Spread Spectrum

Spread Spectrum:

• The transmitted signal is spread over a frequency band that is much

larger, in fact, than the maximum bandwidth required to transmit the
information bearing (baseband) signal
o For example, required bandwidth is 5MHz, but spread bandwidth
of 20 MHz is used for transmission
• Compared to traditional transmission system, spread spectrum occupies
more bandwidth
• Types of Spread Spectrum:
o Direct Sequence spread Spectrum (DSSS)
▪ Each bit spread to multiple bits
o Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
▪ Frequency of the signal changed for every time period

DSSS FHSS
 • Advantages of using Spread Spectrum:
o Spread-spectrum signals can be overlaid onto the bands where
others systems are operating with the minimal performance impact
on both systems.
o Spread-spectrum signal is wideband signal. it reduces effect of
frequency-selective fading
o Provide reliable transmissions system in urban and indoor
environment with multipath conditions
o Suitable for environment with more interference like
manufacturing
o Cellular system with CDMA spread spectrum offer operational
flexibility compared to FDMA and TDMA
o Suitable for operation in ISM bands.

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

• Transmitter shifts center frequency of the transmitted signal.

• Because of shift in frequency (or frequency hops) for every time period,
total occupied bandwidth is greater than required.
o Fr equency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
Frequency Hopping

Transmitter:

• Input data is modulated using traditional modulator. Then, center

frequency is modified according to random hopping generated by
random number generator.
• Since generated frequency pattern is appears to be random, it is called
pseudorandom sequences or codes.
Receiver:

• Dehopper synchronized to transmitter to repeat the hopping pattern of

transmitted signal and then detects the data.
• Sampling rate is same as the traditional transmission system.

• Hopping sequence of an FHSS system

• FHSS and retransmission
• Frequency selective fading and FHSS
• FHSS and GSM (To avoid co-channel interference/frequency selective
fading)
• Multiple Access Points in 802.11 using FHSS

Direct Sequence spread Spectrum (DSSS)

Autocorrelation:

• Correlating pulse with itself.

• Multiplying pulse with its delayed versions of itself and integrating the
product over the duration of pulse.

Cross Correlation:
𝑛

𝑅𝑎𝑏 (𝑙 ) = ∑ 𝑎𝑗 𝑎𝑗−𝑙
𝑗=−𝑛

a=[a0,a1,a2…..an]
b=[b0,b1,b2…..bn]
Rab=[a0b0+a1b1+a2b2+…+anbn,
a0b1+a1b2+a2b3+..+anb0,
a0b2+a1b3+a2b4+..+anb1,
…
a0bn+a1b0+a2b1+..+anbn-1,

• Example for cross correlation

• a=[1,1,1,-1] b=[-1,1,-1,1]
1 1 1 -1 1 1 1 -1 1 1 1 -1 1 1 1 -1
-1 1 -1 1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 1 -1 1 -1
-1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 1
=-2 2 -2 2

Autocorrelation Example
1 1 1 -1 1 1 1 -1 1 1 1 -1 1 1 1 -1
1 1 1 -1 1 1 -1 1 1 -1 1 1 -1 1 1 1
 1111 1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1
=4 = 0 0 2

Figure: Barker Code Modulated DSSS signal in IEEE 802.11b (old standard)
standard and its autocorrelation

Processing Gain:

High peak-to-side lobe ratio of the that equals to N

Bandwidth expansion factor:

Bandwidth of transmitted DSSS signal is N times larger than traditional

system. This N is called as bandwidth Expansion Factor.

Types of Codes :

 PN (Pseudo Noise) sequences

 Orthogonal codes

Orthogonal codes: cross correlation is 0

Walsh codes:
𝑊1 𝑊1
W1=(0) 𝑊2𝑛 = ( ̅̅̅̅̅)
𝑊1 𝑊1

W1(0)=(0) => 1 code : 0

 1 user
0 0
𝑊2 = ( ) => 2 codes : [0 0] [0 1]
0 1
 2 users
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
𝑊4 = (0 0 1 1) => 4 codes : [0 0 0 0] [0 1 0 1] [0 0 1 1][0 1 10]
0 1 1 0

 4 users can be accommodated

Example : Consider a scenario of 4 users, each user given one code of length 4
bits.
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
𝑊4 = (0 0 1 1) => 4 codes : [0 0 0 0] [0 1 0 1] [0 0 1 1][0 1 10]
0 1 1 0

 4 users can be accommodated

Now, Users U1, U2,U3 and U4 want to transmit bit 0, bit 1, bit 1 and bit 0 to
receivers R1,R2,R3 and R4 respectively.

User 1 (U1) User 2 (U2) User 3 (U3) User 4 (U4)

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 011 0 1 1 0 0 in code is
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 1 1 -1 equivalent to -1
1 in code is
equivalent to 1
Data to be Data to be Data to be Data to be Data bits to be
transmitted: 0 transmitted: 1 transmitted: 1 transmitted: transmitted to
0 their
corresponding
receiver
1111 -1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 1 1 -1 -1 1 Transmitted
bits/signal
To transmit bit
1, transmit the
given code
To transmit bit
0, transmit the
reverse of given
code
Case 1: Extraction of corresponding bit at receivers
If All transmissions are added to each other
 1 1 1 1 Suppose All
-1 1 -1 1 transmission
-1 -1 1 1 added with
1 -1 -1 1 each other
________________
0 0 0 4

