is the means by which citizens express their choice.
 Voting is the lawful and peaceful way of choosing and changing the government and
political leaders. For example voters can remove weak or bad leaders by voting them
out during elections.
 It enables voters to communicate to the government and political leaders what is
important to them by voting for candidates and political parties that have policies that
best match their interests, values and views.
 Voting forces elected leaders to try as much as possible to promote and protect the
interests of the people, so that they re – elect them.
Roles of Elected Representatives
a) The President
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 Issues rules, and regulations and instructions which do not necessarily need
parliamentary approval.
 Dissolves parliament and calls for general elections every 5 years.
 Leads and guides the country.
 Is the commander – in – chief of the armed forces.
 Heads the judiciary.
b) Members of parliament
 Make laws.
 Make the government aware of the needs of people in their constituencies.
 Elect the president after general elections.
 See to it that the electorate get services in their areas.
 Encourage people to register and vote.
 Promote freedom of speech by allowing people to openly discuss their opinion.
c) Councillors
 Raise awareness about available programmes, such as poverty alleviation and drought
relief programmes.
 Facilitate developments in their wards.
 Work hand in hand with members of parliament on issues of community interest.
 Ensure that water, clinics and electricity reach local communities.
 Debate issues concerning their electorate in council meeting in order to come up with
solutions.
Ways of holding elected representatives accountable
 Refusing to vote for a bad or weak leader in the next elections.

 Holding an internal or independent inquiry in response to allegations of misconduct
or corruption.
 Passing a motion of no confidence to a weak leader.
 The electorate can arrange meetings with their representatives on any particular issue
they would like the government to attend to.
 Keep a record of campaign promises and monitor their implementation.
 Constituents should be aware of their leader9s contribution to debates and discussions
in parliament and council meetings and ask him to explain why they voted for or
against a particular issue, law or policy.
Self Employment
Self employed people start and own their businesses and work for themselves. They are
known as entrepreneurs.
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Entrepreneurship is the action and skill of starting and running a business or an enterprise
in order to make a profit.
Factors of Production
Entrepreneurs need to have certain resources in order to produce goods or services for
sale. These are :
 Land – These are all the resources that are required to produce goods and services. e.g
water, oil, fish, vegetation.
 Labour- These are people who provide knowledge and skills to produce goods and
provide services. (workers).
 Capital – These are goods made by people that are used to produce other goods and
services e.g. include tools, equipment, machinery, computers, vehicles and factory
buildings. Capital also means money that is used by an entrepreneur to start a
business or to increase production.
 Enterprise / Entrepreneurship – the entrepreneur comes up with a business idea and
takes responsibility for all the risks in the business.
The Effect of Supply and Demand on Prices
Businesses supply goods and services people want and need at a price. Price is what
people pay when they buy a good or a service and what they receive when they sell a
good or service.
The prices at which goods and services are bought and sold are affected by supply and
demand. An increase or decrease in the supply and demand for goods and services results
in prices going up or down.
The law of supply
Supply is the quantity of goods and services available for sale at a given price. Supply
affects prices of goods and services because if supply is higher than demand, the price
will decrease and if supply is lower than demand, the price will increase.
It is important to note that the prices of goods and services can also affect supply. Thus if
there is a large drop in the price of a good or service, the production of that good or
provision of that service may be temporarily or permanently stopped leading to reduced
supply.
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Fewer goods and services will be offered for sale because entrepreneurs cannot carry on
producing and selling goods and services at a loss.
Entrepreneurs try to sell their goods and services at the highest possible price, this may
increase supply.
The law of demand.
Demand is the quantity of goods or services that people want or need and actually buy.
Quantity demanded is the amount people are willing to buy at a certain price. The
relationship between price and quantity demanded is known as the demand relationship.
Demand affects price of goods and services because if demand is higher than supply, the
price will increase. If demand is lower than supply, the price will decrease. Low demand
for particular goods or services means few people want to buy them and are actually
buying them.
Prices at which goods or services are sold can also affect demand. Thus the lower the
price of goods and services the higher the demand. The higher the price of goods and
services the lower the demand.
When prices of goods and services fall, demand increases. A decrease in prices enables
more people to buy the goods. The increase in demand of goods comes from people who
could not afford to buy the goods and services but are now able to buy them because of
the lower prices and those who would not buy even if they had money but have changed
their minds because the lower prices make goods and services more worthwhile to buy.
When prices increase, demand decreases. This is because a price increase means only
high income earners will still afford to buy the same goods and services after a price
increase.
The equilibrium price
When the quantity of goods and services demanded is equal to the quantity supplied we
have the equilibrium price. e.g. when the price of a 10 kg bag of maize – meal is P20 and
there is demand of 50 bags of maize – meal and 50 bags of maize – meal are supplied to
the market at that particular time, then we say the equilibrium price at that time is P20.
The Concept of Borrowing and budgeting
Borrowing is any arrangement by which one obtains something, e.g. getting money from
someone else and agreeing to return it within a specific period of time.
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Borrowing allows individuals and businesses to obtain money to pay for goods and
services that are expensive or require immediate payment, while allowing the cost to be
spread over several months or years.
Before an individual borrows money, they must think carefully about whether or not it is
necessary to borrow the money. This is because if one fails to make repayments when
they are due, the lender may sell all borrower9s property to get their money back.
The Concept of Spending
Spending is the act of using money to buy goods and pay for services. Money is paid out
in exchange for goods and services. e.g. paying for raw materials, equipment, rent or
salaries. A good rule to follow when spending is spend money on essentials first.
The Concept of Saving
Saving is the act of conserving money by not spending it. This money may be put aside
and accumulated over time. Accumulated money is referred to as savings.
Importance of Saving
 So that one has money during emergencies or unforeseen events.

 To raise capital for buying goods.
The Concept of Investing
Investing is using money in order to earn more or to increase output over a long period of time
such as three years or more. It involves becoming the owner or part owner of whatever one is
investing in, for example, when you buy shares in a bank you become part owner of the bank.
When a business person buys machinery to increase production he or she owns the machinery.
Importance of Investing
 To earn a lot of money or earn profit.

 Money saved can be used to pay for advertising campaigns .
 Money can be used to expand or buy equipment.
The Concept of Budgeting
Budgeting is the process of planning and making a budget. A budget lists all expected income
and planned expenses for a given period e.g. a day, week, month or a year. When budgeting, the
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income and expenses listed should be accurate and complete. Do not plan to spend more than
you earn. Prioritise needs over wants.
Importance of budgeting
 It helps one stay in control of their money.

 Helps one plan and ensure that they always have money.
 Help identify and reduce unnecessary spending
Ways of Saving.
 Open a savings account – banks pay interest on money in saving accounts.

 Start a piggy bank – a container such as a tin or box that is used to store coins or
notes.
 Be a smart borrower –borrow money from lenders offering the lowest interest rates.
 Contribute to pension fund – people should prepare for life after retirement by paying
money into a pension fund.
 Join a burial society – This will enable one to save for the costs of their relatives9
funerals because when a member dies the society pays out an agreed amount of
money to the bereaved family.
 People should spend little than they earn – they should cut down on spending on non
– essential and unnecessary items.
Ways of investing
 Property – one can rent out or invest on land and buildings such as houses, offices
and warehouses.
 Bonds – bonds are traded on stock exchange and their value can rise or fall. After a
specific period, the initial amount invested plus the final interest due is paid back to
the investor.
 Buying shares – a share is a unit of ownership in a company. They are also known as
stocks or equities. Shareholders earn money through dividend payments or sale of
shares.
-- dividend payment is when the company makes a profit and distributed some of the
money to the shareholders in proportion to the number of shares they hold
* collective investment – this is a single fund made up of money deposited by many

people.
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The money is invested on their behalf by a fund manager. Investors share in the profits
the fund makes. The fund manager usually charges a fee for managing the investment.
e.g. unit Trusts.
Opportunities of self employment
 The government of Botswana has set up various schemes to help citizens who want to
start their own businesses and be self – employed.
 Training in entrepreneurship and mentorship through organizations like LEA and
CEDA.
 Agricultural support schemes.
 There is the potential to earn more money through the profits the business makes than
if you were employed by someone else.
 It gives an individual experience on starting and running a business. This gives
individuals the opportunity to develop business management knowledge and skills
that one may not learn when working for someone else.
 It provides a route out of poverty and an alternative to unemployment due to factors
such as lack of jobs and work experience.
Challenges of self employment
 Lack of business management and entrepreneurship skills.