Extraction at Extraction at Extraction at Extraction Extraction of bit

R1: R2: R3: at R4: using respective
0 0 0 4 code
(mul with) 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 4
-1 -1 - 1 -1 (mul with) (mul with) (mul with)
0 0 0 -4 -1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 1 1 -1
(add) 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 -4
=0+0+0+-4=-4 (add)
-ve hence, bit =4 (add) (add)
0 +ve hence,bit =4 =-4
1 +ve hence,bit -ve hence,
1 bit 0

Case 2: Extraction of corresponding bit at receiver

If Transmission of A and B are added to each other, C and D are added to
each other
1 1 1 1 -1 -1 1 1 (add) A and B
-1 1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1 transmissions
(add) ________________ are added each
________________ 0 -2 0 2 other
0 2 0 2
C and D
transmissions
are added each
other
 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 -2 0 2 0 -2 0 2 Positive result
(mul with) (mul with) (mul with) (mul with) means bit 1
-1 -1 - 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 1 1 -1 Negative result
0 -2 0 -2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 -2 0 -2 means bit 0
(add) (add) (add) (add)
=-4 =4 =4 =-4

Suppose Users U1 and U3 want to transmit bit 0, bit 1 to receivers R1&R3.

Users U3 and U4 are not transmitting.

User 1 User 2 User 3 User 4

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 011 0 1 1 0 0 in code is
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 1 1 -1 equivalent to -1
1 in code is
equivalent to 1
Data to be No data Data to be No data Data bits to be
transmitted: 0 transmitted: 1 transmitted
1111 -1 -1 1 1 No
transmission
from U2 and U3
1 1 1 1 (add column wise)
-1 -1 1 1
0022
Extraction at Extraction at Extraction at Extraction Extraction of bit
R1: R2: R3: at R4: using respective
0 0 2 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 2 2 code
(mul with) (mul with) (mul with) (mul with)
-1 -1 - 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 1 1 -1
0 0 -2 -2 0 0 -2 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 2 -2
(add) (add)
=0+0+-2+-2 = 0 , it is (add) (add)
=-4 neither +ve =4 =0
-ve hence, bit nor -ve , +ve hence,bit Neither +ve
0 hence no bit 1 nor -ve
hence, no bit

Steps to apply DSSS/CDMA :

• Each Transmitter of each user, transmit the given code/complementary

of given code corresponding to bit 1/0
• Transmissions from different users will get added in medium will result
in combined signal
• Each Receiver, multiply the combined signal with its respective code and
add the result of multiplications;
o If final value is +ve, it is considered as bit 1 from the transmitter
o If final value is -ve, it is considered as bit 0 from the transmitter

0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
Cross correlation of 𝑊4 = (0 0 1 1)
0 1 1 0

𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠

4 codes : [0 0 0 0] [0 1 0 1] [0 0 1 1][0 1 10]

Mapping 0 to -1 , 1 to +1: [0 0 0 0] [0 1 0 1] [0 0 1 1][0 1 10]

[-1 -1 -1 -1] [-1 +1 -1 +1] [-1 -1 +1 + 1][-1 +1 +1 -1]

Cross-correlation of code1 and code 2

[-1 -1 -1 -1] (mul)

[-1 +1 -1 +1]
 +1 -1 +1 -1 (add) = 0

(likewise cross-correlation of code i and code j is 0) . The conclusion is that

the given set of codes are orthogonal codes and valid codes.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 2: Example2 for DSSS (In this example Walsh code is not used)

010011=> -1 +1 -1 -1 +1 +1 => Code for A

110101=> +1 +1 -1 +1 -1 +1 => Code for B

A (transmits bit1) -1 +1 -1 -1 +1 +1
B (transmits bit0) -1 -1 +1 -1 +1 -1 (add)
Signals add
in the
transmission
C=As+Bs -2 0 0 -2 2 0
Extraction by receiver of A

C -2 0 0 -2 2 0 (mul)
A’s Code word -1 +1 -1 -1 +1 +1
2 0 0 2 2 0
Sum =2+0+0+2+2+0=6
+ve, hece bit 1
Extraction by receiver of B

C -2 0 0 -2 2 0 (mul)
B’s Code word +1 +1 -1 +1 -1 +1
-2 0 0 -2 -2 0
Sum =(-2)+0+0+(-2)+(-2)+0=-6
-ve, hece bit 0
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Diversity Techniques
• Fading:
o A transmitted signal undergoes changes while traveling through
the propagation path to the receiver. The effect of these changes is
commonly called fading. Causes are : multipath, shadow fading,
frequency selective fading,

Figure : Causes of fading

 Figure : Illustration of fading

• Set of techniques to counteract the effects of fading (i.e., fluctuations)

due to multipath, shadow fading and other effects rather than increasing
the transmission power.
• Fading causes the errors at the receiver.
• Types:
o Time diversity
o Frequency Diversity
o Space Diversity
• Time diversity
o Multipath: Due to reflection, diffraction and scattering the received
signal arrived from different paths.
o Since the length of the paths are not same, the (copies of) signal
arrives at receiver at different time delays.
o Technique to address the multipath arrival problem. It will lead to
ISI (Inter Symbol Interference)
 Figure :Multipath
o RAKE receiver:

▪
• Frequency Diversity
o Frequency selective fading
 o
Fig.: Frequency selective fading an example: response of an channel
over 200MHz frequency band 1GHz

o Smart system can make use of frequency diversity to improves its

performance
o FHSS + error correction/retransmission
• Space Diversity

(a) Space diversity using multiple antennas

(b) space diversity using polarization diversity
(c) Space diversity using sectored antennas and angle diversity
(d) Space diversity using adaptive angle diversity [called as Smart
Antenna]