 Inadequate capital as a result of lack of collateral (guaranteed) security to raise loans.
 Inadequate raw materials.
 Shortage of skilled labour.
 Poor market for some products.
 No business is risk free. If the business fails, the investor loses a lot of money.
Government Policies that promote investment
 Citizen Economic Empowerment – agencies like CEDA provide Botswana with loans
at low interest.
 Encouraging long term saving – Letlole National Savings Certificate encourages
citizens to invest in long – term savings. The certificates earn a higher interest rate
than those offered by commercial banks.
 Tax policies – Botswana has low tax rates. People who earn less than P36 000 per
annum do not pay tax.
 Foreign exchange policies – In order to attract foreign companies to invest in
Botswana, the country does not have any foreign exchange controls.
 Business friendly laws – Botswana laws respect the right to own property and run
private businesses. Business registration and licensing laws have been simplified so
that it is easier and quicker to start and run a business in Botswana.
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 Encouraging foreign direct investment –International Financial Services Centre has

attracted banks such as Kingdom bank, Enterprise Banking Group and BancABC to
se set up in Botswana and offer international banking services.
Sustainable Development
Sustainable development means development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Ways of achieving sustainable development
 Proper management of the environment – conserve wild animals and plants in

protected areas such as national parks, teach farmers to use farming methods &
practices that help conserve the soil.
 Controlling population growth – this can allow a country to meet people9s needs and
improve their standard of living while using resources available in a sustainable way.
 Increasing resource productivity – Resource productivity means using the same
amount of resources to produce more. This can be done through recycling and reusing
resources.
Inventing new or using technology which use fewer natural resources, cause less damage
to the environment or use renewable energy sources ( solar & wind power).
 Sharing wealth and resources fairly and justly – The poor must be given something so
that they have something to meet their need with.
 Maintaining peace – For people to go to work and invest money for the future, they
need to feel safe and secure. War and conflict divert resources and attention from
development.
Good Environmental Management
Good or sound environmental management involves taking care of the environment and
limiting the negative impact of humans on it. e.g. planting trees, protecting and
conserving wild animals and their habitats, recycling paper & cans, making firebreaks
and conducting environmental impact assessments before any construction, mining and
other development project work starts.
The benefits of good environmental management
 It conserves natural resources on which human development depends upon. e.g.

resources such as the soil, wildlife and vegetation do not become depleted or
damaged.
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 It promotes sustainable use of resources which ensures that present generations can
meet their needs and future generations can meet their needs too.
 Saves money by reducing environmental damage caused by human activities thus it is
cheaper and easier to protect, conserve and preserve the environment than to fix
problems caused by mismanagement.
 It preserves the aesthetic value or beauty of the natural environment.
 It helps maintain defences against natural hazards such as floods, drought and
wildfires.
 It creates and maintains a healthy environment which can help ensure the survival of
all living things e.g. diseases that spread through poor sanitation or illness which are a
result of pollution are likely to be controlled and limited.
The relationship between environment and development
The environment can promote or hinder development. Development takes place within
the environment and depends on resources from the environment. This is why for
development to be sustainable, it is important to protect the environment and to use
natural resources wisely.
 The environment contributes to development by providing natural resources that

enable people to undertake various economic activities which help improve their
lives. Manufacturing industries use natural resources as a source of raw materials to
produce different kinds of goods.
Agriculture requires resources such as soil, water and pastures. For example fertile soils,
adequate water supply and pastures lead to high production.
 Some natural hazards cause natural disasters that can hinder development efforts. For
example floods, earthquakes, hurricanes can cause extensive damage and destruction
of life, property, crops and infrastructure. Money is spent rebuilding damaged
infrastructure and providing emergency aid rather than on new development projects.
 Low rainfall limits agriculture production and makes it difficult for countries to
achieve food self – sufficiency. In times of drought people have little or no food and
governments spend money importing food and less money is available for
development.
 Diseases and pests affect the health of people and animals, and damage crops.
 Inhospitable physical environment – some environments have limited development
opportunities due to poor soils and extreme temperatures e.g. deserts.
Different economic activities that people undertake as part of development affect the
environment . For example
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 The raw materials for producing vehicles, cell phones and building materials come
from the environment.
 Vegetation is removed when dams or roads are constructed.
 The lack f electricity in homes forces many people in rural areas to use firewood
asfuel. This leads to the depletion of wood resources.
 Waste from our homes if no disposed properly can pollute the environment.
Education and Human Resource Development
The purpose of Education
 To equip people with knowledge and skills – Education helps people to produce
goods andservices, acquire employment and improve their lives.
 To develop positive values and attitudes – It helps people acquire values such as
tolerance, honesty, kindness and compassion that are desirable and necessary in order
to have a fair, just and peaceful society.
 To develop the ability to reason and think critically – It develops people9s ability to
reason and think critically about they do, see, hear and read. It helps people to think
for themselves; evaluate information and make informed decisions and judgements.
 To awaken the desire to learn - It produces people and societies that are always
asking questions and are willing to learn new things all the time and improve their
lives.
 To transmit the culture of society – Through education, people are socialized about
things such as the history, language, customs and norms of their society.
Education and human resource development
Human resources are the people who have acquired knowledge and skills which they can
use to earn a living and contribute to the economic, political, social life of the society. For
example skilled workers are a human resource because they have acquired special skills
or expert knowledge in specific types of jobs.
Human resource development is the planned, systematic and organized process and
activities undertaken to equip people with necessary knowledge and skills that they need
to meet current and future job demands and to contribute effectively to the economic,
social, intellectual and political life of the society.
The relationship between education and human resource development
Education is the basis (starting point) of human resource development. It is through

education that human resources of an organization, institution or country are improved.
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Most of the modern jobs require people who have specialized knowledge and skills, e.g.
ICT skills, technical knowledge and an understanding of science. Individuals acquire the
knowledge and skills they need to do such jobs through education and training. Education
creates a pool of people with the knowledge and skills that they can use to contribute to
economic development.
Education is a pre – condition for admission to most tertiary institutions e.g. one needs to
have a BGCSE certificate in order to be admitted to the University of Botswana.
Education plays an important role in developing attitudes like tolerance, empathy and
compassion among people.
It helps develop people who can think critically and solve problems efficiently.
Ways of Improving human resources in Botswana.
 Providing basic education to all children - The government should ensure that all
citizens receive 7 years primary and 5 years of secondary education. This will help
citizens to acquire the basic knowledge and skills required for further education and
training.
 Creating life – long learning opportunities –People who did not complete their formal
education or those who want to improve their knowledge, skills and qualifications
while at the same time being employed must be allowed to continue with education.
 Providing relevant curriculum at school and tertiary level - What learners are taught
and trained in must equip them with the relevant knowledge, skills, values and
attitudes that are required for personal survival and fulfillment by employers and
society.
 Training people to become skilled workers –Learners must be trained in formal
institutions such as technical colleges or by learning on the job as apprentices.
 Providing career guidance – Schools should provide effective career guidance to all
learners so that they are able to identify and choose careers that not only match their
interests but also offer skills that are in demand by employers.
 Regulating and monitoring education and training standards – Education offered to
people must be of high quality. Training institutions must be monitored to ensure that
they maintain high standards.
Career Opportunities in the formal sector
The formal sector refers to government, private and non – government sectors which
have legal rights to operate in trade of goods and provision of services to the public. The
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formal sector operates in premises through licenses. Employees are paid regular salaries
on monthly or weekly terms.
 Professional Careers – these require a person to have at least a diploma, degree,

masters or a doctorate. People here have to abide by ethical code of conduct of the
profession and belong to associations. They usually apply for training institutions and
are issued with licenses before they are allowed to practice their profession. They
include teachers, lawyers, doctors, engineers, economists, nurses etc.
 Vocational careers – Involve skills that have been acquired through practical training
at technical colleges or apprenticeship programmes. A certificate may be awarded at
the end of the training period. Examples are mechanics, carpenters, builders,
computer technicians, chefs.
 Some of the formal sector jobs include working in management e.g. directors and
chief executives. People also do general duties like cleaning, clerks, secretaries, office
assistants.
Career Opportunities in the informal sector
This involves operation of small – scale businesses. People do not have trade licenses
while others may use hawkers licenses issued by the city council. Traders use the skill
they learnt from their experiences and natural talents. People here are self employed.
Some of the businesses involve renting existing stalls. Traders require skills like basic
literacy, numeracy, technical, marketing and management skills. Their qualities involve
self – discipline, determination, self – motivation, good customer service, good public
relations and perseverance.
Career opportunities in this sector involve traditional pottery, hair dressing, brewing
traditional beer, dress – making, traditional doctors and traditional musicians.
Careers related to the care for the environment
 Teaching in an educational institution – one can become an environmental education

teacher or lecturer.
 Environmental education officer – This work involves making people aware of
environmental issues, promoting conservation and sustainability and enhancing the
public9s enjoyment of the environment through teaching them about the natural
world.
 Environmental engineer - This is the application of science and engineering
knowledge, skills and principles to care for and improve the environment.
Environmental engineers identify and design solutions for environmental problems
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such as pollution and improper disposal of waste. They provide safe drinking water,
treat & properly dispose of waste.
 Waste management officer – Oversee the safe disposal of waste. They manage waste
disposal, collection and recycling facilities.
 Wildlife officers – responsible for enforcement of the laws that protect wild animals.
 Recreational parks officers – responsible for developing and caring for recreational
parks and open spaces.
 Conservation scientists – manage, improve, and protect natural resources. They
develop ways to use and improve the land while protecting the environment.
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Social Studies Notes 2018 (1) 220715 080130

Introduction to Social Studies (University of Botswana)

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SOCIAL STUDIES NOTES

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A map is a drawing representing all or a part of the earth9s surface.

ATTRIBUTES/ ELEMENTS OR CHARACTERISTICS OF MAPS

1. Title – shows us what the map is about.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A MAP AND A PLAN

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A MAP AND AN AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A MAP AND A SATELLITE IMAGE

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There are three types of map scale

How to use statement scale to calculate ground distance

How to use linear/ Line/ Bar scale to calculate ground distance

Measuring distance along a straight line

Measuring distance along curved lines

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c) RATIO SCALE / REPRESENTATIVE FRACTION (RF) SCALE – This type of

How to use ratio scale to calculate ground distance

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LOCATION PLACES USING LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE LINES.

Other latitude lines are the:

i) Tropic of Capricorn - 23½ºS. This line passes in Botswana near Mahalapye.

Lines of Longitude (meridians)

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Source: Exploring S/ studies bk1

The latitude of Gaborone in the above map is 24ºS

The longitude of Gaborone in the above map is 25 º E

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Locating Places using 4 figure grid reference

 Start with vertical lines (eastings).

The position of point K above is 2011

Vertical interval / contour interval

The vertical interval of the above feature is 30 – 20 = 10m

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DETERMINING PHYSICAL FEATURES USING CONTOUR LINES

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The river in the valley above is flowing to the south west.

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The following is a description that will be used to draw a sketch map.

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A research is a careful study or investigation about an issue or a problem.

METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA

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1. Maotwe, T. (1998). Principles of Agriculture. Gaborone: Macmillan.

2. Mauto. X. (2008). Living with HIV and AIDS. Gaborone: Longman

Ways of writing a report

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THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT OF BOTSWANA

6. LANDFORMS: Landforms are features such as hills, mountains, depressions, rivers,

WEATHER AND CLIMATE

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Instruments for measuring weather

Weather Element Instrument Units of Measurement

source : Social Studies is fun